SPORT MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES Journal of Sport Management, 1994.8.93-101 O 1994 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Undergraduate and Graduate Sport Management C cular Models:

A Perspective

Dennie R. Kelley, Patricia A. Beitel, Joy T. DeSensi, and Mary Dale Bllanton

University of Tennessee

The purpose of this paper is to present undergraduate and graduate sport management curricular models which provide a perspective that higher educa- tion sport management professionals can use to solve curricular problems described in the literature and to implement the NASPENASSM guidelines. The five sport management concentrations, which have similar objectives and services but occur in different settings or serve different clientele, include (a) Sport for Leisurernecreation, (b) Sport and Athletics, (c) Sport Merchan- dising, (d) Hostelries/Travel, and (e) Recreation Agencies. The models (a) differentiate purposes, content, and entry-level positions for each degree level; (b) provide evidence for which concentrations need to be part of each curriculum; (c) define a professional core; (d) describe the concentration specialization requirements; (e) differentiate the culminating experiences for each degree; and (0 provide the distinctive characteristics of undergraduate and graduate programs.

It is imperative that colleges and universities provide the best and most appropriate sport management cumculum in order for sport management students to become the best qualified and most highly trained professionals possible. In addition, there is a need to develop sound curricular guidelines to integrate the needs of the student and the needs of the sport business enterprise. As a result, a joint NASPE-NASSM task force on program accreditation has developed curricular guidelines to assist sport management specialists in higher education in the development and continued evaluation of programs. The curricular models presented here can be useful in implementing the NASPE-NASSM guidelines (1993). The perspective offered by these models is one of how to package the content to meet the objectives of various sport management program areas,

Dennie R. Kelley, Patricia A. Beitel, and Joy T. DeSensi are with the Department of Human Performance and Sport Studies and Mary Dale Blanton is with the Department of Health, Leisure, and Safety, The University of Tennessee, 1914 Andy Holt Ave., Knoxville, TN 37996-2700.

Kelley. Beitel, DeSensi, and Blanton

while the NASPE-NASSM guidelines can be used in relation to what curricular standards should be met in these curricular areas.

Colleges and universities face a dilemma when confronted with the need to provide well-prepared, ethical managers. How can sport management profes- sionals in higher education offer several concentration options, provide quality leadership, and bridge the gap between theory and practice when they are con- stantly confronted with budgetary cutbacks? The models in this paper provide a perspective that could be utilized at most colleges and universities to help the higher education sport management professionals handle some of these curricular problems. Although needs assessment research studies, professional scholarly opinions, and curricular theory have addressed important issues and suggested problems that need attention, no one has dealt with creative, pragmatic, and integrated curricular solutions.

The purpose of this paper is to present an undergraduate model and a graduate model that provide solutions to some of the curricular problems in sport management. Examples of these pervasive problems include (a) the need for more than one concentration to meet the broad needs of the sport management profession; (b) the impracticality for institutions to offer a large number of concentrations; (c) the need to specify content for each concentration; (d) the need to identify differences between undergraduate and graduate expectations, program content, and professional career objectives; and (e) the need to provide a sound rationale for consolidation of sport management preparation in different sport settings (Jamieson, 1987; Mullin, 1984; Parkhouse, 1987; Parks & Olafson, 1987; Parks & Quain, 1986; Quain, 1984; Zeigler, 1979).

The undergraduate and graduate sport management curricular models pro- vide the following viable solutions to these problems. First, the curricular models provide for each degree level (a) a professional core, (b) focused specialization requirements, and (c) defined culminating experiences. Second, the models differ- entiate purposes, content, and entry-level positions for undergraduate and graduate degree levels. Third, the undergraduate and graduate models provide the basis for differentiated concentrations through a variety of sport management settings and categories with similar objectives within the major. The five concentrations meet the needs for diversity in the sport management field yet consist of a manageable number of concentrations for educational institutions. Utilization of these models allows colleges and universities to offer concentrations according to the needs, strengths, and attributes of the institutions. Fourth, the research base for the graduate model indicates that, in the sport business enterprise, there is presently a limited need for employees with a doctoral degree. The doctorate is primarily required for higher education faculty who teach and participate in sport management research. As sport management professional preparation has grown, the need for advanced graduate degrees has increased in the college and university setting. And fifth, the two models indicate which concentrations should be part of the undergraduate and the graduate curricula.

