Survey of Modern Psychology

Personality

PersonalityPersonality generally refers to the distinctive patterns (including thoughts as well as affects, that is, feelings and emotions and actions) that characterize each individual enduringly.(Mischel, 1999)

Personality PsychologyPersonality psychology examines a persons traits that are considered to be consistent across situations. Social Psychology focuses on how the situation causes individuals to behave a certain wayBehavior is seen as primarily a function of the situation rather than individual characteristicsPersonality Psychology emphasizes the importance of individual differences

Approaches to PersonalityThere are five main approaches to the study and interpretation of personality:PsychodynamicTrait and BiologicalPhenomenological(Emphasizes the individual's experience and how he or she perceives it)BehavioralSocial Cognitive-Affective

Tables from Mischel, 1999

Causes of Behavior

PsychodynamicUnderlying stable motives and their unconscious transformation Trait and Biological Generalized (consistent, stable) dispositions; biochemical (genetic) causes for some (most) dispositionsPhenomenologicalSelf-concepts, feelings and conflicts, attributions, free choices (not mechanistically determined)BehavioralPrior learning and cues in a situation (including the behavior of others)Social Cognitive-AffectiveReciprocal interaction between person and situation, mediated by the person variables interacting within the Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS

Behavioral Manifestations of Personality

PsychodynamicSymptoms, mistakes, dreams, fantasies

Trait and Biological Direct signs of traitsPhenomenologicalPrivate experiences, perceptions, and interpretationsBehavioralStable behavior equated with personalitySocial Cognitive-AffectiveStable patterns of person-situation interactions; distinctive configurations of if then relationships(i.e., she does X when Y; but she does A when B)

Preferred Data Sources

PsychodynamicInterpretations by expert judges (clinicians)Trait and Biological Test responses (on questionnaires); trait ratings, behavior genetics research, twin studiesPhenomenologicalSelf-disclosure and personal constructs (about self and others); self-reportsBehavioralDirect observations of behavior in the target situationSocial Cognitive-AffectiveMeasures of person variables in interaction with one another and relevant situations

Research Focus

PsychodynamicPersonality dynamics and psychopathology; unconscious processes; defense mechanisms; the fragmented selfTrait and Biological Measurement (test construction), description of individual differences and their patterning; taxonomy of traits; heritability of personalityPhenomenologicalSelf-concepts; self-awareness and expression; human potential and self-actualization; emotion; attributionBehavioralBehavior change; analysis of conditions controlling behaviorSocial Cognitive-AffectiveRefining theories about underlying processes and discovering practical implications (for health, for risk prevention in vulnerable individuals)

Approach to Personality Change

PsychodynamicBy insight into motives and conflicts underlying behaviorTrait and Biological Not much concerned with change; search for consistent, stable characteristics; biochemical treatments for disordersPhenomenologicalBy increased awareness, personal honesty, internal consistency, and self-acceptance; by modifying constructs; by alternative construalsBehavioralBy changing conditions; by experiences that modify behaviorSocial Cognitive-AffectiveBy changing underlying person variables (e.g., focusing on alternative possible selves; modifying efficacy and outcome expectations and processing dynamics)

Role of Situation

PsychodynamicDeliberately minimized or ambiguousTrait and Biological Acknowledged but of secondary interest until recentlyPhenomenologicalAs the context for experience and choice; focus on the situation-as-perceivedBehavioralExtremely important; regulates much behaviorSocial Cognitive-AffectiveProvides psychological cues and information that activate Cognitive-Affective Personality System dynamics and dispositions

Contradictions in Personality Theory

Personality is both stable and capable of change

Contradictions in Personality Theory

Dispositions and situations are both important

Contradictions in Personality TheoryBehavior depends on the social environment; genetic and biological factors are also foundations of social behavior

Contradictions in Personality Theory

People are both consistent and inconsistent

Contradictions in Personality Theory

Humans are cognitive and emotional beings

Contradictions in Personality Theory

Behavior can be both rational and irrational

Personality Tests

Discussion: What do you know about personality tests?

