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Shaka

Shaka kaSenzangakhona

1824 European artist's impression of Shaka with a long throwing assegai and heavy shield. No drawings from life are known.[1]

Reign 1816–1828

Issue

None known or recognized

Born ca. 1787KwaZulu-Natal, near Melmoth

Died c. 1828 (aged 41)KwaDukuza, KwaZulu-Natal

Occupation Monarch of the Zulu Kingdom

Shaka kaSenzangakhona (c. 1787 – c. 22 September 1828), also known as Shaka[2] Zulu (Zulu: [ˈʃaːɠa]), was themost influential leader of the Zulu Kingdom.He is widely credited with uniting many of the Northern Nguni people, specifically the Mtetwa Paramountcy and theNdwandwe into the Zulu Kingdom, the beginnings of a nation that held sway over the portion of southern Africabetween the Phongolo and Mzimkhulu Rivers, and his statesmanship and vigour marked him as one of the greatestZulu kings.[3] He has been called a military genius for his reforms and innovations, and condemned for the brutalityof his reign.[4][5] Other historians debate about Shaka's role as a uniter, versus a usurper of traditional Zulu rulingprerogatives, and the notion of the Zulu state as a unique construction, divorced from the localised culture and theprevious systems built by his predecessor Dingiswayo.[6] Research continues into the character and methods of theZulu warrior king, whose reign still greatly influences South African culture.

Early lifeShaka was the first son of the chieftain Senzangakhona and Nandi, a daughter of Bhebhe, the past chief of theElangeni tribe, born near present day Melmoth, KwaZulu-Natal Province. He was conceived out of wedlocksomewhere between 1781 and 1787.[citation needed]

Shaka spent his childhood in his mother's settlements. He is recorded as having been initiated there and inducted intoan ibutho lempi (fighting unit). In his early days, Shaka served as a warrior under the sway of local chieftainDingiswayo and the Mthethwa, to whom the Zulu were then paying tribute.[citation needed][7]

Dingiswayo called up the emDlatsheni iNtanga (age-group), of which Shaka was part, and incorporated it in the Izichwe regiment. Shaka served as a Mthethwa warrior for perhaps as long as ten years, and distinguished himself with his courage, though he did not rise, as legend has it, to a great position. Dingiswayo had been exiled after a failed attempt to oust his father. There were a number of other groups in the region (including Mabhudu, Dlamini,

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Mkhize, Qwabe, and Ndwandwe). Along with them, Dingiswayo helped develop new ideas of military and socialorganisation, in particular the ibutho, sometimes translated as "regiment" or "troop". They were probably respondingto slaving pressures from southern Mozambique.The ibutho was rather an age-based labour gang (cohort) which included some better refined military activities, butby no means exclusively. Most battles before this time were to settle disputes, and while the appearance of ibutholempi (fighting unit) dramatically changed warfare at times, it largely remained an instrument for seasonal raidingand political persuasion rather than outright slaughter.Shaka granted permission to Europeans to enter Zulu territory on rare occasions. Henry Francis Fynn providedmedical treatment to the king after an assassination attempt from a rival tribe member hidden in a crowd (see accountof Nathaniel Isaacs). To show his gratitude, Shaka permitted European settlers to enter and operate in the Zulukingdom. This would open the door for future British incursions into the Zulu kingdom that were not so peaceful.Shaka observed several demonstrations of European technology and knowledge, but held that the Zulu way wassuperior to that of the foreigners.[5]

The successor of SenzangakonaOn the death of Senzangakona, Dingiswayo aided Shaka to defeat his brother and assume leadership ca. 1816. Shakabegan to further refine the ibutho system used by Dingiswayo and others and, with Mthethwa's support over the nextseveral years, forged alliances with his smaller neighbours, to counter the growing threat from Ndwandwe raidingfrom the north. The initial Zulu manoeuvres were primarily defensive in nature, as Shaka preferred to intervene orapply pressure diplomatically, aided by occasional judicious assassinations. His changes to local society built onexisting structures. Although he preferred social and propagandistic political methods, he also engaged in a numberof battles, as the Zulu sources make clear.[5]

When Dingiswayo was murdered by Zwide, a powerful chief of the Ndwandwe (Nxumalo) clan, Shaka sought toavenge his death. At some point Zwide barely escaped Shaka, though the exact details are not known. In thatencounter Zwide's mother Ntombazi, a Sangoma (Zulu seer or shaman), was killed by Shaka. Shaka chose aparticularly gruesome revenge on her, locking her in a house and placing jackals or hyenas inside: they devoured herand, in the morning, Shaka burned the house to the ground. Despite carrying out this revenge, Shaka continued hispursuit of Zwide. It was not until around 1825 that the two great military men would meet, near Phongola, in whatwould be their final meeting. Phongola is near the present day border of KwaZulu-Natal, a province in South Africa.Shaka was victorious in battle, although his forces sustained heavy casualties, which included his head militarycommander, Umgobhozi Ovela Entabeni.In the initial years, Shaka had neither the influence nor reputation to compel any but the smallest of groups to join him, and he operated under Dingiswayo's aegis until the latter's death at the hands of Zwide's Ndwandwe. At this point, Shaka moved southwards across the Thukela River, establishing his capital Bulawayo in Qwabe territory; he never did move back into the traditional Zulu heartland. In Qwabe, Shaka may have intervened in an existing succession dispute to help his own choice, Nqetho, into power; Nqetho then ruled as a proxy chieftain for Shaka.[