Curricular Models

While the NASPE-NASSM guidelines assist sport management professional preparation specialists with what standards should be met by the content of the

Curricular Models 95

sport management program, these proposed cumcular models explain how the guidelines can be incorporated into the sport management programs. For example, at least 11 different strands have been identified in the NASPE-NASSM (1993) undergraduate guidelines "Behavioral Dimensions in Sport." These strands should be included in the content of courses of one or more of the components identified for the undergraduate model. Similar applications could be made for the graduate programs.

These curricular models are projections derived from a synthesis of research results based on responses from employers in the sport management field, sport management academicians, and undergraduate and graduate students majoring in sport management (Beitel, Kelley, DeSensi, & Blanton, 1990; Blanton, Beitel, DeSensi, & Kelley, 1990; DeSensi, Kelley, Beitel, & Blanton, 1990; Kelley, DeSensi, Beitel, & Blanton, 1989). An extension of this research included a four- step process used to create the models: (a) identifying and categorizing the curricular problems addressed in the literature, (b) examining the results of needs assessments, and (c) searching for commonalities and differences. Last, similar knowledges and skills were synthesized to create unified areas, while maintaining separateness for areas with differences.

These areas of unification became five concentrations: (a) Sport for Leisure/ Recreation, (b) Sport and Athletics, (c) Sport Merchandising, (d) Hostelries/ Travel, and (e) Recreation Agencies. Each of these concentrations includes two or more sport management categories that have similar objectives and offer similar services but occur in different settings and/or serve different clientele.

Practitioners noted six areas in which all sport managers need to be knowl- edgeable: (a) communication, (b) facility management, (c) fiscal management, (d) marketinglsales, (e) program/event management, and (f) personnel management1 supervision (Kelley, Beitel, DeSensi, & Blanton, 1991). Of these, five are business or management related, while only one, communications, is considered in this model as a general education component. Courses in English, technical writing skills, and speech would be appropriate to help students develop their communica- tion competencies. The degree or extent of competence for the five business- and management-related components is specified later within each particular concentration. For example, all sport managers need to be knowledgeable about marketing principles and sales techniques, but not all sport managers need to be competent to the same extent as someone who is a marketing director for a sports team, or as knowledgeable about jobs as someone who is employed in the business of retail sales of sporting goods and equipment.

The primary differences between the undergraduate and graduate models are the degree of research involvement, the depth of content in the courses, and the specific concentrations that each model contains. Two premises underlie the development of these curricular models. First, the undergraduate curriculum includes coursework presented at the introductory and intermediate levels. Sec- ond, the graduate cumculum courses have prerequisites of undergraduate and/ or other related graduate courses with information presented at the advanced level, and the graduate degree culminates with a required project or thesis.

The curricular models represent the most appropriate degree level for each of the five concentrations; for example, there is a need for undergraduate programs to serve all five concentrations, and there should be graduate-level programs in three of the concentrations: Sport for LeisurefRecreation, Sport and Athletics,

96 Kelley, Beitel, DeSensi, and Blanton

and Recreation Agencies. The graduate degree requirements are found primarily at the master's level, with only a very small number having requirements for the doctorate. In contrast, two of the concentrations necessitate only undergraduate degree requirements: Sport Merchandising and Hostelries/Travel.

Undergraduate Model

Individuals completing the undergraduate degree would be eligible for employ- ment at entry-level management positions. Based on the responses of employers from the sport management enterprise, there are some common and some differen- tiated requirements, qualifications, and expectations among the five concentra- tions. Thus, the following undergraduate curriculum includes general education and four sport management-related components: (a) a professional core, (b) concentration specialization requirements, (c) certifications, and (d) practical internship requirements.