Personality Tests

Projective Tests: Present the individual with material thats open to interpretation. The tests are based on the assumption that the responses reveal information about the respondents personality

Personality TestsObjective/standardized/structured tests:Materials are standardized and give a structured set of potential responses (ex. true/false, always/sometimes/never, dont know, etc.)Scoring is based on a given set of specific criteria and is not open to broad interpretation

Projective Tests - RorschachConsists of 10 cards with vertically symmetrical inkblots The respondent looks at the inkblots one at a time and is asked to say everything the inkblot could resemble or look likeThe examiner usually asks for details about the interpretation of the inkblot

Projective Tests - RorschachResponses are scored based on: Location (the part of the card that the respondent refers to)Physical aspects of the inkblot (shape, suggestion of movement)OriginalityContentThese responses are generally compared to those of respondents of a similar age group

Projective Tests - RorschachThe examiner interprets the responses as related to personality, creative capacity, contact with reality, and anxiety

Rorschach TestThere is debate as to whether the results have any true meaningMixed results on inter-rater reliabilityA more intelligent or creative person may give a higher number of interpretations, meaning that theres a higher chance some will be considered pathologicalCross culturally, different people may focus on different aspects of the same inkblot

Rorschach TestOften, more can be inferred from how the respondent verbalizes their response rather than the answer itselfFor example, a more vivid description of the same image could indicate a higher IQ

Factors other than pathology may influence how we interpret inkblots

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)The test contains a series of picture cards presented one at a timeIt is described as a story telling test, and the respondent is asked to make up a story for each picture telling:What led up to the event shown in the pictureWhat is happening in the picture at the momentWhat the characters are feeling and thinkingWhat is the outcome?

TATThe task is timed from before the respondent begins the story to the end of the storyIt studies how people interpret an ambiguous stimuliThe themes are assumed to reflect the respondents underlying conflicts and problemsResults are generally interpreted based on the clinicians judgments rather than a formal scoring method

TATImages include adults, children, men, women, and ambiguous figuresOriginally, 10 cards were selected out of the possible 31 and were matched to the respondent based on age and gender

Problems with the TATThe story a person tells does not necessarily reflect a permanent inner stateFor example, a person who has recently lost a loved one might tell a sad story with a bereavement theme because it has recently been on their mind, not because they are a generally depressed person

Problems with the TATOriginal images were made in the 1930s and had white people, which may influence the interpretations for non-white test takersSome of the images are now considered outdated, which may bias resultsThe interpretation of the story is generally left up to the examiner

Problems with Projective TestsThey are open to the interpretation of the examinerDoes the same response always mean the same thing?Its usually easy to fake good or fake bad

The Big FiveIn research, when people are asked to describe themselves they tend to cluster their descriptions around these five categories (on different points of a spectrum)

The Big FiveNeuroticismExtraversion Openness to ExperienceAgreeablenessConscientiousness

NeuroticismNegative emotions, e.g., anxiety, depressionIn this spectrum:Calm vs. worryingUnemotional vs. emotionalSecure vs. insecureNot envious vs. jealous

ExtraversionPositive emotionalityIn this spectrum:Quiet vs. talkativeAloof vs. friendlyInhibited vs. spontaneousTimid vs. bold

Openness to ExperienceVs. closed-mindednessIn this spectrum:Conventional vs. originalUnadventurous vs. daringConforming vs. independentUnartistic vs. artistic

AgreeablenessVs. antagonism In this spectrum:Irritable vs. good naturedUncooperative vs. helpfulSuspicious vs. trustingCritical vs. lenient

Conscientiousness Vs. undirectednessIn this spectrum:Careless vs. carefulHelpless vs. self-reliantLax vs. scrupulousIgnorant vs. knowledgeable

The Big FiveThis list was constructed using Factor AnalysisPatterns of responses that tend to go togetherParticular adjectives are strongly correlated with other adjectives; those characteristics make up that particular trait

The Big FiveInter rater reliability tends to be goodTest-retest reliability is high

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The MMPI is one of the most extensive, popular, and widely studied personality questionnaires

MMPIConsists of 550 statementsGives the answer options of:TrueFalseCannot say (undecided)