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Expansion of power and conflict with Zwide

Sketch of a Zulu warrior

As Shaka became more respected by his people, he was able to spreadhis ideas with greater ease. Because of his background as a soldier,Shaka taught the Zulus that the most effective way of becomingpowerful quickly was by conquering and controlling other tribes. Histeachings greatly influenced the social outlook of the Zulu people. TheZulu tribe soon developed a "warrior" mindset, which Shaka turned tohis advantage.Shaka's hegemony was primarily based on military might, smashingrivals and incorporating scattered remnants into his own army. Hesupplemented this with a mixture of diplomacy and patronage,incorporating friendly chieftains, including Zihlandlo of the Mkhize,Jobe of the Sithole, and Mathubane of the Thuli. These peoples werenever defeated in battle by the Zulu; they did not have to be. Shakawon them over by subtler tactics, such as patronage and reward. As forthe ruling Qwabe, they began re-inventing their genealogies to give the impression that Qwabe and Zulu wereclosely related in the past.[citation needed] In this way a greater sense of cohesion was created, though it never becamecomplete, as subsequent civil wars attest.

His half-brother, Sigujana, who had been destined to become Zulu Chief, was killed.Wikipedia:Please clarify Thecoup was relatively bloodless and accepted by the Zulu. Shaka still recognised Dingiswayo and his larger Mthethwaclan as overlord after he returned to the Zulu but, some years later, Dingiswayo was ambushed by Zwide'samaNdwandwe and killed. There is no evidence to suggest that Shaka betrayed Dingiswayo. Indeed, the core Zuluhad to retreat before several Ndwandwe incursions; the Ndwandwe was clearly the most aggressive grouping in thesub-region.Shaka was able to form an alliance with the leaderless Mthethwa clan and was able to establish himself amongst theQwabe, after Phakathwayo was overthrown with relative ease. With Qwabe, Hlubi and Mkhize support, Shaka wasfinally able to summon a force capable of resisting the Ndwandwe (of the Nxumalo clan). Historian Donald Morrisstates that Shaka's first major battle against Zwide, of the Ndwandwe, was the Battle of Gqokli Hill, on the Mfoloziriver. Shaka's troops maintained a strong position on the crest of the hill. A frontal assault by their opponents failedto dislodge them and Shaka sealed the victory by sending his reserve forces in a sweep around the hill to attack theenemy's rear. Losses were high overall but the efficacy of the new Shakan innovations was proved. It is probablethat, over time, the Zulu were able to hone and improve their encirclement tactics.[8]

Another decisive fight eventually took place on the Mhlatuze river, at the confluence with the Mvuzane stream. In atwo-day running battle, the Zulu inflicted a resounding defeat on their opponents. Shaka then led a fresh reservesome seventy miles to the royal kraal of Zwide, ruler of the Ndwandwe, and destroyed it. Zwide himself escapedwith a handful of followers before falling foul of a chieftainess named Mjanji, ruler of the baPedi clan (he died inmysterious circumstances soon afterward). Shaka's general Soshangane (of the Shangaan) moved north towards whatis now Mozambique to inflict further damage on less resistant foes and take advantage of slaving opportunities,obliging Portuguese traders to give tribute. Shaka later had to contend again with Zwide's son Sikhunyane in 1826.

Shaka 4

Death and successionDingane and Mhlangana, Shaka's half-brothers, appear to have made at least two attempts to assassinate Shakabefore they succeeded, with perhaps support from Mpondo elements, and some disaffected iziYendane people.While the British colonialists considered his regime to be a future threat, allegations that white traders wished hisdeath are problematic given that Shaka had granted concessions to whites prior to his death, including the right tosettle at Port Natal (now Durban). Shaka had made enough enemies among his own people to hasten his demise. Itcame relatively quickly after the devastation caused by Shaka's erratic behavior after the death of his mother Nandi.According to Donald Morris in this mourning period Shaka ordered that no crops should be planted during thefollowing year, no milk (the basis of the Zulu diet at the time) was to be used, and any woman who became pregnantwas to be killed along with her husband. At least 7,000 people who were deemed to be insufficiently grief-strickenwere executed, though it wasn't restricted to humans, cows were slaughtered so that their calves would know whatlosing a mother felt like.[9]

The Zulu monarch was killed by three assassins sometime in 1828; September is the most often cited date, whenalmost all available Zulu manpower had been sent on yet another mass sweep to the north. This left the royal kraalcritically short of security. It was all the conspirators needed—they being Shaka's half-brothers, Dingane andMhlangana, and an iNduna called Mbopa. A diversion was created by Mbopa, and Dingane and Mhlangana struckthe fatal blows. Shaka's corpse was dumped into an empty grain pit by his assassins and filled with stones and mud.The exact site is unknown. A monument was built at one alleged site. Historian Donald Morris holds that it issomewhere on Couper Street in the village of Stanger, South Africa.Shaka's half-brother Dingane assumed power and embarked on an extensive purge of pro-Shaka elements andchieftains, running over several years, in order to secure his position. The initial problem Dingane faced wasmaintaining the loyalty of the Zulu fighting regiments or amabutho. He addressed this by allowing them to marryand set up a homestead (this was forbidden during Shaka's rule), and they also received cattle from Dingane. Loyaltywas also maintained through fear as anyone who was suspected of rivaling Dingane was killed. He set up his mainresidence at Mmungungundlovo and established his authority over the Zulu kingdom.[10] Dingane ruled for sometwelve years, during which time he fought, disastrously, against the Voortrekkers, and against another half-brotherMpande, who, with Boer and British support, took over the Zulu leadership in 1840, ruling for some 30 years. At theBattle of Isandlwana in 1879, the Zulus would become one of the few African peoples to defeat the BritishArmy.[citation needed]