General Education. This component should follow each specific insti- tution's goals for a liberal education. Due to the rapidly changing nature of the sport management profession, there is a need for students to become critical thinkers, as well as ethical and humanistic problem solvers with breadth and depth of understanding of the sociocultural environment in which they serve. In order to accomplish this goal, undergraduate sport management students should have a thorough background in the liberal arts. Therefore, general education is a critical component of undergraduate sport management professional preparation and should be broadly based, accounting for at least 35% of the total cumculum.

Professional Core. This portion of the undergraduate model accounts for approximately 30% of the total cumculum. There are three components: (a) businesslmanagement courses, (b) sport studies, and (c) skills/attributes. There are skills and attributes, such as being on time and willingness to work long hours, that are not necessarily course related. Although elements of the business/ management component and the skilllattributes component are all required for each concentration, there are variations in the specific requirements and the order of importance in the sport studies requirements for each concentration.

The total number of credits for the business/management component within the professional core should reflect approximately 20% of the total curriculum, with approximately 15% from business departments and 5% from recreation or sport studies departments. Required courses for all five concentrations include (a) advertising or public relations; (b) fiscal management and budgeting; (c) management, including personnel management; (d) marketing or promotion; and (e) sport management, including event management and facilities management.

The sport studies component within the professional core comprises at least 10% of the coursework and should include the selection of two or more courses that emphasize the sociocultural phenomena, for example, (a) sociology of sport/ leisure, (b) history of sport, (c) philosophy (including ethics) of sportlleisure, and (d) current issues in sport. The students should be encouraged to select from these curricular areas the courses most relevant to their career goals.

The third component of the undergraduate professional core includes the attainment of skills and attributes that could be ascertained and managed through evaluation by admission and retention boards, test-out procedures, or course

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requirements. These skills and attributes include (a) written and oral communica- tion skills; (b) computer skills for word processing, spread sheet, and data manage- ment; (c) leadership skills; (d) work stamina and fitness; and (e) personal appearance. Communication skills were ranked number one by sport management employers and professional preparation personnel. Sport management is an atypi- cal cafeer since sport managers often work more than the traditional 40-hour work week; consequently they need a high degree of stamina and a strong work ethic.

Concentration Specialization Requirements. The specialization requirements for all concentrations, which account for 20% of the total curriculum, include (a) sport promotions, (b) personnel management, (c) supervision, (d) labor relations, (e) policy development, (f) financelsport finance, (g) physiological aspects of sport, @) sport law, (i) product development, (j) kinesiological/biome- chanical aspects of sport, (k) retail sales, (1) fiscal management, (m) contract law, (n) program planning, (0) facility management, (p) motorlsport skill, and (q) risk management. However, the specialization requirements for each concen- tration emphasize different subcomponents that are directly related to each stu- dent's specific career objective.

The Sport for LeisureBecreation concentration consists of sport manage- ment positions in college and university intramural programs, private sport clubs, sport businesses, and corporate sport and fitness programs. Thus, the similar services they provide are program and facilities management to enable their members to engage in organized sport or fitness activities. It is the nature of their member groups and the specificity of the setting that is different among the categories within this concentration. The concentration specialization require- ments include courses in (a) program planning, (b) facility management, (c) supervision or personnel management, (d) policy development, (e) sport skill, (f) sport promotion, (g) sport law, and (h) certifications in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and advanced first aid. The sport law course should include tort, risk management, antitrust law, contract law, and constitutional law. In addition, any students with fitness-related career objectives in this concentration should take additional coursework in the physiological aspects of sport and attain appropriate American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) certification or the equivalent.

