sdg 14: life below water...stockholm environment institute sdg 14 life below water – a review of...

StockholmEnvironmentInstitute

SDG14Lifebelowwater–areviewofresearchneeds 1

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SDG14:LifeBelowWater

Areviewofresearchneeds

AnnextotheFormasreportForskningförAgenda2030:Översiktavforskningsbehovochvägarframåt

November2018

AnnieSturesson,NinaWeitz,ÅsaPersson



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Citethisannexas:Sturesson,A.,Weitz,N.andPersson,Å.(2018).SDG14:LifeBelowWater.AReviewofResearchNeeds.TechnicalannextotheFormasreportForskningförAgenda2030:Översiktavforskningsbehovochvägarframåt.StockholmEnvironmentInstitute,Stockholm.



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TableofcontentsTableofcontents.......................................................................................................................3

Summary...................................................................................................................................5

Overviewofthegoalandtargets......................................................................................................5

Summaryoffindings:researchneeds...............................................................................................6

Cross-cuttingissuesandresearchneeds.....................................................................................6

Thematicissuesandknowledgegaps.........................................................................................7

1 Introduction...................................................................................................................10

1.1 Overviewofthegoalsandtargets.........................................................................................10

1.2 Methodandapproach...........................................................................................................11

1.3 Identifyingkeythemes..........................................................................................................12

2 Researchchallenges.......................................................................................................13

2.1 Oceans:everyone'sproblem,noone'sresponsibility...........................................................13

2.2 SDG14anditstargets:backgroundandformulation...........................................................15

2.3 TheSDG14targets:relevanceandmeasurability.................................................................15

2.4 SDG14interactionswithothergoalsandtargets.................................................................16

3 Keytheme1:marinepollution.......................................................................................18

3.1 Marinelitter..........................................................................................................................18

3.2 Microplastics.........................................................................................................................19

3.3 Eutrophication.......................................................................................................................21

3.4 Brownification/browning......................................................................................................22

3.5 Summaryofidentifiedresearchgapsformarinepollution...................................................22



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4 Keytheme2:oceanandclimate.....................................................................................23

4.1 Oceanwarming......................................................................................................................24

4.2 Oceanacidification................................................................................................................25

4.3 Protectedareas.....................................................................................................................26

4.4 Summary:identifiedresearchgapsforoceanandclimate...................................................27

5 Keytheme3:sustainableuseofoceansandmarineresources.......................................28

5.1 Blueeconomyandsustainablemanagementofmarineresources......................................28

5.2 Overfishingandfisherysubsidies..........................................................................................30

5.3 Summary:identifiedresearchgapsforsustainableuseofoceansandmarineresources....32

6 Concludingremarks........................................................................................................33

References..............................................................................................................................35



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SummaryThisliteraturereviewformspartoftheprojectFormasAgenda2030,whichaimstoidentifyresearchneedsrelatedtothe17SustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)andtoexploreoptionsformakingstructuralchangesinresearchpolicyandfundingtofosterprogressontheSDGs.TheprojectinvolvesliteraturereviewsandexploratoryworkshopsfocusingonthreeSDGsasexamples:SDG12Responsibleconsumptionandproduction,SDG14LifebelowwaterandSDG17Partnershipsforthegoals.

ThisreviewpresentspreliminaryfindingsonresearchneedsforSDG14Lifebelowwater.ItfocusesonthreethematicareascloselylinkedtoallseventargetsunderSDG14,namelya)marinepollution,b)oceanandclimate,andc)sustainableuseofmarineandoceanresources.Theanalysisidentifiesresearchgapsinthethreethematicareasbutalsocross-cuttingresearchgapsandpotentials.Furthermore,theanalysisconsiderscross-cuttingissuessuchaslinkagestootherSDGtargetsandthechallenges(andopportunities)ofbalancingsocial,economicandenvironmentaldimensionsofsustainabledevelopment,issueswhichareallcloselyinterlinkedtoSDG14.

OverviewofthegoalandtargetsTable1liststhetargetsandmeansofimplementationunderSDG14.Thisreviewdoesnotconsiderthemeansofimplementation.Weclustertheseventargetsunderthreethemesandfocusourreviewonthosethemes,whichare:marinepollution(target14.1),oceanandclimate(target14.2,14.3and14.5)andthesustainableuseofmarineandoceanresources(target14.7,14.4and14.6).

Table1.OverviewofSDG14.Targetsinfocusareinbold.

SDG14Conserveandsustainablyusetheoceans,seasandmarineresourcesforsustainabledevelopment

14.1By2025,preventandsignificantlyreducemarinepollutionofallkinds,inparticularfromland-basedactivities,includingmarinedebrisandnutrientpollution

14.2 By2020,sustainablymanageandprotectmarineandcoastalecosystemstoavoidsignificantadverseimpacts,includingbystrengtheningtheirresilience,andtakeactionfortheirrestorationinordertoachievehealthyandproductiveoceans

14.3 Minimiseandaddresstheimpactsofoceanacidification,includingthroughenhancedscientificcooperationatalllevels

14.4

By2020,effectivelyregulateharvestingandendoverfishing,illegal,unreportedandunregulatedfishinganddestructivefishingpracticesandimplementscience-basedmanagementplans,inordertorestorefishstocksintheshortesttimefeasible,atleasttolevelsthatcanproducemaximumsustainableyieldasdeterminedbytheirbiologicalcharacteristics

14.5 By2020,conserveatleast10percentofcoastalandmarineareas,consistentwithnationalandinternationallawandbasedonthebestavailablescientificinformation



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14.6

By2020,prohibitcertainformsoffisheriessubsidieswhichcontributetoovercapacityandoverfishing,eliminatesubsidiesthatcontributetoillegal,unreportedandunregulatedfishingandrefrainfromintroducingnewsuchsubsidies,recognizingthatappropriateandeffectivespecialanddifferentialtreatmentfordevelopingandleastdevelopedcountriesshouldbeanintegralpartoftheWorldTradeOrganizationfisheriessubsidiesnegotiation

14.7By2030,increasetheeconomicbenefitstoSmallIslanddevelopingStatesandleastdevelopedcountriesfromthesustainableuseofmarineresources,includingthroughsustainablemanagementoffisheries,aquacultureandtourism

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Increasescientificknowledge,developresearchcapacityandtransfermarinetechnology,takingintoaccounttheIntergovernmentalOceanographicCommissionCriteriaandGuidelinesontheTransferofMarineTechnology,inordertoimproveoceanhealthandtoenhancethecontributionofmarinebiodiversitytothedevelopmentofdevelopingcountries,inparticularsmallislanddevelopingStatesandleastdevelopedcountries

14b Provideaccessforsmall-scaleartisanalfisherstomarineresourcesandmarkets

14cEnhancetheconservationandsustainableuseofoceansandtheirresourcesbyimplementinginternationallawasreflectedinUNCLOS,whichprovidesthelegalframeworkfortheconservationandsustainableuseofoceansandtheirresources,asrecalledinparagraph158ofTheFutureWeWant

Summaryoffindings:researchneedsCross-cuttingissuesandresearchneeds

• Balancecompetingsocial,economicandenvironmentaldemandsforoceanresources.TheformulationoftheSDG14anditstargetsaimstobalancesocial,economicandenvironmentaldemandsforoceanandmarineresources.Althoughallthreedimensionsofsustainabledevelopmentinthelong-termwouldmutuallybenefitfromabalancedapproach,thereisriskfortrade-offstooccurintheshort-term,e.g.betweentheenvironmentalprotectionofmarineresourcesandtheeconomicuseofthesameresources.

• Balanceoftimelypolicymeasuresandmoreresearch-informedpolicies.Byaddressingthesignificantknowledgegapsonmarineandoceanissuestheresearchcommunitycouldcontributetotheformulationofmoreeffective,efficientandsustainablepolicies.However,climateresearchoftenrequireslong-termobservationswhichcreatesamismatchwiththeshortertimeperspectiveofnationalpolicy-makingbutalsoofAgenda2030.Theremaining12yearsuntil2030ischallengingfordevelopingnewresearchprojects,securingrobustresults,communicatingthesetopolicy,andsecuringpoliticalagreementonpolicymeasures.