Shaka 5

Shaka's social and military revolution

Shaka's military innovations such as the"iklwa," the age-grade regimental systemand encirclement tactics helped make theZulu one of the most powerful nations in

southern and southeastern Africa.[5]

Some older histories have doubted the military and social innovationscustomarily attributed to Shaka, denying them outright, or attributing themvariously to European influences.[11] More modern researchers argue thatsuch explanations fall short, and that the general Zulu culture whichincluded other tribes and clans, contained a number of practices that Shakacould have drawn on to fulfill his objectives, whether in raiding, conquest orhegemony.[5] Some of these practices are shown below.

Weapons changes

Shaka is often said to have been dissatisfied with the long throwing"assegai," and credited with introducing a new variant of the weapon: the"iklwa," a short stabbing spear with a long, sword-like spearhead.

Though Shaka probably did not invent the iklwa, according to Zulu scholarJohn Laband (37), the leader did insist that his warriors train with theweapon, which gave them a "terrifying advantage over opponents who clungto the traditional practice of throwing their spears and avoiding hand-to-handconflict."[12] The throwing spear was not discarded but used as an initialmissile weapon before close contact with the enemy, when the shorterstabbing spear was used in hand to hand combat.[5]

Shaka is also supposed to have introduced a larger, heavier shield made ofcowhide and to have taught each warrior how to use the shield's left side tohook the enemy's shield to the right, exposing his ribs for a fatal spear stab.In Shaka's time, these cowhide shields were supplied by the king andremained his property (Laband 37). Different colored shields distinguisheddifferent amabutho within Shaka's army. Some had black shields, othersused white shields with black spots, some had white shields with brownspots, while others used pure brown or white shields (37).[12]

Mobility of the armyThe story that sandals were discarded to toughen the feet of Zulu warriors has been noted in various militaryaccounts such as "The Washing of the Spears," "Like Lions They Fought" and "Anatomy of the Zulu Army."Implementation was typically blunt. Those who objected to going without sandals were simply killed.[13] Shakadrilled his troops frequently, forced marches sometimes covering more than 50 miles (80 km) a day in a fast trot overhot, rocky terrain.[14] He also drilled the troops to carry out encirclement tactics.Historian John Laband dismisses these stories as myth. "What are we to make, then, of [European trader HenryFrancis] Fynn's statement that once the Zulu army reached hard and stony ground in 1826, Shaka ordered sandals ofox-hide to be made for himself?"[12]

The idea of a 50 miles (80 km) march in a single day is also dismissed as ridiculous. Laband further claims that eventhough these stories have been repeated by "astonished and admiring white commentators," the Zulu army covered"no more than 19 kilometres (12 mi) a day, and usually went only about 14 kilometres (8.7 mi).".[12] Furthermore,Zulus under Shaka sometimes advanced more slowly. They spent two whole days recuperating in one instance, andon another they rested for a day and two nights before pursuing their enemy.[12] Several other historians of the Zulu,and the Zulu military system however, affirm the mobility rate of up to 50 miles per day.[15]

Shaka 6

Well-organised logistic support by youth formationsYoung boys aged six and over joined Shaka's force as apprentice warriors (udibi) and served as carriers of rations,supplies like cooking pots and sleeping mats, and extra weapons until they joined the main ranks. It is sometimesheld that such support was used more for very light forces designed to extract tribute in cattle, women or young menfrom neighbouring groups. Nevertheless, the concept of "light" forces is questionable. The fast-moving Zulu raidingparty or "ibutho lempi" on a mission invariably traveled light, driving cattle as provisions on the hoof, and were notweighed down with heavy weapons and supply packs. The herdboy logistic structure was deployed in support ofthese relatively short-term operations, and was easily adaptable to large or small expeditions.

The age-grade regimental systemAge-grade groupings of various sorts were common in the Bantu culture of the day, and indeed are still important inmuch of Africa. Age grades were responsible for a variety of activities, from guarding the camp, to cattle herding, tocertain rituals and ceremonies. Shaka organised various grades into regiments, and quartered them in special militarykraals, with regiments having their own distinctive names and insignia. The regimental system clearly built onexisting tribal cultural elements that could be adapted and shaped to fit an expansionist agenda. There was no need tolook for European inspiration hundreds of miles away.[16]

The "bull horn" formationMost historians credit Shaka with initial development of the famous "bull horn" formation.[16] It was composed ofthree elements:1. The main force, the "chest," closed with the enemy Impi and pinned it in position. The warriors who comprised

the "chest" were senior veterans.[17]

2. The "horns," while the enemy Impi was pinned by the "chest," would flank the Impi from both sides and encircleit; in conjunction with the "chest" they would then destroy the trapped force. The warriors who comprised the"horns" were young and fast juniors.[17]

3. The "loins," a large reserve, was placed, seated, behind the "chest" with their backs to the battle. The "loins"would be committed wherever the enemy Impi threaten to break out of the encirclement.[17]

Coordination was supplied by regimental "izinduna" (chiefs or leaders) who used hand signals and messengers. Thescheme was elegant in its simplicity, and well understood by the warriors assigned to each echelon.

