state of art of solar photovoltaic technology

Hindawi Publishing CorporationConference Papers in EnergyVolume 2013, Article ID 764132, 9 pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/764132

Conference PaperState of Art of Solar Photovoltaic Technology

Utpal Gangopadhyay, Sukhendu Jana, and Sayan Das

Meghnad Saha Institute of Technology, Techno India Group, Kolkata 700150, India

Correspondence should be addressed to Utpal Gangopadhyay; utpal [email protected]

Received 2 January 2013; Accepted 30 April 2013

Academic Editors: P. Agarwal, B. Bhattacharya, and U. P. Singh

This Conference Paper is based on a presentation given by Sukhendu Jana at International Conference on Solar EnergyPhotovoltaics held from 19 December 2012 to 21 December 2012 in Bhubaneswar, India.

Copyright 2013 Utpal Gangopadhyay et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properlycited.

Solar electricity is more expensive than that produced by traditional sources. But over the past two decades, the cost gap has beenclosing. Solar photovoltaic (SPV) technology has emerged as a useful power source of applications such as lightning, meeting theelectricity needs of villages, hospitals, telecommunications, and houses. The long and increasing dominance of crystalline siliconin photovoltaic (PV) market is perhaps surprising given the wide variety of materials capable of producing the photovoltaic effect.PV based on silicon wafers has captured more than 90% market share because it is more reliable and generally more efficientthan competing technologies.The crystalline silicon PV is reliable as far as long term stability in real field but it is not economicallyviable due to startingmaterial silicon itself costly. But still, research continues on developing a diverse set of alternative photovoltaictechnology. Now PV technology is being increasingly recognized as a part of the solution to the growing energy challenge and anessential component of future global energy production. In this paper, we give a brief review about PV technology particularlycrystalline silicon PV including the world and Indian PV scenarios.

1. Introduction

Solar energy is the most readily available and free source ofenergy since prehistoric times although it is used in mostprimitive way. Solar energy can be used directly for heatingand lighting home and buildings, for generating electricity,cooking food, hot-water heating, solar cooling, drying mate-rials, and a variety of commercial and industrial uses [13].

Solar energy can be utilized through two different routes,solar thermal routes and solar photovoltaic routes [4, 5]. Solarenergy can be converted into thermal energy with the help ofsolar collectors and receivers known as solar-thermal devices.PV-created direct current (DC) electricity that can be usedas such is converted to alternating current (AC) or storedfor later use. This type of solar electricity is more expensivethan that produced by traditional sources. But over the pasttwo decades, the cost gap has been closing. Solar photovoltaic(SPV) technology has emerged as a useful power source ofapplications such as lightning, meeting the electricity needsof villages, hospitals, telecommunications, and houses.

The long and increasing dominance of crystalline siliconin photovoltaic (PV) market is perhaps surprising giventhe wide variety of materials capable of producing thephotovoltaic effect. PV based on silicon wafers has capturedmore than 90% market share because it is more reliable andgenerally more efficient than competing technologies [6]. Butit is not economically viable due to starting material siliconitself costly. Therefore, research continues on developing adiverse set of alternative photovoltaic technology.

Now PV technology is being increasingly recognized as apart of the solution to the growing energy challenge and anessential component of future global energy production. Inthis paper, we give a brief review about particularly crystallinesilicon PV technology including the world and Indian PVscenarios.

2. Photovoltaic Technologies

Theearly dominance of silicon in the laboratory has extendedto the market for commercial modules. Crystalline silicon

2 Conference Papers in Energy

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Figure 1: PV cells/modules production by region 19972011.

designs have never accounted for less than 80% of the marketfor commercialmodules and nearly 1518% of themarket wasnot crystalline silicon. It was based on amorphous silicon-aPV technology that is almost exclusively used for consumerelectronics such as watches and calculators. If we were toexclude electronics and define the market as electricity deliv-ery system of 1 kW ormore, current production is dominatedby single-crystal and polycrystalline silicon modules, whichrepresent 94% of the market. There are a wide range of PVcell technologies on the market today, using different types ofmaterials, and an even larger number will be available in thefuture. PV cell technologies are usually classified into threegenerations, depending on the basic material used and thelevel of commercial maturity [7].

(i) First-generation PV systems (fully commercial) usethe wafer-based crystalline silicon (c-Si) technology,either single crystalline (sc-Si) or multicrystalline(mc-Si).

(ii) Second-generation PV systems (early market deploy-ment) are based on thin-film PV technologies andgenerally include three main families: (1) amor-phous (a-Si) andmicromorph silicon (a-Si/c-Si); (2)cadmium telluride (CdTe); and (3) copper indiumselenide (CIS) and copper indium-gallium diselenide(CIGS).

(iii) Third-generation PV systems include technologies,such as concentrating PV (CPV) and organic PV cellsthat are still under demonstration or have not yetbeenwidely commercialized, aswell as novel conceptsunder development.