• Local,regionalandglobalperspective.Despitedifferencesinecosystemcharacteristicsandsocio-economiccontext,manyoftheworld’soceansandseasarefacingsimilarchallengesrelatedtoclimatechange.ThereispotentialforSwedishnationalandregionalresearchprojects,e.g.acidification,tocontributetoachievingprogressofSDG14onagloballevel.

• Needforimprovedmodels.UncertaintyinmodellingandpredictionsparticularlyaffectsArcticresearch,partlybecausethereislimitedabilitytoconductobservations.Improvedoceanmodelswouldcontributetobetteroverallclimatechangepredictions.



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• Needforforward-lookingresearch.ResearchinsupportofAgenda2030needstobeforward-lookingandidentifyissueswhicharenotincludedincurrentgoalsandtargetsbutwhichinthemediumandlong-termriskbecomingimportantchallengesformarinelife.Animportantroleforscienceisthushorizonscanningandidentifyingthenextgenerationofsustainabilitychallenges,notnecessarilyidentifiedalreadyinAgenda2030.

• Prospectsandchallengesofmulti-disciplinaryresearch.Multi-disciplinaryresearchhasthepotentialtobridgeexistingknowledgegapsbybringingdifferentdisciplinaryknowledgetogether,butisoftenconstrainedbystructuralchallenges,includingresearchfundingstructuresnotfavourabletobuildingmoresustainablemulti-stakeholdernetworks.

• Sciencetofillknowledgegaps;butsolutionsrelyonpoliticalwill.Althoughadditionalresearcheffortscouldcontributetoprovidingabetterunderstandingofclimatechangeimpactsonoceans,effectivemitigatingmeasuresprimarilydependonpoliticalwill.

ThematicissuesandknowledgegapsTheme1:MarinepollutionMarinelitter• Bycontributingsystematicassessmentsofinterventionoptionstheresearch

communitycouldcontributetothedesignanddevelopmentofpoliciesandcoordinatedactionacrosssectorsandscale.

• Casestudiesandcomparativestudiesofdifferentpolicymeasuresonmarinelittercouldcontributetopolicy-makingbyprovidingabetterunderstandingoffactorsthatexplainwhysomepoliciessucceedandothersriskfailing.

Microplastics• Researchgapsonthepathwaysofmicroplasticsparticlestotheseabutalsoonthe

impactofmicroplasticsonindividualorganismsandpopulations,aswellasonhumans.• InSweden,furtherresearchisneededtosupportpolicy-makingprocessesandthe

designofadditionalpreventivemeasuresaimedatthemainsourcesofmicroplasticemissionstotheenvironment.

• Onaregionalandgloballevelastandardisedglobalmonitoringprogrammeformicroplasticsinfreshwaterandmarineecosystemswouldprovideaunderstandingoftheoccurrenceofmicroplasticsandcontributetothedesignofbettermanagementstrategies.

Eutrophication• Moreresearchisneededtoassesstheeffectivenessofexistingandnewmitigation

activitiesfornutritionpollutionandeutrophication,includingfortheBalticSea.• Theresearchcommunityhasapotentialroletoplayinthedevelopmentofplatforms

fosteringcollectiveactionbetweenstakeholdersinvolvedintheproductionandconsumptionchainofnutritionproducts.



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Brownification• Moreresearchisneededtoidentifytheunderlyingcausesofbrownification,aswellas

forcreatingplatformspromotingjointpreventivemeasureswithcross-sectorstakeholders,includingtheforestindustry.

• Knowledgegapsontheimpactsonmarineecosystems.• InSwedenmoreresearchonthelinksbetweendissolvedorganiccarbon(DOC)and

acidificationisneededtoimproveacidificationassessmentsinSwedishlakesandstreams.

Theme2:Oceanandclimate

Oceanwarming• Largeuncertaintyandknowledgegapspersistforestimatingthelonger-termimpactof

oceanwarmingontheArcticanditsecosystemservices.• Becauseoflogisticalandfinancialconstraintsforlong-termobservation,research

projectsintheArcticarehighlyreliantonmodels.ThereisaneedforaPan-ArcticresearchactionplanforobservationsystemsandthedevelopmentofspecificArcticsystemmodels.

Oceanacidification• Increasedresearcheffortsareneededtodevelopcoordinatedandstandardised

methodsofmonitoringthatcanimprovethereliabilityofprojectionsofimpactsonmarineecosystems,especiallyfortheArctic.

• Theresearchcommunitycouldcontributetobridgeresearchgapsthroughinterdisciplinarystudiesandincreasedcooperationbetweenresearchcommunitiesandmarineresourceend-users.Researchinstitutescouldalsohelptoprovidemorelong-termplatformsforstakeholdernetworks.

Protectedareas• ThereareconsiderableknowledgegapsontheBalticSea,andhowitsbiodiversityis

affectedbyhumanpressures,e.g.pollution,over-fertilisation,fishingpressureandclimatechange.

• Addressingtheknowledgegapsonmarineissues,whichcontributestotheuncertaintyontheimpactsofclimatechangeprojections,wouldbenefitclimatechangeresearchatlarge.

• Theresearchcommunitycouldfurthercontributetothedesignofpolicystrategiesbyprovidingmoreinformationonpolicyneedsonthelocallevel,andgatheringinterdisciplinaryresearchcontributions.

Theme3:Sustainableuseofoceansandmarineresources

Blueeconomyandsustainablemanagementofmarineresources• Moreresearchisneededtodevelopconceptsrelatedtosustainablemarine

development,includingthe“blueeconomy”,sothattheseconceptscanserveasplatformsforadvancingabroadersetofobjectivesandgovernancepractices.



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• Tofosterprogressonoceansustainabilitytheresearchcommunitycouldcontributetosettingupframeworksandmechanismsbringingarangeofstakeholderstogether–e.g.researchers,privatesectorandpolicy-makers–topromotejointaction.

• Researcherscouldplayanimportantroleinbridgingpolicygapsforthehighseasbyresearchingdifferentgovernanceandsustainablemanagementregimes.

Overfishingandfisherysubsidies• Thereisaneedformorecoherentreportingmethodsontradeandconsumptionof

fishinSwedentopromoteresponsibleseafoodandfishconsumption.• Thesciencecommunitycouldfurthercontributetotheprotectionofoceans,including

addressingillegalfishinginthehighseasbyprovidingtechnologicalandinnovativesolutions,suchasinnovativesatellitemonitoringtools.

• Theuseandimplementationofmanagementplansofsustainablefisherywouldbenefitfromincreasedresearchefforts,e.g.developingtoolsfordecision-makingthatcananalysetrade-offsacrosssectors.



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1 IntroductionThisliteraturereviewformspartoftheprojectFormasAgenda2030,whichaimstoidentifyresearchneedsrelatedtothe17SustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)andtoexploreoptionsformakingstructuralchangesinresearchpolicyandfundingtofosterprogressontheSDGs.TheprojectinvolvesliteraturereviewsandexploratoryworkshopsfocusingonthreeSDGsasexamples:Goal12:ResponsibleConsumptionandProduction;Goal14:LifeBelowWater;andGoal17:PartnershipsfortheGoals.

ThisreviewpresentspreliminaryfindingsonresearchneedsforGoal14:LifeBelowWater.ItfocusesonthreethematicareascloselylinkedtoallseventargetsunderSDG14,namelya)marinepollution,b)oceanandclimateandc)sustainableuseofmarineandoceanresources.Theanalysisidentifiesresearchgapsinthethreethematicareasbutalsocross-cuttingissuessuchaslinkstootherSDGtargetsandthechallenges(andopportunities)ofbalancingsocial,economicandenvironmentaldimensionsofsustainabledevelopment,issueswhichareallcloselyinterlinkedtoSDG14.