Organization and leadership of the Zulu forcesThe host were generally partitioned into three levels: regiments, corps of several regiments, and "armies" or biggerformations, although the Zulu did not use these terms in the modern sense. Any grouping of men on a mission couldcollectively be called an impi, whether a raiding party of 100 or horde of 10,000. Numbers were not uniform, butdependent on a variety of factors including assignments by the king or the manpower mustered by various clanchiefs or localities. A regiment might be 400 or 4000 men. These were grouped into corps that took their name fromthe military kraals where they were mustered, or sometimes the dominant regiment of that locality.

Shaka 7

Shakan methods versus European technology

Shaka dismissed firearms as ineffective against the quick encirclements ofcharging spearmen. Although ultimately failing against modern rifle and artillery

fire in 1879, his theory achieved some success at Isandlwana.

The expanding Zulu power inevitablyclashed with European hegemony in thedecades after Shaka's death. In fact,European travellers to Shaka's kingdomdemonstrated advanced technology such asfirearms and writing, but the Zulu monarchwas less than convinced. There was no needto record messages, he held, since hismessengers stood under penalty of deathshould they bear inaccurate tidings. As forfirearms, Shaka acknowledged their utilityas missile weapons after seeingmuzzle-loaders demonstrated, but arguedthat in the time a gunman took to reload, hewould be swamped by chargingspear-wielding warriors.[5]

The first major clash after Shaka's death took place under his successor Dingane, against expanding EuropeanVoortrekkers from the Cape. Initial Zulu success rested on fast-moving surprise attacks and ambushes, but theVoortrekkers recovered and dealt the Zulu a severe defeat from their fortified wagon laager at the Battle of BloodRiver. The second major clash was against the British during 1879. Once again, most Zulu successes rested on theirmobility, ability to screen their forces and to close when their opponents were unfavourably deployed. Their majorvictory at the Battle of Isandlwana is well known, but they also forced back a British column at the Battle of Hlobanemountain, by deploying fast-moving regiments over a wide area of rugged ravines and gullies, and attacking theBritish who were forced into a rapid disorderly fighting retreat, back to the town of Kambula.[18]

Shaka as the creator of a revolutionary warfare styleA number of historians argue that Shaka 'changed the nature of warfare in Southern Africa' from 'a ritualisedexchange of taunts with minimal loss of life into a true method of subjugation by wholesale slaughter'.[5] Othersdispute this characterization (see Scholarship section below). A number of writers focus on Shaka's militaryinnovations such as the iklwa – the Zulu thrusting spear, and the "buffalo horns" formation. This combination hasbeen compared to the standardization implemented by the reorganised Roman legions under Marius.

Combined with Shaka's "buffalo horns" attack formation for surrounding and annihilating enemy forces, theZulu combination of iklwa and shield—similar to the Roman legionaries' use of gladius and scutum—wasdevastating. By the time of Shaka's assassination in 1828, it had made the Zulu kingdom the greatest power insouthern Africa and a force to be reckoned with, even against Britain's modern army in 1879.[19]

Much controversy still surrounds the character, methods and activities of the Zulu king. From a military standpoint,historian John Keegan notes exaggerations and myths that surround Shaka, but nevertheless maintains:

Fanciful commentators called him Shaka, the Black Napoleon, and allowing for different societies andcustoms, the comparison is apt. Shaka is without doubt the greatest commander to come out of Africa.[20]

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Scholarship on Shaka

Sources on Shaka's life

Shaka's methods reached their high point during the Zulu victory at Isandhlwana.Regimental deployments and lines of attack show his classic template at work.[21]

Scholarship in recent years has revisedviews of the sources on Shaka's reign.The earliest are two eyewitnessaccounts written by whiteadventurer-traders who met Shakaduring the last four years of his reign.Nathaniel Isaacs published his Travelsand Adventures in Eastern Africa in1836, creating a picture of Shaka as adegenerate and pathological monsterwhich survives in modified forms tothis day. Isaacs was aided in this byHenry Francis Fynn, whose diary(actually a rewritten collage of variouspapers) was edited by James Stuartonly in 1950.

Their accounts may be balanced by therich resource of oral histories collectedaround 1900 by the same James Stuart,now published in 6 volumes as TheJames Stuart Archive. Stuart's early20th century work was continued by D. McK. Malcolm in 1950. These and other sources such as A. T. Bryant givesus a more Zulu-centred picture. Most popular accounts are based on E. A. Ritter's novel Shaka Zulu (1955), apotboiling romance which was re-edited into something more closely resembling a history. The work of John Wright(history professor at University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg), Julian Cobbing and Dan Wylie (RhodesUniversity, Grahamstown) have been among a number of writers who have modified these stories.[22]

Various modern historians writing on Shaka and the Zulu point to the uncertain nature of Fynn and Isaac's accountsof Shaka's reign. A standard general reference work in the field is Donald Morris's "The Washing of The Spears",which notes the sources, as a whole, for this historical era are not the best. Morris nevertheless references a largenumber of sources, including Stuart, and A. T. Bryant's extensive but uneven "Olden Times in Zululand and Natal",which is based on four decades of exhaustive interviews of tribal sources. After sifting through these sources andnoting their strengths and weaknesses, Morris generally credits Shaka with a large number of military and socialinnovations, and this is the general consensus in the field.[23]