Commercial production of c-Si modules began in 1963when Sharp Corporation of Japan started producing com-mercial PVmodules and installed a 242Watt (W) PVmodule

on a lighthouse, the worlds largest commercial PV installa-tion at the time (M.A. Green 2001). Total PV cells/modulesproduction by region 20072011 (data: Navigant consult-ing graph: PSE AG 2012) is shown in Figure 1. It hasbeen observed that Japan attributed to increase their PVcells/modules production capacity from 1997 to 2004 andthen drastically reduced their production capacity after 2004.Same trend was observed in PV cells/module productionin Europe also but up to year 2008, and then they reducedtheir production capacity. On the other hand in year 1997,PV cells/module production capacity of US was the highest,and after then they reduced their production capacity everyyear. Whereas PV cells/modules production scenarios ofChina were just the reverse compared to US. Given the vastpotential of photovoltaic technology, worldwide productionof terrestrial solar cell modules has been rapid over lastseveral years, with China recently taking the lead in totalproduction volume as shown in Figure 1. Another interestingpicture related to the global cumulative PV installation until2011 was noticed as shown Figure 2. It was observed that stillGermany including other European country contributed tomajor role towards the global cumulative PV installation until2011, that is, 70% of global PV installation. So PV installationmarket in Europe is too much promising till now comparedto other countries.

Figure 3 shows the PV production development by tech-nology in the year 2011. It was from this global PV productionscenario in the year 2011 that almost more than 85% of thesolar cell production was based on crystalline silicon. Even itwas observed that even PV installation scenario, crystallinesilicon solar cell, dominated the world market as indicated inFigure 4.

The year wise efficiency record of solar cell fabri-cated under different technological approaches is shownin Figure 5. From this record, it is evident that laboratorymonocrystalline silicon solar cell efficiency was still higher

Conference Papers in Energy 3

Japan, 7%North

America, 7%

China and Taiwan 4%

Row, 12%

Germany, 37%

Italy, 18%

Spain, 6%

Rest of Europe, 5%

France,4%

Europe without Germany, 33%

Figure 2: Global cumulative PV installation until 2011 (data: EPA Graph: PSE AG 2012). All percentages are related to the total globalinstallation.

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Figure 3: PV production development by technology (data: Navi-gant Consulting Graph: PSE AG 2012).

compared to other existing solar cell technology exceptIII-V multijunction concentrator solar cell and monocrys-talline concentrator solar cell, respectively.

Best laboratory cell versus best laboratory module fabri-cated under different PV technology is also given in Figure 6.It is observed from Figure 6 that the lab. made monocrys-talline solar cell and module efficiency were 25% and 22.9%,respectively, whereas multicrystalline solar cell and moduleefficiency were 20.4% and 18.2%, respectively. One importantpoint to be noted is that the efficiency of thin film CI(G)Ssolar cell was 19.6% (area 0.42 cm2). So there is enough scopeof work related to CI(G)S solar cell technology.

After more than 20 years of R&D, thin-film solar cells arebeginning to be deployed in significant quantities. Thin-filmsolar cells could potentially provide lower cost electricity thanc-Si wafer-based solar cells. However, this is not certain, as

2010

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Thin filmMono-Si

Multi-SiRibbon-Si

22.8 GWp end of 2011

Figure 4: Global annual PV installation by technology at end of 2011(data: Navigant Consulting Graph: PSE AG 2012).

lower capital costs including lower production and materialscosts are offset to some extent by lower efficiencies andvery low c-Si module costs make the economics even morechallenging.

Thin-film solar cells comprised successive thin layers, just1 m to 4 m thick, of solar cells deposited onto a large,inexpensive substrate such as glass, polymer, or metal. As aconsequence, they require a lot less semiconductor materialto be manufactured in order to absorb the same amountof sunlight (up to 99% less material than crystalline solarcells). In addition, thin films can be packaged into flexibleand lightweight structures, which can be easily integrated intobuilding components (building-integrated PV, BIPV).

Third-generation PV technologies are at the pre-comme-rcial stage and vary from technologies under demonstration(e.g., multijunction concentrating PV to novel concepts


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III-V multijunction concentrator solar cellSlicon concentrator cellMonocrystalline siliconMulti crystalline siliconThin-film CIGS Thin-film CdTeDye-sensitized solar cellOrganic solar cell

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Figure 5: Development of laboratory solar cell efficiency (Data:Solar Cell Efficiency tables (version 1-40), Progress in PV: Researchand Applications, 19922012, Graph: Simon Philipps, FraunhoferISE).

still in need of basic R&D (e.g., quantum-structured PVcells). Some third-generation PV technologies are beginningto be commercialized, but how successful they will be intaking market share from existing technologies remains to beseen.