InthecontextoftheSDGs,threedistinctrolesforscience,technologyandinnovationhavebeendefinedbyNilsson(Nilsson2016).1. characterisingthechallenges2. providingthesolutions,and3. strengtheningpublicinstitutionsandsociety.

Inthisreview,wefocusprimarilyonresearchneedsinrelationtothefirstandsecondroles,whereasthemainreportelaborateonthethirdroleaswell.Asanextensionofthisreview,analysiscouldbemadeofthecomparativepotentialofSwedishresearchtofillknowledgegapsatregionalandgloballevels.Furthermore,goodexamplesofSwedishresearchprojectsandcollaborationscouldbeidentified.However,thisgoesbeyondthecurrentscopeofthereview.

1.1 OverviewofthegoalsandtargetsForthisreview,ourpointofdeparturehasbeenthegoalanditsseventargets.Table1liststhetargetsandmeansofimplementationunderSDG14.Thisreviewdoesnotconsiderthemeansofimplementation.

Table2.OverviewofSustainableDevelopmentGoal14.Targetsinfocusareinbold.

SustainableDevelopmentGoal14:Conserveandsustainablyusetheoceans,seasandmarineresourcesforsustainabledevelopment

14.1By2025,preventandsignificantlyreducemarinepollutionofallkinds,inparticularfromland-basedactivities,includingmarinedebrisandnutrientpollution



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14.2 By2020,sustainablymanageandprotectmarineandcoastalecosystemstoavoidsignificantadverseimpacts,includingbystrengtheningtheirresilience,andtakeactionfortheirrestorationinordertoachievehealthyandproductiveoceans

14.3 Minimiseandaddresstheimpactsofoceanacidification,includingthroughenhancedscientificcooperationatalllevels

14.4

By2020,effectivelyregulateharvestingandendoverfishing,illegal,unreportedandunregulatedfishinganddestructivefishingpracticesandimplementscience-basedmanagementplans,inordertorestorefishstocksintheshortesttimefeasible,atleasttolevelsthatcanproducemaximumsustainableyieldasdeterminedbytheirbiologicalcharacteristics

14.5 By2020,conserveatleast10percentofcoastalandmarineareas,consistentwithnationalandinternationallawandbasedonthebestavailablescientificinformation

14.6

By2020,prohibitcertainformsoffisheriessubsidieswhichcontributetoovercapacityandoverfishing,eliminatesubsidiesthatcontributetoillegal,unreportedandunregulatedfishingandrefrainfromintroducingnewsuchsubsidies,recognisingthatappropriateandeffectivespecialanddifferentialtreatmentfordevelopingandleastdevelopedcountriesshouldbeanintegralpartoftheWorldTradeOrganizationfisheriessubsidiesnegotiation

14.7By2030,increasetheeconomicbenefitstoSmallIslanddevelopingStatesandleastdevelopedcountriesfromthesustainableuseofmarineresources,includingthroughsustainablemanagementoffisheries,aquacultureandtourism

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Increasescientificknowledge,developresearchcapacityandtransfermarinetechnology,takingintoaccounttheIntergovernmentalOceanographicCommissionCriteriaandGuidelinesontheTransferofMarineTechnology,inordertoimproveoceanhealthandtoenhancethecontributionofmarinebiodiversitytothedevelopmentofdevelopingcountries,inparticularsmallislanddevelopingStatesandleastdevelopedcountries

14b Provideaccessforsmall-scaleartisanalfisherstomarineresourcesandmarkets

14cEnhancetheconservationandsustainableuseofoceansandtheirresourcesbyimplementinginternationallawasreflectedinUNCLOS,whichprovidesthelegalframeworkfortheconservationandsustainableuseofoceansandtheirresources,asrecalledinparagraph158ofTheFutureWeWant

WefocusourreviewonthreethemesasmeansofgroupingtheSDGtargets:marinepollution(target14.1),oceanandclimate(target14.2,14.3and14.5)andthesustainableuseofmarineandoceanresources(target14.4,14.6and14.7).

1.2 MethodandapproachSDG14wasselectedasoneofthreeSDGsforwhichwetestthisreviewapproach.Thisreviewshouldthereforebeseenasafirstattempttoidentifyresearchneeds.Thescopeofthisstudydidnotallowforanexhaustiveorin-depthassessmentofthestateofknowledge.

ThefirststepwastoidentifykeythemesamongtheSDG14targetstofindbroaderknowledgeareasthatrelatetoseveraltargetsandasmeansofgroupingthetargets.Thecriteriaandapproachforselectingthesekeythemesaredescribedbelow.

Thesecondstepwastoconductaliteraturereview,toidentifyresearchneedsexplicitlyorimplicitlydefinedinexistingliterature.AkeychallengewasthatthebreadthoftheSDGand



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itstargetsmeansthatthereisaverywidescopeofscientificandgreyliteraturetocover.Forthisreason,thereviewprimarilysearchedscientificassessmentsandsynthesisreports.Basedonthesebroaderassessmentsandsyntheses,morein-depthknowledgeandanalysiswasgatheredthroughsearchesforspecificpeer-reviewedjournalarticles.Inadditiontoweb-basedsearches,relevantliteraturewasidentifiedthroughcontactswithexpertsand“snowballing”(usingthereferencelistofapaperorthecitationstothepapertoidentifyadditionalpapers).

Thethirdstepwastoorganiseanexpertworkshop,heldon3May2018inStockholm.Theworkshopincluded25expertsfromscience,policyandpractice.Thetaskoftheworkshopwastoidentifyhigh-priorityresearchneeds,basedonbutnotlimitedtopreliminaryfindingsoftheliteraturereview.Resultsfromtheworkshopareincorporatedinthisreview:researchgaps,suggestionsandinputfromworkshopparticipantsarereferredtodirectlyinthethemesections.Academicreferencesandliteraturesharedbyworkshopparticipantshasalsobeenaddedtotheliteraturereview.

Anumberofchallengesandlimitationsshouldbenotedonthemethodandapproachoftheliteraturereview.First,asmentioned,theSDGtargetsareverybroadandcovervastareasofknowledge,andexhaustivereviewsareinevitablydifficult.Second,despitetheirbreadth,theSDGtargetsarearesultofinternationalnegotiation,whichmeanstheymaynotalwaysreflectlocalornationalsustainabledevelopmentprioritiesandproblems,andtheremaythusstillbegapsfromlocalandnationalperspectives.

Athirdchallengewastoensurethatthetextisrelevantandaccessibletodifferenttargetgroups.Wehavetriedtostrikeabalancebetweenensuringplainlanguageandavoidingtechnicaltermssothattheanalysisisaccessibletopolicy-makers,andensuringthereisenoughscientificsubstancefortheanalysistobeofinterestforresearchersinthefield.Finally,ifasystematicliteraturereviewwasdoneinrelationtoSDG14,itseemshighlyplausiblethatitcouldbesubjecttopublicationbias,dataavailabilitybiasandreviewerselectionbias.Whilewedonotclaimtoprovideafullsystematicliteraturereview,thesecommontypesofbiasremindusthattwokeylimitationsmustbeemphasisedwhenconsideringtheresults:a)onlyalimitedpartoftherelevantliteraturehasbeenreviewed;andb)whenconsideringresearchgaps,wereporton“knownunknowns”ratherthan“unknownunknowns”.

1.3 IdentifyingkeythemesForallthreeSDGsreviewedinthisproject,thesamesetoffourcriteriawereappliedtoidentifykeythemesamongtargets.Thesecriteriaareasfollows:• Targetswherelackofknowledgeorresearchisnotacriticalbarrierwereexcluded

(e.g.,targetsforimplementingainternationalpoliticalagreement).• Targetswhichaddresssimilarissuesandshareaknowledgedomainwereclustered

together.• Insomecases,ouridentifiedthemesinterpretorexpandonthestatedtargets,namely

toa)adapttargetstoaSwedishcontext,andb)lookatthemoregeneralsustainabilityissuesimpliedbythegoalbutnotnecessarilyreflectedbythetargets.