The Sport and Athletics concentration includes the sport management cate- gories of collegeluniversity athletics, facilities management, professional sport, sport management services, and sport governance organizations. The services provided within this concentration include management of athletic or sport events, players or athletes, and spectator utilization. The concentration specialization requirements include (a) sport promotions, (b) public relations, (c) personnel management and supervision, (d) labor relations, (e) policy development, (f) finance, (g) sport law, and (h) risk management. In addition, sport psychology should be required for most of the categories in this concentration, as well as certifications in CPR and advanced first aid. For specific sport management positions within this concentration, sports skills, facility management, retail sales, and physiological explanations of sport with appropriate certification are also encouraged.

The Sport Merchandising concentration includes sport marketing, sport merchandising, and retail sales of sport equipment and clothing. The undergradu- ate curricular model suggests the following requirements for all categories within

98 Kelley, Beitel, DeSensi, and Blanton

this concentration: (a) contract law, (b) fiscal management, (c) retail sales, (d) product development, (e) labor relations, and (f) sport promotions. It is recom- mended that students in this concentration have more than one experience in promotions, either through additional coursework or practica or through employ- ment opportunities.

The Hostelries/rravel concentration includes hotels, resorts, travel, and cruise businesses that include recreation and leisure programs and facilities as a primary or secondary focus for their clientele. The concentration specialization requirements include courses in (a) sport skills, (b) program planning, (c) person(f) risk management, (g) finance, and (h) retail sales. Also, CPR and advanced first aid certifications are expected for sport managers who deal with a wide range of age groups in aerobic or high-risk activities. Students who have fitness as a primary emphasis within this concentration need coursework in applied fitness with appropriate certification.

The Recreation Agencies concentration includes the sport management positions located within local government and voluntary agencies. Both types of agencies utilize nonprofit funding sources to develop, implement, and manage recreation and sport programs or activities to meet the needs of agency members or residents within governmental districts (e.g., city, county, and state). The concentration specialization requirements include courses in (a) program plan- ning, (b) facility management, (c) policy development, (d) finance/sport finance, (e) supervision, (f) labor relations, and (g) sport law. Certifications in CPR and advanced first aid are also encouraged or may be required for some sport management positions in these settings. In addition, courses in the physiological explanations of sport and fitness or the psychological aspects of sport may be needed, depending on the specific job setting.

Practica/Internship. The practica and the internship are a series of professionally related work experiences that should move from general experi- ences to a more specific focus as each student progresses through the undergradu- ate curriculum, and should collectively account for approximately 15% of the total curriculum. The types of practica and internship experiences are unique to each sport management concentration and setting. The practica should be broadly based, should be part-time work experiences, and should lead to a focused internship. These are best offered as a sequence of experiences at various times in the 4-year curriculum. The internship should be, at a minimum, a one-semester full-time applied work experience directly focused toward each student's profes- sional sport management career goals, and should be the culminating experience in the undergraduate program of study.

Graduate Model

The entry-level positions of the sport management baccalaureate graduate are at the management level, and in all likelihood are subordinate positions in which graduates are directly involved with the implementation of policies and proce- dures. Persons with graduate degrees would be prepared to accept positions at the administrative policy development level. Therefore, sport administrators would be directly involved with philosophical and value-based decisions, policy develop- ment, and administrative strategies.

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Administration is considered to be the focus of the upper levels of the organization, while management is considered to be the focus of the lower levels. Although Hardy (1987) used different terminology to separate management and administration, this point is similar in nature to his suggestion that "graduate level sport management curricula should produce managers, not entry-level tech- nicians" (Hardy, 1987, p. 207). Some professionals do not differentiate manage- ment and administration (Chelladurai, 1985); however, in these curricular models they are considered as different entities, albeit very closely related.

Students should enter graduate-level programs with prerequisite experi- ences or backgrounds in sport, leisurelrecreation, or business/management. Of course, these prerequisites must be prescribed to meet the objectives of the graduate program requirements of each college or university. The incoming graduate student should have some combination of sport or leisure studies with businesslmanagement coursework or experience. Ideally, the graduate student would have appropriate prerequisite depth and breadth of sport experience.