A 1998 study by historian Carolyn Hamilton summarizes much of the scholarship on Shaka towards the dawn of the21st century in areas ranging from ideology, politics and culture, to the use of his name and image in a popular SouthAfrican theme park, Shakaland. It argues that in many ways, the image of Shaka has been "invented" in the modernera according to whatever agenda persons hold. This "imagining of Shaka" it is held, should be balanced by a soberview of the historical record, and allow greater scope for the contributions of indigenous African discourse.[24]

Military historians of the Zulu War must also be considered for their description of Zulu fighting methods andtactics, including authors like Ian Knight and Robert Edgerton. General histories of Southern Africa are also valuableincluding Noel Mostert's "Frontiers" and a detailed account of the results from the Zulu expansion, J. D.Omer-Cooper's "The Zulu Aftermath", which advances the traditional Mfecane theory.

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Shaka and the Mfecane

History and legacy

The increased military efficiency led to more and more clans being incorporated into Shaka's Zulu empire, whileother tribes moved away to be out of range of Shaka's impis. The ripple effect caused by these mass migrationswould become known (though only in the twentieth century) as the Mfecane (annihilation). Some groups whichmoved off (like the Hlubi and Ngwane to the north of the Zulus) could have been impelled by the Ndwandwe, notthe Zulu. Some moved south (like the Chunu and the Thembe), but never suffered much in the way of attack; it wasprecautionary, and they left many people behind in their traditional homelands.At the time of his death, Shaka ruled over 250,000 people and could muster more than 50,000 warriors. His10-year-long kingship resulted in a massive number of deaths, mostly due to the disruptions the Zulu caused inneighbouring tribes, although the exact death toll is a matter of scholarly dispute.[25][] Further unquantifiable deathsoccurred during mass tribal migrations to escape his armies.Among the many fascinating cases of the Mfecane is that of Mzilikazi of the Khumalo who was a 'general' ofShaka's, who fled Shaka's employ, and in turn conquered an empire in Zimbabwe, after clashing with Europeangroups like the Boers. The settling of Mzilikazi's people, the AmaNdebele or Matabele, in the south of Zimbabwewith the concomitant driving of the AmaShona into the north caused a tribal conflict which still resonates today.Other notable figures to arise from the Mfecane include Shoshangane, who expanded from the Zulu area into what isnow Mozambique. Shaka was clearly a tough, able leader, the most able of his time who, during the last four years ofhis reign, indulged in several long-distance raids.

Disruptions of the Mfecane

The theory of the Mfecane holds that the aggressive expansion of Shaka's armies caused a brutal chain reactionacross the southern areas of the continent, as dispossessed tribe after tribe turned on their neighbours in a deadlycycle of fight and conquest. This theory must be treated with caution, some scholars hold, as it generally neglectsseveral other factors such as the impact of white encroachment, slave trading and expansion in that area of SouthernAfrica around the same time. The development of the view that Shaka was the monster responsible for thedevastation is based on the need of apartheid era historians to justify the apartheid regime's racist policies.[] Otherscholars acknowledge distortion of the historical record by apartheid supporters and shady white traders seeking tocover their tracks, but dispute the revisionist approach, noting that stories of cannibalism, raiding, burning ofvillages, or mass slaughter were not developed out of thin air but based on the clearly documented accounts ofhundreds of black victims, and refugees. Confirmation of such accounts can also be seen in modern archaeology ofthe village of Lepalong, an entire settlement built underground to shelter remmnants of the Kwena people from1827–36 against the tide of disruption that engulfed the region during Shakan times.[26]

William Rubinstein wrote that "Western guilt over colonialism, have also accounted for much of this distortion ofwhat pre-literate societies actually were like, as does the wish to avoid anything which smacks of racism, even whenthis means distorting the actual and often appalling facts of life in many pre-literate societies".[27] Rubinstein alsonotes:

"One element in Shaka's destruction was to create a vast artificial desert around his domain ... 'to makethe destruction complete, organized bands of Zulu murderers regularly patrolled the waste, hunting forany stray men and running them down like wild pig.' ... An area 200 miles to the north of the center ofthe state, 300 miles to the west, and 500 miles to the south was ravaged and depopulated ..."[27]

Other writers such as Dan Wylie (2011) express skepticism of the portrayal of Shaka as a pathological monsterdestroying everything within reach. They note that attempts to distort his life and image have been systematic-beginning with the first white visitors to his kingdom. One (Nathaniel Isaccs) wrote to Fynn:

Shaka 10

Here you are about to publish. Do make Shaka out to be as bloodthristy as you can; it helps swell out the workand make it interesting.[28]

Fynn complies, and Wylie notes that he had an additional motive to distort Shaka's image - he applied for a hugegrant of land- an area allegedly depopulated by Shaka's savagery.