• Insomecases,asmallerselectionoftargetswereprioritisedduetothelimitedscopeofandresourcesforourstudy.



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Inaddition,thefollowingconsiderationsinformedtheselectionofkeythemes:• Relevance:Themesshouldbeofrelevanceformultiplegovernancelevelsanddifferent

regions:e.g.national(Sweden),regional(Nordic,BalticSea)andglobal.• Links:ThemesshouldbecloselylinkedtoSDG14targetsbutalsolinkedtootherSDGs

(andideallyprogressonthethemewouldhaveimplicationsforAgenda2030morebroadly).

• Topical:Themesshouldrelatetotimelyand“topical”issueshighlightedinresearchplatforms.

Forthelastcriterionontopicalandtimelythemes,strategicguidancehasbeendrawnfromdiscourseintheinternationalcommunityonSDG14,includingthethematiccategorisationappliedbyresearchinstitutesinbackgrounddocuments,orpolicybriefings,ordeclarationspreparedforordeliveredatthe2017UNOceanConferenceinNewYorkandthereviewoftheSDGsattheHigh-levelPoliticalForumonSustainableDevelopment.Forexample,backgroundbriefingsanddeclarationsmadebytheGovernmentofSwedenattheOceanConferencehighlightedthree“criticalareas”:marinelitter,oceanandclimatechange,andsustainableblueeconomy.Followingthecriteriamentionedabovethefollowingthreethemeshavebeenselectedforthisanalysis.• Marinepollution• Oceanandclimate• Sustainableuseofmarineandoceanresources

Table3showshowtheSDG14targetscanbegroupedaccordingtothethreekeythemes.Table3.Targetsincludedundereachidentifiedkeytheme

Marinepollution Oceanandclimate Sustainableuseofmarineandoceanresources

14.1 14.2 14.4

14.3 14.6

14.5 14.7

2 Researchchallenges2.1 Oceans:everyone'sproblem,noone'sresponsibilityCoveringmorethan70%oftheworld’ssurfacetheeconomic,social,andenvironmentalimportanceoftheoceansandseascannotbeoverestimated.ThemarketvalueofmarineandcoastalresourcesandindustriesisestimatedatUS$3trillionperyear,orabout5%ofglobalGDP(UN2017a;CBD2016).Keyeconomicservicesderivedfromoceansincludetransportationofgoods,fisheriesandtourismbutalsopotentialnewusessuchasthe



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generationofrenewableenergyandminingofmaterials(ICSU2017).Furthermore,oceansareessentialforhumanwellbeingbothasasourceoffoodandlivelihood.Morethanthreebillionpeopledependontheoceansastheirprimarysourceofprotein,andmarinefisheriesdirectlyorindirectlyemployover200millionpeople(UN2017a).Furthermore,oceansandcoastalareasareestimatedtopartiallysupportabout75%oftheglobalpopulation,residinginthewidercoastalmargins.Furthermore,oceansalsohostthelargestconnectedecosystemwhichprovidesservicessuchasclimatestability,oxygengeneration,nutrientcyclingandfoodproduction.Oceansplayavitalroleinclimatechangemitigation,absorbingaboutathirdofcarbondioxideproducedbyhumans(ICSUandISSC2015).

Pressuressuchasclimatechangeandotherchangesbroughtaboutbyhumans,suchaspollution,areputtingthewellbeingoftheoceansandthustheprovisionofitsservicesatrisk.Inrecentyearsresearchhashelpedtoimproveawarenessoftheimportanceoftheecosystemservicesandresourcesoftheoceanstoallcountriesworldwide.Yetoceansandseashaveforalongtimenotbeenprioritisedininternationalforumsoronnationalagendas.Acentralchallengeisthetransboundarynatureofmarineresourcesandhumanpressureonoceans.Collectiveandcoordinatedactionbygovernmentsatsub-regionalandgloballevelisneededtoaddressissuessuchasmarinepollution(IASS2017).Intheabsenceofcoordinatedandenforcedregulations,unsustainableuseofoceanresourcesriskresultingina“tragedyofthecommons”.Theterm,firstintroducedbyGarrettHardin(1968),referstosituationswhereitisdifficultandcostlytoexcludepotentialusersfromcommon-poolresources.Asaconsequencethefiniteresourceswillbeexhaustedbyrational,utility-maximisingindividualsratherthanconservedforthebenefitofall(Ostrom2008).

Anotherfactorlikelytocontributetothelackofprioritisationisthatoceanshaveforalongtimebeenconsideredanexpertareaprimarilydiscussedbyscientistswhoaredisconnectedtothehigh-levelarenasofpolicy-making.Furthermore,afragmentedinstitutionalsystemforregulatingthemanagementofmarinenaturalresourcesundertheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(UNCLOS)hascontributedtoalackofcoherentfollow-uponnationalandglobaloceancommitments(IASS2017).Inrecentyearsanincreasedfocusonoceanshasbeennotedinhigh-levelprocessessuchasAgenda2030,thedevelopmentofanocean-specificSDG,the2017UNOceanConferenceonSDG14,andintheoceansreportsoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC).ThisshiftwasnotedbytheSwedishministerIsabellaLövinattheopeningoftheOceanConference:

“Forthefirsttime,thefullrangeofoceanissueswasraisedattheUNGeneralAssembly.Ithasmovedfrombeinganareaformarineandfisheriesexpertstoonethatconcernseveryone'ssurvival….Thesilomentalitythathasbeenthecurseoftheoceansisfinallybeginningtoerode.”(GOS2017).

Theincreasedinterestinoceansisalsoreflectedinincreasedinvestmentinoceanresearch,whichhasresultedinimproveddatacoverageandinanincreaseinthenumberofmarinescientistsandresearchandeducationbodies(ECESA2017).



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2.2 SDG14anditstargets:backgroundandformulationSDG14aimsto“Conserveandsustainablyusetheoceans,seasandmarineresourcesforsustainabledevelopment”.ProgressonSDG14andachievingsustainableuseanddevelopmentofoceansandmarineresourcesiscloselylinkedtotheunderlyingchallengeofAgenda2030,thatis,balancingthesocial,economicandenvironmentaldimensionsofsustainabledevelopment.Morespecifically,SDG14concernshowtobalancecompetingusesofwaterresourcesinanequitablemannerwhilemaintainingwaterqualityandensuringhealthyanddiverseecosystems(BerggrenandLymer2016).

Over-exploitationofoceansandmarineresourcesrisksnegativeimpactsonecosystemsinotherareasandjeopardisetheirabilitytomeetsocial,environmentalandeconomicdemands(ICSU2017).Allthreedimensionsofsustainabledevelopmentwouldthusinthelong-termgainfrommoreregulatedsustainablemanagementofoceansandtheirresources.Yetintheshort-run,sustainablemanagementriskssubstantialtrade-offs.Forexample,conservationmeasuresmayinsomecaseslimitoptionsforeconomicgrowth.ProgressonSDG14thusrequireswell-adaptedmanagementsplansformarineresources,atinternational,nationalandlocallevels,whichmitigatetensionsandbuildonsynergiesbetweenenvironmentalprotectionandsocialandeconomicusesofresources.

DifferentstakeholdersandforumstendtoemphasisedifferentaspectsofSDG14,whichshiftsthebalancebetweentheeconomic,socialandenvironmentaldimensions.ForexampleenvironmentaldimensionsofSDG14(e.g.protectionandmarinepollutionbutalsosustainablemanagementanddevelopmentoffisheries)wereemphasisedintheGovernmentofSweden’sreportingtotheHigh-levelPoliticalForumonSustainableDevelopment(HLPF)in2017(GOS2017).Ontheotherhand,manydevelopingcountriesemphasisethecross-cuttingrelationshipsbetweenthethreedimensions,includingsmallislanddevelopingstates,whereoceansandmarineresourcestendtoplayamorefundamentalroleinfinancial,socialandenvironmentalwellbeing(ECESA2017).AttheHLPFin2017,SDG14wasreviewedunderthethemeofpovertyreductionandprosperitypromotion,togetherwithgoalsonhunger,health,genderequality,industry,innovationandinfrastructure.Thisgroupingsuggestsanemphasisonoceansasasourceofincomeratherthanonconservationandenvironmentalprotection(BerggrenandLymer2016).IfSDG14hadbeenreviewedtogetherwithSDGsonecosystemsandclimatechangeitwouldhaveindicatedastrongerfocusontheenvironmentalandprotectiondimensionsofSDG14.

