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John I B Wilson & Robert R MatherPower Textiles Limited
Photovoltaic Solar Textiles
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Contents
• Features of a photovoltaic (PV) cell
• Reason for using textiles
• Fabrication of PV cells on textiles
• Problems to solve
From here
to here
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Features of a PV cell
Sandwich structure: an active semiconductor between two electrical contacts
Semiconductor absorbs light to give electrical charges
Electric field within two-layer semiconductor separates +/- charges
Contacts deliver current to load
Cells are connected together to increase voltage and current
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PV performance parameters• Current increases with light intensity• Voltage falls with temperature• Shading reduces current• Power output depends on load resistance
• “standard test conditions” 1kW/m2, AM1.5, 25oC
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Light intensity
Output power, P = V x I
Current, IPower, P
Voltage, V00 Voc
Isc Pmax
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PV materials
Commonly rigid Si crystalBut thin-film options:
• a-Si:H• CdTe• CIS, CIGS• perovskites• kesterites (CZTS)• organics (including polymers)
• Dye sensitized solar cells• III-V’s
Mitsubishi
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Organic PV, Frauenhofer ISE
CIGS PV
Absorption spectrum to match illumination
Perovskite, Microquanta
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Why textiles as PV substrates
• Two contrasting applications: • small scale wearables et al• large scale awnings, shades, covers
• Flexible• Shapeable• Lightweight• Low embedded energy (only one third
or less than energy in glass substrates)
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Considerations for fabricating PV on textiles
• active area (porosity)
• thin and conformal layers (texture)
• electrical conduction (structural/dimensional stability)
• maximum temperature (material choice)
• stability in vacuum/plasma/uv(processing)
• transparency (substrate/superstrate)
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Electronics/Semiconductors AND Textile industry compatibility:
Attach completed PV to fabric - simple but hinders fabric behaviour & aesthetics
OR
PV-coated fibre – avoids texture restrictions of fabric but difficult to weave
OR
PV-coated fabric – avoids topology demands of cell connections but uneven surface
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Addressing the process conditions for DSSC:inserting Dye Sensitized Solar Cells into fabric (glass fibre)
Ju Yun, M. et al, Sci. Rep. 5, 2015, 11022
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Addressing the electrical conductor problem: both fibre and sheet coating (organic PV)
C. Wu et al, Nano Energy, 2017, 32, 367-373.
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Textile fibreCathode
PV active materialAnode
Each long thin cell must be connected at anode and cathode
and cells must not short circuit at cross-overs
Fibre PV topology: many connections
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Addressing the textured surface:dip-coated resin on glass fibre bundles (amorphous Si)
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J. Plentz et al Mater. Sci. Eng. B 2016, 204, 34–37
ZnO:Al
butadiene styrene methacrylateon glass fibres
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PV textiles
• Material: glass fibre, polyimide, polyester, nylon, PTFE, …
• construction: woven, non-woven, knitted, …
• PV material: organics, perovskites, DSSC, a-Si:H
• process methods: dip, spray, spin, screen print, blade coating, inkjet, CVD, …
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Types of fabric
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knitting – less stable structure
non-wovens – very porousweaving – many options for pattern and yarn shape
plain weave – multi-filament, polyester
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“The Solar Textile Challenge: How It Will Not Work and Where It Might” :aligning tapes of small cells to form a solar textile
F. C. Krebs and M. Hcsel, ChemSusChem 2015, 8, 966 – 969 15
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Zhang et al, Adv Mats 28, 2016, 263-9
Addressing the friction of weaving coated yarn:warp conductors, weft DSSC photoanode layers
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(absorber layer is shadowed by counter electrode at crossover points)
delicate structure for DSSC layers: ZnO nanowires
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Min Ju Yun et al Scientific Reports 6, 2016, 34249
Addressing the friction of weaving coated yarn:warp conductors and insulators, weft glass yarn, post-coated DSSC layers
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TiO2 paste added after weavingto avoid friction damage by loom;electrolyte filled afterwards
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Addressing the textured porous surface:screen-printed levelling layer for DSSC on woven glass fibre
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Surface smoothed with screen printed liquid polyimide
and screen-printed Ag;
spray coating, drop casting, and screen printing for other layers.