[Fynn] stated that Shaka had killed 'a million people.' You will still find this figure, and higher, repeated intoday's literature. However, Fynn had no way of knowing any such thing: it was a thumb-suck based in aparticular view of Shaka - Shaka as a kind of genocidal maniac, an unresting killing-machine. But why theinventive lie? ... Fynn was bidding for a stretch of land, which allegedly had been depopulated by Shaka... (heinsinuated), Shaka didn't deserve that land anyway because he was such a brute, while he - Fynn - was alonely, morally upright pioneer of civilisation.[29]

Far from being a genocidal maniac, Wylie holds that Shaka often ruled as a traditional Bantu monarch of his era. Heattacked some enemies, but he also left numerous tribes in place, and maintained a network of dependent states inpeaceful tributary relations, or as allied client states. The massive killing sprees alleged are distorted - Shaka was notthe only operator in the area. There were other tribes and leaders of the era, each on the move with their ownconflicts, that created turmoil, not merely Shaka. Others included the Ndwandwe, and the Mabhudu who built apolity that outlasted Shaka's and were: "partly responsible for pushing the Diamini-Swazi Tlokwa and Ngwanegroups west across the Lubombo hills on to the highveld... the Ndwandwe would become easily the most aggressiveof all groups, certainly surpassong the Zulu."[30] Wylie also notes that the Zulu themselves were born incircumstances of threat even before Shaka was born as the Mthethwa protectors of the small Zulu clan, jockeyedagainst regional rivals like the Ndwandwe, the Chunu and the Thembu. His war operations did not spring out of avacuum.[31]

Wylie also argues that the view of Shaka as a monster who started the Mfecane does not hold up under hard analysis,and that regional upheavals and other factors were already in play in the environment when Shaka appeared.

"In short, the geographic isolationism of the mainstream 'mfecane' model doesn't hold. Secondly, the 'mfecane'cannot be isolated in time. Major changes were happening over a longer period than just on the 1810s.. a thirdreason why the 'mfecane' model doesn't hold is that political developments in response to the violence werenot centered on Shaka's Zulu. Around 1750, it is now clear, slaving, trade, violence, the use of defensivehilltop settlement, and more centralised and militarised groupings were developing. all much the same time,right across the region."[32]

Physical descriptionsThough much remains unknown about Shaka's personal appearance, sources tend to agree he had a strong, muscularbody and was not fat.[12] He was of medium height and his skin tone was dark brown. He was uncircumcised, whichbucked a trendWikipedia:Please clarify in Zulu culture near that time.Shaka's enemies described him as ugly in some respects. He had a big nose, according to Baleka of the Qwabe, astold by her father.[12] He also had two prominent front teeth. Her father also told Baleka that Shaka spoke as though"his tongue were too big for his mouth." Many said that he talked with a speech impediment.There is an anecdote that Shaka joked with one of his friends, Magaye, that he could not kill Magaye because hewould be laughed at. Supposedly if he killed Magaye, it would appear to be out of jealousy because Magaye was sohandsome and "Shaka himself was ugly, with a protruding forehead".[12]

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Shaka in Zulu culture

A muster and dance of Zulu regiments at Shaka'skraal, as recorded by European visitors to his

kingdom, c. 1827.

The figure of Shaka still sparks interest among not only the contemporary Zulu but many worldwide who haveencountered the tribe and its history. The current tendency appears to be to lionise him; popular film and other mediahave certainly contributed to his appeal. Against this must be balanced the devastation and destruction that hewrought. Certain aspects of traditional Zulu culture still revere the dead monarch, as the typical praise song belowattests. It should be noted that the praise song is one of the most widely used poetic forms in Africa, applying notonly to gods but to men, animals, plants and even towns.[33]

He is Shaka the unshakeable,Thunderer-while-sitting, son of MenziHe is the bird that preys on other birds,The battle-axe that excels over other battle-axes in sharpness,He is the long-strided pursuer, son of Ndaba,Who pursued the sun and the moon.He is the great hubbub like the rocks of NkandlaWhere elephants take shelterWhen the heavens frown...

Traditional Zulu praise song,English translation by Ezekiel Mphahlele

Other Zulu sources are sometimes critical of Shaka, and numerous negative images abound in Zulu oral history.When Shaka's mother Nandi died for example, the monarch ordered a massive outpouring of grief including massexecutions, forbidding the planting of crops or the use of milk, and the killing of all pregnant women and theirhusbands. Oral sources record that in this period of devastation, a singular Zulu, a man named Gala, eventually stoodup to Shaka and objected to these measures, pointing out that Nandi was not the first person to die in Zululand.Taken aback by such candid talk, the Zulu king is supposed to have called off the destructive edicts, rewarding theblunt teller-of-truths with a gift of cattle.[34]

The figure of Shaka thus remains an ambiguous one in African oral tradition, defying simplistic depictions of theZulu king as a heroic, protean nation builder on one hand, or a depraved monster on the other. This ambiguitycontinues to lend the image of Shaka its continued power and influence, almost two centuries after his death.[24]

Shaka 12

Legacy• The King Shaka International Airport at La Mercy, 35 km north of the Durban city centre was opened on 1 May

2010 in preparation for the 2010 FIFA World Cup after a protracted debate over the name lasting over twoyears.[35]

• uShaka Marine World, an aquatic theme park in Durban opened in 2004.[36]

Popular culture• Shaka Zulu, an SABC TV series about Shaka• Shaka Zulu was the inspiration for Afrika Bambaataa's Zulu Nation.[citation needed]