Novel and emerging solar cell concepts in additionto the previously mentioned third-generation technologies;there are a number of novel solar cell technologies underdevelopment that rely on using quantum dots/wires, quan-tum wells, or super lattice technologies (Nozik, 2011 andRaffaelle, 2011). These technologies are likely to be used inconcentrating PV technologies where they could achievevery high efficiencies by overcoming the thermodynamiclimitations of conventional (crystalline) cells. However, thesehigh-efficiency approaches are in the fundamental materialsresearch phase. Furthermore from the market are the novelconcepts, often incorporating enabling technologies such asnanotechnology, which aim to modify the active layer tobetter match the solar spectrum (Leung, 2011).

A newer technology, thin-film PV, accounts for 10%15% of global installed PV capacity [8]. Rather than usingpolysilicon, these cells use thin layers of semiconductormate-rials like amorphous silicon (a-Si), copper indium diselenide(CIS), copper indiumgalliumdiselenide (CIGS), or cadmiumtelluride (CdTe). The manufacturing methods are similar tothose used in producing flat panel displays for computermonitors, mobile phones, and televisions; a thin photoactivefilm is deposited on a substrate, which can be either glass

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Figure 6: Efficiency comparison of technology: best laboratorycells versus best laboratory module (Data: Green et al.; Solar CellEfficiency tables (version 1-40), Progress in PV: Research andApplications, 2012, Graph: PSE AG 2012).

or a transparent film. Afterwards, the film is structuredinto cells. Unlike crystalline modules, thin-film modules aremanufactured in a single step. Thin-film systems usually costless to be produced than crystalline silicon systems but havesubstantially lower efficiency rates [9]. On average, thin-filmcells convert 5%13% of incoming sunlight into electricity,compared to 11%20% for crystalline silicon cells. However,as thin film is relatively new, itmay offer greater opportunitiesfor technological improvement.

3. Monocrystalline Silicon SolarCell Technology

Traditional c-Si cell design and its development up to year2000 have been focused on in the Figure 7. Different types ofc-Si cell structure have been used for improving the efficiencyof crystalline silicon solar cell. Metal-insulator NP solarcell (MINP), passivated emitter solar cell (PESC), passivatedemitter and rear cell (PERC), passivated emitter, rear locallydiffused cell (PERL), and interdigitized back contact cell(IBC) are useful solar cell structures used by the differentwell-recognized universities or laboratories.


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Figure 7: Traditional c-Si cell design and its development up to year 2000.

Finger Microgroove

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Figure 8: Passivated emitter solar cell.

In MINP structure, there was SiO2passivation surface

underneath contact and current conduction by tunnelingthrough the thin oxide [10].

But in PESC structure [11, 12], there was no oxideunderneath contact as shown in Figure 8. Contact width isreduced by laser microgrooving as shown in Figure 9.

In PERC structure as shown in Figure 10(a), rear surfaceof the solar cell was passivated and contact wasmade by pointrear contact, whereas in PERL structure [13], rear contact ismade by local BSF (back surface field) at rear point contactby diffusion as shown in Figure 10(b).

Interdigitized back contact solar cell [14] is now well-known promising solar cell structure used by SUNPOWER intheir solar cell production line. R.M. Swanson is a key personfor the development of IBC solar cell structure [15]. In thisstructure, all solar cell contacts were made from rear surface.Both front and back surface fields have been implemented inthis structure as shown in Figure 11.

18m

Figure 9: Laser microgrooving.

Researchers in the area of crystalline silicon continuouslytried to find out a new simple route by which large areahigh efficiency can be achieved. In 2011, Lai [16] alreadyachieved 19.4% efficient planar cells on CZ silicon usingsimple cell technologies. Figure 12 is the structure usedduring fabrication by Lai.

One key to the development of any photovoltaic technol-ogy is the cost reduction associatedwith achieving economiesof scale. This has been evident with the development ofcrystalline silicon PVs and will presumably be true for othertechnologies as their production volumes increase. Pricetrend of crystalline installed PV in the worldmarket is shownin Figure 13.

4. Indian PV Scenarios

Developing countries, in particular, face situations of limitedenergy resources, especially the provision of electricity inrural areas, and there is an urgent need to address thisconstraint to social and economic development. India faces


Rear contact

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Figure 10: (a) PERC and (b) PERL solar cell structure. (c) PERL design cell marketed by SunTech as PLUTO technology cell.

Passivation layer

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Figure 11: Interdigitized back contact solar cell.

a significant gap between electricity demand and supply.Demand is increasing at a very rapid rate compared to thesupply. According to the World Bank, roughly 40 percentof residences in India are without electricity. In addition,blackouts are a commonoccurrence throughout the countrysmain cities. The World Bank also reports that one-thirdof Indian businesses believes that unreliable electricity isone of their primary impediments to do business. In addi-tion, coal shortages are further straining power generationcapabilities.