NB high temp curing for TiO2 (450oC) restricted the choice of fabric.
Jingqi Liu et al, Scientific Reports (2019) 9:1362
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Addressing the temperature limitation:spray-coated organic PV on woven polyester cotton
press Ag NW to flatten interface and prevent s/c
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S. Arumugam et al, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016,4, 5561-5568
Repeat for each layer
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Addressing roughness and process issues:solution processed organic PV on woven polyester cotton
All solution processed (mostly spray-coated), 1.23% efficiency.
20S. Arumugam et al, IEEE journal of photovoltaics 8, 2018 , 1710-1715
“The fabrication processes are fully scalable and can be readily adapted into a standard textile manufacturing process line…”
AgNW: 100 nmPEDOT:PSS: 50 nm P3HT:ICBA: 200 nmZnO-NP: 400 nm Ag: 200 nm
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Addressing the yarn movement and texture in woven fabric:PECVD silicon on woven polyester
Uncoated woven polyester
PEDOT:PSS coated
Aluminium over PEDOT:PSS
Silicon on Al on PEDOT:PSS1 mm
LP PECVD: 200oC
Evap or sputter
Doctor blade
calendered: 220oC
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Thin-film silicon deposition by RF PECVD: low temperature conformal deposition
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Low pressure reactive gas mixtures;Temperature must be at least 200oC so polyester suitable; Plasma generates active atomic H which can react with some surfaces;Must degas and dry substrates before plasma on.
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Addressing aesthetics:colour and flexibility
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any shape or size of cell
150mmBut efficiency <1%on polyester now…
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Problems to solve, but some solutions
• Conducting layer continuity and integrity
• Conformality of thin layers
• ITO brittleness
• Encapsulation (durability)
• Integrated fabrication
• Scaling up in area
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Fabric Substrate
Polymer
Aluminium film
Bubbles
Hatched bubble
Un hatched bubble
Fabric substrate
polymer
Aluminium
a-si:HTCO
Gas expand
PECVD & 200oC
Short circuit
Short circuit
A. Diyaf, PhD thesis, Heriot-Watt University, 2013
Problems with conformality, and defects in liquid coating
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Thin-film silicon layer is short-circuitedif there are residual gas bubbles in liquid polymerthat will expand during later processing;
Similar short-circuits arise where silicon is too thin,perhaps at masked edges.
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Problem with durability: effective encapsulation
Substrate
Base polymer
Oxide
Polymer
Oxide
Polymer
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A. Uddin et al, Coatings 9, 2019, 65
efficient diffusion barrier needed for water vapour and oxygenas these cause degradation in organics and perovskites:transmission rates should be< 10−3–10−6 g·m−2·day−1 and <10−3–10−5 cm3·m−2·day−1·atm−1
and also block UV.
provide with multi-layer thin-films (eg atomic layer deposition for inorganicand CVD for polymer) so any pinholes do not alignlamination or liquid coating preferred, if improved.
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Proven flexibility: organic PV with improved contacts optimising conductivity, transmission, and smoothness – BUT not on textile
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PEDOT:PSS PH1000 doped with ethylene glycol (EG)
Best result 10.3% efficiency
T. Lei et al, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2019, 7, 3737–3744
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Moving towards large area fabrication:slot-die printing of flexible organic solar cells on polymer sheet
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~1% less in efficiency for 15.00 cm2 areaBUT not on textile
X. Meng et al, Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, 1903649
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Acknowledgements
J&D Wilkie, Kirriemuir, for polyester.
Former students who have worked on our flexible cells:
Suzanne JardineHelena LindAdel DiyafArtem Lukianov
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