MMPIThe MMPI was originally used to classify psychiatric patients on multiple dimensionsItems ask about attitudes, emotional reactions, psychiatric symptoms, the respondent's past, and more

MMPI Sample Items:Sometimes I think I may kill myselfMy greatest troubles are inside myselfI certainly have little self-assuranceI wish I were not so awkwardI am shyQuestions are purposely vague and do not describe situations

Similar Items to MMPI Anxiety Measures

ItemHigh Anxiety ResponseI rarely get really tiredFalseI am not a worrierFalseI cannot keep my mind focused on anythingTrueI almost never blushFalseOften I cannot keep from cryingTrueIts hard for me to attend to a jobTrueOften I think I am no goodTrue

MMPIThe MMPI is sorted into 10 scales with 3 control scalesResults provide comparisons against norms (averages) and provide information based on people who give similar answers

MMPI 10 ScalesHypochondriasisDepressionHysteriaPsychopathic DeviateMasculinity FemininityParanoiaPsychastheniaSchizophreniaHypomaniaSocial Introversion

MMPI Scales

Hypochondriasis

Neurotic concern over bodily functioning

MMPI ScalesDepressionPoor morale, lack of hope in the future, and a general dissatisfaction with one's own life situationHigh scores may suggest clinical depressionLower scores reflect more general unhappiness with life

MMPI ScalesHysteriaExtreme reaction to stressful situationsOften with a 'normal' faade but break down with stressPeople who tend to score higher are often brighter, better educated and from higher social classesWomen tend to score higher*

MMPI Scales

Psychopathic DeviateMeasures social deviation, lack of acceptance of authority, dislike of the status quo, and amoralityAdolescents tend to score higherThis is part of a normal questioning of authority as one gets olderBlack people often score higher than white people*

MMPI ScalesMasculinity FemininityWas originally intended to differentiate between heterosexual and homosexual menHas not been found to be effectiveLooks at how much a person endorses gender normsExtremely high scores for men or women suggest rejection of traditional gender rolesWell educated and higher socio-economic status men tend to score higher

MMPI ScalesParanoiaParanoid symptoms such as ideas of reference, feelings of persecution, grandiose self-concepts, suspiciousness, excessive sensitivity, and rigid opinions and attitudes.

MMPI ScalesPsychastheniaOriginallycharacterized by excessive doubts, compulsions, obsessions, and unreasonable fearsIt is now closest to Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Also shows abnormal fears, self-criticism, difficulties in concentration, and guilt feelings

MMPI ScalesSchizophreniaOriginally developed to identify schizophrenicsVariety of content areas, including bizarre thought processes and peculiar perceptions, social alienation, poor familial relationships, difficulties in concentration and impulse control, lack of deep interests, disturbing questions of self-worth and self-identity, and sexual difficultiesMisinterpretations of reality, delusions, and hallucinations may be presentAmbivalent or constricted emotional responsiveness is commonBehavior may be withdrawn, aggressive, or bizarreAge, race, and socio-economic status tend to play a role in scores

MMPI Scales

HypomaniaTests for elevated mood, accelerated speech and motor activity, irritability, flight of ideas, and brief periods of depression

MMPI Scales

Social introversionTests for a person's tendency to withdraw from social contacts and responsibilitiesIncludes a measure of social participation and one of general neurotic maladjustment and self-depreciation

MMPI 10 ScalesThe scale names are based on the questions correlations with other indices and do not necessarily indicate that symptom

MMPI 3 Control ScalesLie scaleTendency to lie by faking goodK ScaleDefensiveness and trying to appear more socially desirableF ScaleMeasure of whether the respondent is answering items in a careless or confused fashion

What This MeansSelf-reported answers on personality measures tend to be stable over time.However, answers on questionnaires do not necessarily predict our behavior.We may consistently rate ourselves the same, but behave differently.

What This MeansResults from the MMPI correlate well with other appropriate measuresi.e., the anxiety measures correlate well with other anxiety inventories

What This Means

While it is more difficult to fake answers on the MMPI, the questions are still fairly transparent

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