References[1][1] B. Johanneson, M. Fernandez, B. Roberts, M. Jacobs, Y. Seleti. 2011. Focus History, Grade 10. Maskew Miller Longman (Pty) Ltd. Cape

Town. p.150[2] Sometimes spelled Tshaka, Tchaka or Chaka[3] Omer-Cooper, J. D. (1965) "The Zulu Aftermath," London: Longman, pp. 12–86[4] See Encyclopædia Britannica article (Macropaedia Article "Shaka" 1974 ed.)[5] Morris, pp. 17–69[6] Hamilton, Carolyn (1998) "Terrific Majesty: the Powers of Shaka Zulu and the Limits of Historical Invention," Cambridge MA: Harvard

University Press, pp. 5–34[8][8] Morris, Washing of the Spears, p. 61-67[9] http:/ / www. zulu-culture-history. com/ shaka_zulu_life. htm[10][10] B. Johanneson, M. Fernandez, B. Roberts, M. Jacobs, Y. Seleti. 2011. Focus History, Grade 10. Maskew Miller Longman (Pty) Ltd. Cape

Town. p.145[11] Morris, Washing of the Spears, pp. 17–69[12][12] Laband, John (1997) "The Rise and Fall of the Zulu Nation"[13] Morris, 1998, Washing of The Spears, pg 51[14][14] Morris, pg 51, R. Edgerton, 1989, Like Lions the Fought, pg 39[15] Donald Morris, The Washing of the Spears, 1998, pg 15–69; Ian Knight, Angus McBride. The Zulus, 1989, pg 17[16] Morris, pp. 50–53[17][17] Morris, p. 50-53[18] Morris, pp. 467–545[19] Guttman, Jon. Military History, June 2008, Vol. 24 Issue 4, p. 23[20][20] Vandervort, p. 39[21][21] Knight, p. 49[22] Hamilton, pp. 7–35[23] Morris pp. 617–620[24][24] Hamilton, p. 3-47[28][28] Dan Wylie, 2011. Shaka. pp 14-46[29][29] Wylie 2011, pp 14-15[30][30] Wylie, Shaka, p36[31][31] Wylie, SHaka p 14-36[32][32] Wylie, Shaka, p 32[33] Encyclopædia Britannica, 1974 ed. African Peoples, arts of'[34][34] Morris, Washing of the Spears p.99[36] http:/ / www. ushakamarineworld. co. za/ about-us

Shaka 13

Further reading• Chanaiwa, David Shingirai (1980), "The Zulu Revolution: State Formation in a Pastoralist Society," In: African

Studies Review 23(3) (Dec. 1980): 1–20.• Edgerton, Robert (1988) Like Lions They Fought• Hamilton, Carolyn (1998) Terrific Majesty: the Powers of Shaka Zulu and the Limits of Historical Invention• Knight, Ian (1995) Anatomy of the Zulu Army•• Laband, John (1997) "The Rise and Fall of the Zulu Nation"• Morris, Donald R. (1965) [1994]. The Washing of the Spears: The rise and fall of the Zulu nation. Pimlico.

ISBN 978-0-7126-6105-8.• Mostert, Noel (1992) Frontiers• Omer-Cooper, J. D. (1965) The Zulu Aftermath• Ritter, E. A. (1955) Shaka Zulu: The Rise of the Zulu Empire• Wylie, Dan (2006) Myth of Iron: Shaka in History• The South African Military History Society – The Zulu Military Organization and the Challenge of 1879 (http:/ /

www. samilitaryhistory. org/ vol044sb. html)• Shaka: Zulu chieftain (http:/ / www. historynet. com/ historical_figures/ 3032216. html)• The History of Shaka (http:/ / www. bulawayo1872. com/ history/ tshaka. htm)• Statue proposal (http:/ / www. kzn. org. za/ invest/ KingShakaStatuelowres. pdf)• "Shaka Zulu," Carpe Noctem (http:/ / carpenoctem. tv/ military/ shaka. html)• Rory Carroll in Johannesburg, Shaka Zulu's brutality was exaggerated, says new book (http:/ / www. guardian. co.

uk/ international/ story/ 0,,1780174,00. html), Monday 22 May 2006, The Guardian.