2.3 TheSDG14targets:relevanceandmeasurabilitySDG14anditsseventargetsbroadlyaddresshumaninteractionwith,andtheenvironmental,sustainableeconomicuseof,oceans,seasandmarineresources.Coastalzonesareincluded,asareconservationandprotectionofresourcesandsocialandinstitutionaldimensionsofoceangovernance(ICSU2017;ECESA2017).

Thegoalandtargetsareunderstoodtocoverdominantoceanindustriessuchasfisheriesandresourceextraction)whicharekeyinpromotingsustainabledevelopmentoftheocean(ICSU2017).Targets14.1(marinepollution),14.2(conservation)and14.4(overfishing)arejudgedtohavethestrongestscientificfoundationandtobethemostimportantoftheseventargets(ICSU2017).Furthermore,oneconstraintofthetargetsisthatwhiletheyfocusonexistingindustriesand“challenges”,theydonotanticipatefuturechallengesandissuesthatmay



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emergefollowingnewpotentialusesofoceanresources.Forexample,therearefewreferencestonewtechnologiessuchasbluecarbonandbioprospecting,whichareintendedtobeusedtoexploreoceanstodevelopnewproductsformarket.Suchtechnologiesimplylargerisks(ICSU2017).Someofthetargetswouldalsobenefitfromclearerwordingandbetterquantification;forinstancegoalsonequityorfairaccess,marinespatialplanningeffortsandimprovedgovernance/institutions(ICSU2017).Inaddition,tofosterthespiritofanindivisibleideaofAgenda2030,astrongeruseofoceanindicatorsinotherSDGswouldhavebeendesirable(ICSU2017).

Animportantconstraintonthemeasurabilityandfollow-upofSDGtargetsonaglobalandregionallevelistheabsenceofstandardisedmonitoringapproaches.Forexample,measuringandcomparingmarinepollutionofmicroplasticbetweenregionsisdifficultwithoutastandardisedmeasure.LimitedabilitytocomparedevelopmentsbetweenregionsconstrainsglobaleffortstokeeptrackofprogresstowardsSDG14(ICSU2017).ThethematicreviewofSDG14forthe2017HLPFidentifiedanimportantneedforincreasedinternationalcollaborationandnetworksforoceanmonitoring.Themonitoringandinformationgapsareparticularimportantfortarget14.3onacidificationandclimatechange(ECESA2017).

StatisticsSweden(SCB)foundthatmostoftheSDG14targetsarerelevantforSweden(SCB2017).Swedenhasalreadymetseveralofthetargets.Theglobaltargettoconserveatleast10%ofcoastalandmarineareasby2020wasmetbytheSwedishGovernmentin2017(GOS2017).SCBstressesthevalueofandpotentialtodeveloplonger-termindicatorsforSDG14,albeitwithoutprovidinganyconcretesuggestions(SCB2017).

ApossiblereasonwhySwedeniswellpositionedtodeliveronSDG14couldbethatmarinelifeandoceanissuesaremainstreamedtoasubstantialextentinnationalenvironmentpriorities.Forexample,the16environmentalqualityobjectiveswhichSwedenadoptedin1999includeabalancedmarineenvironmentandzeroeutrophication.AmappingexerciseoftheenvironmentalqualityobjectivesandtheSDGsfindsastrongconnectionbetweenfiveoftheobjectivesandthreeoftheSDG14targets(HelkerLundström2017).

2.4 SDG14interactionswithothergoalsandtargetsSDG14isrecognisedashavingacross-cuttingroleinAgenda2030.Conservationandsustainableuseoftheoceanisexpectedtohavepositive(largelyindivisible,reinforcingandenabling)interactionswithotherSDGgoals(ECESA2017).Thenatureandstrengthoftheseinteractionsaredynamicandcontext-specificandcanrangefromsynergistictoopposedinterdependencies.Abetterunderstandingoftheseinteractionswouldhelpinexploringsynergiesanddevelopingmethodsformitigatingnegativeimpacts(Weitzetal.2017;ICSU2017).Belowisabriefoverviewofsomekeyinteractionsbetweentargets,identifiedonagloballevel.

SDGs6,7and11

SDG6onwaterandsanitationisstronglylinkedtoSDG14onissuessuchaswaterqualityandwaterresourcesmanagement.Morespecifically,waterusesanddevelopmentsupstreamonlandandalongriversriskimpactingonecosystemsdownstreamincoastalzonesandmarineenvironments(BerggrenandLymer2016).Othergoalswhichriskimplyingsignificant



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downstreameffectsincludeaccesstoenergy(SDG7)andpromotingsustainableurbanandindustrialdevelopment(SDG11).

SDGs1,2,8and12

Becauseofthehugeeconomicandsocialvalueofhealthyoceans,bothasasourceoffoodandincome,progressonSDG14isexpectedtocontributetopovertyalleviation(SDG1),hunger(SDG2)andeconomicgrowth(SDG8).Atthesametime,therearerisksthatprogressonmeasuresforprotectingmarineareascouldconstrainaccesstoresourcesthatareimportantforpovertyalleviationandeconomicgrowth(ICSU2017;ECESA2017).Furthermore,effortstoachieveSDG2(e.g.doublingofincomesforsmall-scaleproducers),riskputtingadditionalpressureonthewellbeingofoceanecosystemsandincreasedownstreameffectsoflanduseonmarineecosystems(ICSU2017).Progressonsustainableconsumption(SDG12)isvitalforaddressingkeychallengesforSDG14,suchasmarinepollution.

SDGs13and15

Workoncombatingclimatechange(SDG13)andprotectingecosystems(SDG15)needstobeintegratedwithSDG14.Progressonthesegoalswouldbemutuallyreinforcing,becauseprogressinrestoringandprotectingthehealthofoceansandmarineresourceswouldcontributetostrongerresilienceandgreatercapacitytoadapttoclimatechange(ICSU2017;ECESA2017).

SDG16

Efficientmanagementofoceanandmarineresourcesreliesoneffective,accountableinstitutionsandparticipatorydecision-making,whichimpliesstronglinksbetweenSDG16andSDG14.Morespecifically,progressontheconservationandsustainableuseofoceanresourcesisstronglylinkedtoprogressoneffortstoenforceandstrengthenregulatoryframeworks,forexamplebytacklingillegal,unregulatedandunreportedfisheriesandthereductionofcorruptionandbribery(ICSU2017).

IntheSEIFormasworkshoponSDG14participantshighlightedthatinadditiontoconsideringtrade-offsbetweengoalsitisimportanttorecognisethatstakeholdersareaffectedbyprogressontheSDGsindifferentways.Unevenpowerbalancesonaninternationallevel,forexamplebetweendevelopedcountriesandsmallislanddevelopingstates,affectstates’abilitytoinfluenceglobalpolicy-makinglinkedtoAgenda2030.Furthermore,thereisariskthatunevenpowerrelationsonnationalandsectorlevelsbetweenstakeholderswithcompetinginterestsanddemandsformarineresources,suchasbetweenindustrialfishingcompaniesandsmall-scalefishers,willleadtoSDGgoalsandtargetsbeingpursuedprimarilyinlinewiththeprioritiesofstrongerinterestgroups.Thereisaneedformorecomprehensiveandinclusivesocio-economic,politicalandenvironmentalassessmentstodeepenunderstandingofpotentialtrade-offs,andinsteadpromoteequitybetweenstakeholderswithcontradictorydemandsonmarineresourcesandtheimplementationoftheSDGs.Moreinformationononepotentialtooltosupportsuchassessments–ecosystemservicesmapping–isprovidedinsection5.1onsustainablemanagementofmarineresources.