The content of the graduate sport management program should be based on two factors: (a) the experience, degree content, and background of the student upon entry to the graduate program; and (b) the focus, emphasis, and specificity of professional requirements for the positions related to the graduate student's career goals. The emphasis of the graduate program curriculum should be to help students move from where they are to where they want to be, while atthe same time to maintain the integrity of the nature of graduate study in sport management.

The components of the graduate cumcular model should be focused toward attainment of entry-level administrative positions in the student's area of interest and should include (a) the professional core, (b) selected professional courses, (c) research techniques, (d) internship experiences, and (e) a thesis or project. The particular emphasis, or percent of the total curriculum, for each component will vary dependent upon the student's background and individual career goals. The professional core should include courses from (a) advanced levels of sport administration theory and (b) advanced levels of sociocultural aspects of sport/ leisure.

The selected professional courses component should contain content di- rectly related to each student's background and career goals. Thus, this component would likely be very different for each individual. The content areas of the Sport for Leisure/Recreation concentration, Sport and Athletics concentration, and Recreation Agencies concentration that are directly related to the student's career goals should be used as the guidelines for selection of these courses. The graduate courses in these content areas within the specified concentration should be at an advanced level and should be focused toward and applicable to sport administration.

Content of the research techniques component should include courses and experiences that encompass utilization of professionally appropriate (a) library skills, (b) data- and information-gathering techniques, (c) analytic and evaluation techniques, (d) interpretation and projection skills, (e) deductive and inductive reasoning, (f) qualitative and quantitative research designs, and (g) scholarly and technical writing skills.

The common core, the selected professional courses, and research tech- niques should be related and lead directly to the internship and to the topic of the thesis or project. The purpose of the internship is to provide students with

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iwdepth work experience. This purpose may be achieved in a variety of ways, for example, a graduate assistantship in the student's area of interest, a semester- long full-time work experience, or previous sport-related work experience within the concentration of the student's professional goal.

The internship should result in or be related to a project or thesis. The project should be an in-depth product (a) that is directly related to'the student's area of emphasis; (b) that builds upon the student's internship, previous coursework, and professional experience; and (c) that is the culminating experi- ence in attaining a focused master's degree. The project might be a research study, a creative endeavor, or an integral part of the internship. The master's thesis should contribute to the field of sport management and should (a) be theoretically based, (b) have logical development of the problem, and (c) be completed thoroughly and carefully. Thesis topics might be within the following frameworks: (a) replicate completed work, (b) modify components of completed work, or (c) develop a new problem of a manageable nature. Therefore, progress through the graduate program of study should prepare students for sport adminis- tration employment in their chosen concentration or setting.

Summary

The undergraduate and graduate sport management models suggest the need for interdisciplinary programs across sport studies, leisure/recreation, and business1 management. At the undergraduate level, the use of a business minor in conjunc- tion with a sport management major, which includes specified focus toward concentration objectives, will strengthen the marketability of sport management graduates. Thus, these models are clearly interdisciplinary in nature. The interdis- ciplinary approach to curriculum development can be managed within each insti- tution in a variety of creative ways. There is no longer room for the provincial sport management programs that are housed in physical education, leisure studies, or business. Now is the time for bold, assertive sport management programs to enlist academicians from many colleges and departments, for example, law, business, journalism, marketing, and sport and leisure studies. In addition, it is critical for the sport management cumculum to maintain a strong foundation in sport studies that provides depth and breadth of knowledge and understanding of the societal and cultural context of sport. Together, the proposed curricular models and the NASPE-NASSM guidelines provide institutions with a sound curricular development and evaluation package for undergraduate and graduate sport management programs.

Professionals who prepare sport managers must enlist every resource pos- sible to enhance the ability of students to make sound, ethical managerial and administrative decisions in an environment that produces extreme demands and pressures. As sport continues to assume an increasing importance in American life, and as sport management struggles to become an established cross-discipline, there is a need to more clearly define and characterize the emerging curriculum of this cross-discipline and to become more accountable for the varied courses of study.

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