Regnal titles

Preceded bySenzangakhona kaJama

King of the ZuluNation

1816–1828

Succeeded byDingane kaSenzangakhona

Article Sources and Contributors 14

Article Sources and ContributorsShaka  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=552301026  Contributors: 100110100, 4shizzal, 9Nak, A412, ABCxyz, ABehrens, AKMask, Acidulantes, Agricola11, Ahura21,Aitias, Al.locke, AlanBarrett, Alansohn, Alexikoua, Allens, Allstarecho, Amcaja, Andropov123, Anomaly2002, Antipastor, Aran714, Arima, Arjayay, Arman Cagle, Astatine-210, Aunt Entropy,Auric, Awiseman, AznBurger, BPC912, Baa, BeadleB, Before My Ken, Bender235, Biruitorul, Bjenks, Blacksand, BrettAllen, BrightStarSky, BrokenSegue, BrutusVT, BurienBomber,Callanecc, Caltas, Canek, CardinalDan, Chakachaka, Challenged, Charles Matthews, Chieflapulapu, Chl, Chris Kanyane, ChuMao, Cimorcus, Cinik, Cjrother, Ckatz, Clasqm, Coffee, ColoniesChris, Comatose51, Conversion script, Crazycomputers, D Reynolds1001, D6, DBaba, DR spiral, Dabomb87, DarkSkywise, DaveFoster110@hotmail.com, Dawn Bard, Deconstructhis,Delius1967, Demicx, Dewet, Dimadick, Discospinster, Dman544, Doc Meroe, Dodger67, DrKiernan, DragonflySixtyseven, Drmies, Dukeofomnium, Dumoren, Durova, DustFormsWords,Dvyost, Dysepsion, Dysmorodrepanis, ELDRAS, EditorOf2011, Edward, Eeekster, Egmontaz, El C, Elefuntboy, Elf, Elf-friend, Emreid930, EnigmaMcmxc, Enriquecardova, Enviroboy,Epbr123, Espetkov, Everyking, Excirial, Exhuy, Fat lard87665, Fatty1 13 14, Favonian, FeanorStar7, FelineAvenger, Felix Folio Secundus, Flewis, Flix11, Former user, Fredrik, Gaius Cornelius,Garrett Albright, Gene Nygaard, Geoff Plourde, Gilliam, Ginkgo100, GlassCobra, Goustien, Gozar, Graham87, Gregorydavid, Gurch, Guziel313, HadmarFreiherrvonWieser, Hairy Dude,Halaqah, Halfsnail, Hephaestos, Heroeswithmetaphors, HollyI, Homagetocatalonia, HonorShaman, Humansdorpie, IFaqeer, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Imaninjapirate, Inayity, Indypanman,Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Isababa7, IvanLanin, J.delanoy, JIP, JMK, JaGa, Jacob1207, Jagged 85, Jan Tik, Jaraalbe, Jarble, Jasper5690, Jcw69, Jerzy, JhanCRUSH, Jim1138, Joao.caprivi, Jojit fb,Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh Parris, Jujucabana, Just Another Fat Guy, KHilder, Kaobear, Karnak, Kbdank71, Kemet, Kierano, Kikodawgzzz, Killiondude, Kivulu, Kiwiki, KoshVorlon, Kotra,Ksean23.ca, L Kensington, LBM, LOL, La Pianista, Lamro, Lchiang, Leboite, Lectonar, Leigh28, Lgh, LittleOldMe, Logologist, Longhair, Lovemandi, Lukemcginn216, Madhava 1947,Mafungo, Maildiver, Malengo, Manuelt15, Maor X, Mapetite526, Martinvl, Maryconnolly, Matt Crypto, Maximus Rex, Mboverload, Memorymike, Merovingian, Mholland, Miami33139,Michaelzeng7, Mike Rosoft, Misterian, Modulatum, Mogawa, Monegasque, Motterj, Mr. Billion, MrDarcy, MrSativa, Mrwojo, Mthimza, Mukkakukaku, Nakadai, Neddyseagoon, Netkinetic,Nick Number, Nicke L, Nightscream, Nishkid64, Nkavumbura, Noisy, Nsundu, Ohconfucius, PBS, PMDrive1061, Packerog, Pandora, PaulNovitski, Pazylskad1, Pc13, Peelingpaintspot,Pemilligan, Penguin6635, Peteos, Peter.C, Philip Trueman, PhillyCheese, Pi, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Pinoy Pride, Pipedreamergrey, Pippu d'Angelo, Plange, Polylerus,PouponOnToast, Pschelden, QuartierLatin1968, Qwghlm, Qwyrxian, RandomAct, Rettetast, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Keatinge, Rjwilmsi, Rocastelo, Romanm, Rossvdlinde, Rwalker, RyanPostlethwaite, SBKT, SDC, SGreen, Sadads, Samir, Saur43, Scotty jeffery, Seb az86556, SecretAgentMan00, Serbchingo, Shadowjams, Shaka, SimonP, Sky Captain, Skylark42, Solarra,Stefanomione, Stevo D, Str1977, Student7, Sturm55, SyntaxTerror, TaintedMustard, Tarff, Tdatnguyen, Teixant, Teles, Tgeairn, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheAMmollusc,Thedeadliestwarrior, Tide rolls, Tnyathi, Tobby72, Tom Radulovich, Tommy2010, Tone, Trevor1, Tsofly325, Tushali, UpDown, Varlaam, Vianello, Vigyani, Viriditas, W guice, Waacstats,Waggers, Washmuaria, Wexcan, Wexeb, Whatthree16, Wikipeditor, Wikipelli, William Pietri, Willking1979, Wiz9999, Wizzy, Woohookitty, Xeper, Xyzzyva, Yettie0711, Yourmomssmalldick,Yst, Zocky, ZootSuitt, Zuivel, Zulu Royal, Zyxoas, Милан Јелисавчић, 752 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:KingShaka.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KingShaka.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amakukha, Dbenbenn, Grumpfou, Jose montalvo, KTo288,NJR ZA, ThuressonFile:Zuluwarriorbp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zuluwarriorbp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sir Baden Powell, 1913. Original uploader wasSerbchingo at en.wikipediaImage:Zuluchargegutt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zuluchargegutt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arch. WebbImage:Zuluattackgutt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zuluattackgutt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Enriquecardova aten.wikipediaImage:Zuluisandoob3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zuluisandoob3.jpg  License: Public domain  Contributors: Magog the OgreFile:Zulumustersm.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zulumustersm.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Nathaniel Isaacs. Original uploader was Serbchingo aten.wikipedia

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