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3 Keytheme1:marinepollutionMarinepollutionisacomplexenvironmentalproblem.Thepathwayoflittertotheseainvolvespollutingactivitiesinmanysectorsbasedonlandandsea.AddressingmarinepollutionisthuscloselylinkedtoachievementsinwasteandlittermanagementacrosssectorsaswellasprogressinotherSDGs(SwAM2017).Target14.1andassociatedindicatorsstressinparticulartheproblemofplasticdebrisandnutritionpollution,linkedtoeutrophication.AnissuewhichisnotmentionedunderSDG14butcouldbecomeamorepressingissueinthemediumtermisbrownification,whichcurrentlyprimarilyaffectsthequalityoffreshwaterbutwhichisalsolinkedtooceans’wellbeing.Underthemarinepollutiontheme,theanalysiswillfocusonthefollowingfourareas:• Marinelitter• Microplastics• Eutrophication• Brownification.

3.1 MarinelitterMarinelitter(alsocalledmarinedebris)isdefinedaswastedischargedbyhumansintocoastalormarineenvironments,resultingfromactivitiesonlandoratsea.Marinelitterisrecognisedasacross-sectoralandtransboundaryproblem.Sourcesandpathwaysofmarinelitterarediversewhichmakesitdifficulttoestimateexactquantitiesandroutes.Ingeneral,around80%ofmarinelitterworldwideisestimatedtooriginatefromland-basedsourceswhiletheremaining20%comefromsea-basedsources(Eunomia2016).Thelion’sshareofmarinelitterconsistsofplastics,whichisduetothelarge-scaleuseofplasticsandtheirdurabilityandpersistenceintheenvironment(Ryanetal.2009)(Ryanetal2009).Thequantitiesofplasticlitteremittedtotheoceansareparticularlyhighfordevelopingcountries.Morespecifically,83%ofthe4.8–12.7milliontonsofland-basedplasticwastewhichendsupintheoceansoriginatesfrom20developingcountries,withChina,IndonesiaandthePhilippinesemittingthemost.Akeycharacteristicofthelargestmarinepollutersisthelackofafunctioningwastemanagementsystem(Löhretal.2017;Jambecketal.2015).Coastalandmarinelitteralsoaffectsdevelopedcountries.FortheEUthepotentialcostofcleaningcoastsandbeachesofmarineandcoastallitterwasassessedatalmost€630millionperyear.Thecostofmarinelittertothefishingindustryhasbeenestimatedat€60millionperyear,representing1%oftotalrevenuesoftheEUfishingfleetin2010.Thequickaccumulationanddisseminationofmarinelittermakesitoneofthefastestgrowingthreatstothewellbeingoftheworld'soceans(EC2018).InSwedenthenorthernpartsofthewestcoastareparticularlyaffectedbymarinelitterandidentifiedasoneoftheworstaffectedareasinEurope.Researchonmarinelitterhighlightstheenvironmentalchallengesbutalsothelargeeconomiccostsofinefficientusesofmaterialandwaste(SwAM2017).Onaregionallevelmarinelitterisarathernewareaofresearch,butanincreasedamountofworkisongoingwithinthetwoRegionalSeaConventions,OSPARfortheNorth-EastAtlanticandHELCOM(TheBalticMarineEnvironmentProtectionCommission)fortheBaltic,aswellasintheEUandtheMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective.



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ProgressontheSDGtargetonmarinelitteriscloselylinkedtoprogressonotherSDGtargets,morespecificallytountreatedwastewater(SDG6),wastemanagementinsustainablecities(SDG11),reductionaswellasrecyclingandreuseofwaterwaste(SDG12).Progressonthesetargetshoweverrequirescollectiveactionsamongalargeanddiversesetofactorsrepresentingdifferentinterestsacrosssectorsandscales(Löhretal.2017).ResearchgapsThescientificunderstandingoftheproblemofmarinelitterandtherangeofeffectivesolutionshassignificantlyincreasedinrecentyears.Yetmanyknowledgegapsremainonthesources,pathwaysandeffectsofmarinelitterontheenvironment(Löhretal.2017;SwAM2017).Inadditiontofurtherresearcheffortsinassessingtheselinks,theresearchcommunitycouldalsomoresystematicallyassesspossibleinterventionstocontributetothedesignanddevelopmentofpoliciesandcoordinatedactionacrosssectorsandscales.Furthermore,becauseeffective,efficientandlegitimateactionsrequireathoroughunderstandingofthelocalgovernancecontext,academiacouldalsocontributebyproducingmorecasestudiesandcomparativestudies.Specifically,thesestudiescouldcontributetoabetterunderstandingoftheunderlyingandcontextualfactorsthatexplainwhycertainpoliciesandlegalinstitutionsaimingtopreventmarinepollutionaremoresuccessfulinonecontextthaninanother(Löhretal.2017).ParticipantsattheSEIFormasworkshophighlightedthattheproblemofchemicalpollutionmustbeaddressedifprogressonhealthyoceansistobemade.ChemicalsandwastemanagementarelinkedtootherSDGtargetsunderhealthandwellbeingtargets(3.9)andsustainableconsumption(12.4)butnotspecificallymentionedunderSDG14.Yetworkshopparticipantsidentifiedimportantresearchneedsonpharmaceuticalresiduesimpactonmarineorganismsandhumans,nottheleastofendocrinedisruptors.Thecombinedeffectofthesesubstancesandotherhuman-inducedstressfactorsonmarineorganismsandecosystemsisanotherareaoflimitedknowledge.Workshopparticipantsalsostressedtheneedformoresystematicreviewofglobaluse,releaseanddispersionofchemicalsanddangeroussubstancestooceansandseas.Workshopexpertsalsohighlightedtheneedtoaddressthecross-sectoralaspectsofmarinelitterbyapplyingtransdisciplinaryresearchapproaches.Marinesciencecanonitsownnotsolvetheproblemofmarinelitter,especiallyplastics,insteadstrongcollaborationisneededwithkeypollutingsectors,suchasfoodmanufacturingandprocessingsystems.

3.2 MicroplasticsPlasticsarelightweight,durableandcheap,yetplasticisamostwidelyusedproduct.Yetderivedprimarilyfrompetrochemicalsandcomposedofnon-biodegradablematerial,plasticsconstitutesatthesametimeasignificantenvironmentalthreat(Ryanetal.2009).Theglobalproductionofplastichasincreasedrapidlyinthepast50years.Between2004and2014thetotalproductionofplasticincreasedby28%toatotalof300millionmetrictonsperyear(WorldwatchInstitute2015).Plasticlitterenterstheseaindifferentshapesandsizesbutisgraduallybrokendownintosmallerpieces.Inscientificliteraturemarinelitterandplasticis