India is endowed with rich solar energy resource. Theaverage intensity of solar radiation received on India is200MW/km square (megawatt per kilometer square). Witha geographical area of 3.287million km square, this amountsto 657.4millionMW. However, 87.5% of the land is usedfor agriculture, forests, fallow lands, and so forth, 6.7% for

housing, industry, and so forth, and 5.8% is either barren,snow bound, or generally inhabitable. Thus, only 12.5% ofthe land area amounting to 0.413million km square can, intheory, be used for solar energy installations. Even if 10% ofthis area can be used, the available solar energy would be8millionMW,which is equivalent to 5 909mtoe (million tonsof oil equivalent) per year.

In order to meet the situation, a number of optionsare considered. Power generation using freely available solarenergy is one such option. Fortunately, India is both denselypopulated and has high solar insolation, providing an idealcombination for solar power in India. Jawaharlal NehruNational Solar Mission is one of the major global initiativesin promotion of solar energy technologies, announced bythe Government of India under National Action Plan onClimate Change. Mission aims to achieve grid tariff parity by2022 through the large-scale utilization and rapid diffusionand deployment of solar technologies across the countryat a scale which leads to cost reduction and promotes theresearch and development activity to local manufacturingand infrastructural support. Table 1 shows the road map ofJawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission.

Under the plan, solar-powered equipment and appli-cations would be mandatory in all government buildingsincluding hospitals and hotels.The scope for solar PV growthin India is massive, especially growth in distributed solar asover 600 million peoplemostly in rural areascurrentlydo not have access to electricity. It is useful for providinggrid quality, reliable power in rural areas where the linevoltage is low and insufficient to be catered to connected load.


alloying)

Ag (screen printed), firedSiNx (PECVD)

SiNx (PECVD)

SiO2 (thin, thermally grown)

SiO2 (thin, thermally grown)

+(P)-Si (ion implantation)

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(Al)-Si (LPE during

n

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Figure 12: 19.4% efficient planar cells on CZ silicon using simple cell technologies.

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System expenses $1.03/Wp

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p-Si + wafer processing

(b)

Figure 13: Price trend of crystalline installed PV in the world market.

Table 1: Road map of Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission.

Application segmentTarget forphase I(201013)

Cumulativetarget forphase 2(201317)

Cumulativetarget forphase 3(201722)

Grid solar powerincluding roof topand distribution gridconnected plants

1,000MW 4,000MW 20,000MW

Off-grid solarapplications 200MW 1,000MW 2,000MW

Solar collector 7 millionsq.meters15 millionsq.meters

20 millionsq.meters

The Government of India is planning to electrify 18,000villages by year 2012 through renewable energy systemsespecially by solar PV systems.This offers tremendous growthpotential for Indian solar PV industry.

The growth of Indian PV is shown in the Figure 14indicating that the increase of module production up to year2011 was significant compared to solar cell production bythe Indian manufacturer. This may be due to availability tosolar cell with much lower prices from Chinese solar cellmanufacturer and initial investment of the module plantwith lower CAPEX compared to setting up new solar cellplant in India. But the status of Indian PV is related to theapplication in different areas by installing 53,00,000 systems(2600MW) up to 2012 as shown in Figure 15.


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Figure 14: Growth in Indian PV production.

Grid plants 1044

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Lights 90 Pumps 14Off-grid plants

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Figure 15: Status of PV in India.

Another important achievement in the Indian PV area is1044MW capacity new Grid Solar Power projects commis-sioned by September, 2012 in 16 States as indicate state wisein Figure 16. From this pictorial presentation, it is clear thatGujarat state much ahead compared to the rest of other stateas far as installation of Grid Solar PV Power Plant in India.

5. Conclusion

One key to the development of any photovoltaic technologyis the cost reduction associated with achieving economiesof scale. This has been evident with the development ofcrystalline silicon PVs and will presumably be true for othertechnologies as their production volumes increase. Given

Gujarat 680

Rajasthan 199

A.P 22

Maharashtra 20Jharkhand 16

T.N 15Karnataka 14

Others 80

Figure 16: Grid solar PV power plants in India.

the vast potential of photovoltaic technology, worldwideproduction of terrestrial solar cell modules has been rapidover the last several years, with China recently taking the leadin total production volume.

Fortunately India is both densely populated and has highsolar insolation, providing an ideal combination for solarpower in India.The Government of India is planning to elec-trify 18,000 villages by year 2012 through renewable energysystems especially solar PV systems. This offers tremendousgrowth potential for Indian solar PV industry.

Acknowledgments

Authors would like to thank Meghnad Saha Institute ofTechnology, TIG, for providing the infrastructural supportto carry out research activity in this area. The authors alsogratefully acknowledge the DST, Government of India forfinancial support for carrying out solar-cell-related researchactivity.

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