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dividedintofourdifferentsizeclasses:micro-,meso-,macro-andmega-debris(MooraandPiirsalu2016;Löhretal.2017).Theproblemofmicroplasticsinthemarineenvironmentisincreasinglyrecognised,bothbypolicy-makersandtheresearchcommunity,aswellasthegeneralpublic.Thenumberofpeer-reviewedarticlesonmicroplasticsmorethandoubledbetween2012and2016.Asearchon“microplastic”and“effects”onWebofSciencegeneratedtotal180publishedarticlesbetween1985and2015(Kärrmanetal.2016).Researchhascontributedtoabetterunderstandingoftheprocessofhowplastics,duetoexposuretoultravioletlightaswellascurrentsandwavesatsea,degradeovertimeintosmallerparticles.Theparticlesactasmagnets,attractingandcarryingbacteriaandvariouscontaminantswhichnegativelyaffectorganismsandbringingariskthatthesewillmoveupthefoodchaintohumans.TheannualdietaryexposureforEuropeanshellfishconsumersisestimatedto11000microplasticfragmentsperyear.However,duetothecomplexityofestimatingmicroplastictoxicityitiscurrentlynotpossibletoestimatetherisksthisexposureimpliesforhumanhealth(VanCauwenbergheandJanssen2014).Improvedawarenessofthepotentialrisksofmicroplasticshasresultedinanincreaseddemandformitigatingmeasures.Policy-makersinSwedenandEurope,andalsotheUSandotherpartsoftheworld,haverecentlybroughtintoforce,orareintheprocessofdesigning,policiesaimingtobanproductsthatcontainmicroplastics,suchassometypesofcosmetics(Östersjöcentrum2015).StudiesinDenmarkandGermanyhoweverestimatethatonlyaminorshare–0.1–0.3%,whichequatesto66tonsperyear–ofemissionsofmicroplasticsoriginatesfromcosmeticproducts(KEMI2016).ByfarthelargestsourceofemissionsfromSwedenisroadwearandabrasionsofvehicletyres,withemissionsestimatedat8190tonsperyear(IVL2016).ResearchgapsAnumberofresearchgapsonmicroplasticspersist.Forexample,inordertodevelopefficientpolicies,moreinformationisneededonthepathwaysofmicroplasticsparticlestothesea.Thisinformationisneededtobridgethegapbetweentheamountsofmicroplasticsestimatedonthebasisofemissionsourceandactuallevelsfoundintheseainfielddata(IVL2016).Moreresearchisalsoneededontheimpactofmicroplasticsonindividualorganismsandpopulationsoforganisms,aswellasonhumans(Kärrmanetal.2016).However,bridgingeitheroftheseresearchgapsischallenging,notleastduetothedifficultyofdesigningexperimentswhichcandistinguishplastic-specificimpactsfromimpactscausedbyotherparticles(Ogonowskiaetal.2018).InSwedenthereisstrongdemandformoreknowledgeonmicroplasticsasinputtodevelopingpoliciesandmeasurestotackletheissue.Yetthecomplexityofconductingresearchonmicroplasticsmakesitdifficultfortheresearchcommunitytorespondtotimeboundpolicy-makingprocesses.Thisisillustratedbythebanonpersonalhygieneproductscontainingplasticmicrobeads,whichwillenterintoforceon1July2018inSweden.TheSwedishChemicalsAgency(KEMI)arguedthatalthoughmoreresearchisneededontheoriginsandpathwaysofmicroplasticsenteringthesea,theexistingresearchknowledgewassufficientforimplementingthesuggestedban.Thecostofwaitingforfurtherscientificinformationintermsofdelayedpolicyimplementationwasconsideredtoohigh.Moreresearchwashoweverrecommendedbeforeadditionalmeasuresaddressingothersourcesofmicroplasticsisdeveloped(KEMI2016).



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InamorerecentstudybyKEMIonmicroplasticsinproductsnotcoveredbytheupcomingban,researchgapswereidentifiedforthesmallestmicroplasticparticlesandtheeffectsoftheirpossibletransmissionthroughwastewatercollectionandtreatmentplantstotheoceanaswellastocroplandthroughtheapplicationofsludgeforfertiliser(KEMI2018).Furthermore,currentlythereisnointernationallyagreeddefinitionofmicroplasticsintermsofsizes,andcharacteristicssuchassolubilityanddegradability.Thelackofajoint,clearandprecisedefinitionconstrainsthedevelopmentofregulations,nottheleastforsectorsandcompaniesworkingininternationalmarkets.KEMIidentifiesaneedforSwedishinvolvementattheEUorgloballevelinajointdefinitionofmicroplastics(KEMI2018).Onregionalandgloballevelstheprospectsfordesigningmeasuresandmanagementstrategiesonmicroplasticsisconstrainedbythelackofastandardisedglobalmonitoringprogramme.Standardisedmethodsforsamplingandanalysingmarinemicroplasticsformonitoringpurposesisthusidentifiedasastrategicareaforfurtherresearchatnational,regionalandgloballevels(Kärrmanetal.2016;SwAM2017).

3.3 EutrophicationNutritionpollution,especiallyfromnutrientssuchasnitrogenandphosphorus,enteringoceansandseasisawidespreadandgrowingproblem.Nutrientover-enrichmentcauseseutrophication,whichisaprocessthatcausesstructuralchangestoecosystems,includingelevatedlevelsofalgalblooms,deteriorationofwaterquality,oxygendepletionandchangesinspeciescomposition.Themainsourcesofnutritionpollutionareagriculture,wastewaterandfossilfuels.Themainpathwaysofnutrientstotheseasincludeatmosphericdepositionofnitrogenanddirectwaterbornedischarges,eitherfromcoastalactivitiesorships(HELCOM2014;UN2017b).SwedenishighlyaffectedbyeutrophicationintheBalticSea,bothonanationalandregionallevel.In2013theentireopenBalticSeawasassessedasbeingaffectedbyeutrophication(HELCOM2014).Thisindicatesthatmeasurestakentoreduceexternalinputsofnitrogenandphosphorustotheseahavenotyethadthedesiredimpactoneutrophication.ResearchgapsComparedwithotherrelatedissuestherearecomparativelyfewevaluationsofmeasurestakentoreduceflowsofnitrogenandphosphorusintoseasandoceans.Notonlyisthereastrongneedformoreresearchtoreviewtheeffectivenessofexistingmeasures,butalsotoexplorenewmitigationactivities(Grimvalletal.2017).AsurveyofthecurrentstateofscientificknowledgeontheBalticSeaidentifiedresearchgapsinthebiogeochemicalcyclesoftheeutrophicationprocess.Morespecifically,bigresearchgapswereidentifiedforassessingtheeffectivenessofpotentialmitigationmeasuresofnutritionpollutionfromagricultureandotherland-basedactivities,aswellasonthecapacityofthecoastalzonetoserveasanatural“filter”,byretainingnutrientsthroughsedimentation(RolffandNekoro2013).Anotherpotentialrolefortheresearchcommunityistocontributetothedevelopmentoftoolsandplatformswhichcanfacilitatecollaborationbetweenstakeholdersinvolvedintheproductionandconsumptionchainofnutrientproducts.Tofostercollectiveaction,agreatereffortisneededtoidentifycommongoalsandjointinterestsinreducingmarineeutrophication,forexamplebytechniquesfornutrientrecyclingthathavecommercialvalue(Grimvalletal.2017).



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3.4 Brownification/browningLakesandriversintheNorthernHemispherehavethelast50yearsexperiencedproblemsofthewatergettingdarker.Thephenomenaiscalledbrowningorbrownificationandislinkedtoincreasesinconcentrationsofdissolvedorganiccarbon(DOC)(Sonesten2010).Browninghasanegativeimpactonwaters’ecosystemservices.Researcheffortshavesofarprimarilyfocusedonfreshwater,butmorerecentresearchwarnsofgrowingpressureonmarineenvironmentsasbrownifiedfreshwaterjoinsoceanandseawater.Morespecifically,studiesestablishaconnectionbetweenincreasedamountsofDOCandhumicsubstancesandincreasesinnutritionpollutionfromphosphorousandotherminerals(Sonesten2010).Arecentreportidentifiedincreaseduseoflandintheforestryindustry,especiallyforfirtreeplantation,andchangesinacidificationlevelspossiblylinkedtolimingoflakes,askeycontributingfactorstoincreasedlevelsofDOCintheBalticSeaandincoastalandmarineecosystems.Furthermore,thereportpointstouncertaintyabouttheimpactofbrownificationonmarineecosystems.Results,however,suggestthatincreasesofDOCinmarineecosystemsdonotonlyaffectthequalityofwaterbutalsonutrientturnoverandspeciescomposition(Svedängetal.2018).ResearchgapsThedesignofmeasurestopreventbrownificationisconstrainedbylimitedknowledgeonitsunderlyingcauses(Monteithetal.2007;Sonesten2010).Inordertoidentifypreventivemeasures,moreresearchisneededonpollutingfactors,aswellplatformsforstakeholderconsultations,involvingtheforestindustry,localandregionalauthorities(länsstyrelsen),wateragenciesanduniversities(Svedängetal.2018).Moreresearchisalsoneededonassessingtheimpactsonmarineecosystemsforexampleimpactsonplanktonandthefoodchain,forexamplelinkstothiaminedeficiency.ArecentcomprehensivereviewofSwedishstudiesonbrownificationbytheSwedishEnvironmentalResearchInstitute(IVL)investigateschangesintheamountofDOCusingdatafromthepast30years.ThereporthighlightsaneedformoreresearchintothelinksbetweenDOCcontentandacidificationinordertoimproveacidificationassessmentsofSwedishlakesandstreams(Stadmark,etal.2017).

3.5 SummaryofidentifiedresearchgapsformarinepollutionMarinelitter• Theresearchcommunitycouldcontributetothedesignanddevelopmentofpolicies

andcoordinatedactionacrosssectorsandscalesthroughsystematicassessmentsofpotentialinterventions.

• Casestudiesandcomparativestudiesofdifferentpolicymeasuresonmarinelittercancontributetopolicy-makingbyprovidingabetterunderstandingoffactorsexplainingwhysomepoliciessucceedandothersdonot.

Microplastics



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• Therearesignificantresearchgapsonthepathwaysofmicroplasticsparticlestothesea,aswellasontheimpactofmicroplasticsonindividualorganisms,populationsoforganisms,andonhumans.

• InSweden,policy-makingprocessesanddesignofadditionalpreventivemeasuresaddressingthemainsourcesofmicroplasticsemissiontotheenvironmentneedstobesupportedbyfurtherresearch.

• Atregionalandgloballevels,astandardisedglobalmonitoringprogrammeformicroplasticsinfreshwaterandmarineecosystemsisneeded.

Eutrophication• Moreresearchisneededtoassesstheeffectivenessofexistingmeasures,andto

explorenewmitigationactivitiesfornutritionpollutionandeutrophication,includingfortheBalticSea.

• Theresearchcommunitycanhavearoletoplayindevelopingplatformstosupportcollectiveactionbetweenstakeholdersinvolvedintheproductionandconsumptionchainofnutritionproducts.

Brownification• Moreresearchisneededtoidentifytheunderlyingcausesofbrownification,andfor

creatingplatformsthatpromotepreventivemeasuresdevelopedjointlybystakeholdersacrosssectors,includingtheforestryindustry.

• Thereareknowledgegapsontheimpactsofbrownificationonmarineecosystems,forexampleonplanktonandthefoodchain(e.g.linksbetweenbrownificationandthiaminedeficiency).

• InSweden,moreresearchonthelinksbetweendissolvedorganiccarbon(DOC)contentandacidificationisneededtoimproveassessmentsofacidificationinSwedishlakesandstreams.

4 Keytheme2:oceanandclimateResearchersandpolicy-makershavebeenawareofclimatechangeandglobalwarmingformorethan60years.However,theroleandimpactoftheoceansinclimatechangehaslongbeenneglected(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).Inrecentyearsthescientificcommunityhasgivenmoreattentiontoissuesrelatedtooceansandclimatechange,suchasoceanacidificationandoceanwarming.Thisresearchhasincreasedawarenessofhowclimatechangeandotherhuman-inducedstressesfactorsareputtingtheecosystemservicesofoceansatrisk.Theconsequencesofdisruptedoceanecosystemswouldnotonlyhavesignificantconsequencesonmarineorganisms,itwouldalsoseverelyimpactcountriesandhumansonlocalandgloballevel.(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).Furthermore,inanattempttoputaneconomicvalueoftheecosystemservicesprovidedbyoceans,coastalandmarineresourcesareestimatedtocontributeUS$28trillionannuallytotheglobaleconomy(ESCUN2017).Thisreviewofresearchgapsonoceanandclimatefocusesonthefollowingthreeissues:• oceanwarming• acidification• marineprotection.



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4.1 OceanwarmingOceanwarminghasbeenreferredtoaspossibly“thegreatesthiddenchallengeofourgeneration”(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).Despitethekeyroleoceansplayinprovidingecosystemservicessuchasmitigatingglobalwarming,oceanwarminghasnotbeenaprioritisedresearcharea.Oceansarehighlyaffectedbyglobalwarming:thespeedofwarmingintheoceanisestimatedtohappenbetween1.5and5timesfasterthanonland.Morethan93%ofthewarmingsincethe1970scausedbyhumanactivitieshasbeenabsorbedbytheocean,anddatasuggestaworryingacceleratingupwardtrendinoceanwarming.Itispredictedthatoceanwarmingwillbringirreversiblechangeswithsignificantimpactsonecosystems(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).Oceansandseasindifferentregionsarereactingdifferentlytoglobalwarming.Forexample,anaverageglobalincreaseof2˚Cisexpectedtoimplya3.5to5˚CincreaseintheArctic(LaffoleyandBaxter2016;Schlosseretal.2016).Oceanwarming,butalsooceanacidification,isstronglylinkedtoclimatechange.Thismeansthataddressingandmitigatingtheirnegativeimpactsisstronglytiedtoprogressontheimplementationofinternationalclimateagreements(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).Althoughmoreresearchcanimproveknowledgeandhelpmakebetterclimatechangeprojections,progressontheseinternationalagreementsisprimarilyaquestionofpoliticalwill.ResearchgapsTheArctichasbeencalled“adesertasfarasresearchisconcerned”(Gascard2018).ThereisincreasedknowledgeontheglobalservicesprovidedbytheArctic,suchasreflectivityofsolarradiation,storageofcarboninpermafrost,orstorageofglacialice(whichpreventssealevelrise).Yettherearesubstantialuncertaintyandknowledgegapsinestimatingthelonger-termimpactofasignificanttemperatureincreaseintheArctic,notonlyintheArcticitself,butalsoatregionalandglobalscales(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).ArecentreportontheArcticidentifiestheneedforapan-ArcticresearchactionplanforobservationsystemsandthedevelopmentofspecificArcticsystemmodels,includinganearlywarningsystem(Schlosseretal.2016).Greatercapacityinmodellingtoenablecontinuousre-estimatesoftheincreasedrisksconnectedtooceanwarmingandotherstressorsisanotherareawheremoreresearchisneeded(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).Arcticresearchisalsoparticularlyaffectedbyissuesinmodellingandaccuracyinpredictions.Duetologisticalchallengesorhighcostsofconductingwaterobservations,Arcticresearchisevenmoredependentonrobustmodelprojections.Anotherconstrainthighlightedbyresearchersisweakinformation-sharingbetweenobservationprojects(Isaksen2018;Mayer2017).Researchersarealsoexperiencingdifficultiesinsecuringgovernmentfundingforlong-termobservationresearchprojects,whichisneededtoseparatesemi-seasonalfluctuationsfromvariationscausedbyclimatechangechange.Inaddition,thereisadisincentiveforresearcherstoengageinmorelong-termresearchprojectsbecauseofacademicpressuretocontinuouslyproducearticles(Mayer2017).Atthegloballevel,acomprehensiveliteraturereviewonoceanglobalwarmingbytheInternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)underlinesthatresearchoftenfocusesontheimpactsonspecificspecies,whereasfewstudiesprovideanoverviewofimpactsacrossspeciesandecosystem(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).



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4.2 OceanacidificationOceanacidificationhasinrecentyearsgainedincreasedattentionintheresearchcommunity.Thenumberofscientificpapersincreasedby35%peryearbetween2000and2013comparedtoanincreaseof4.8%peryearforallscientificfields(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).OceanacidificationreferstoareductioninthepHoftheoceanoveranextendedperiod.Theprocessiscausedprimarilybyuptakeofcarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere(IPCC2014).Observationssuggeststhatacidificationaffectsindividualspeciesandecosystems,includingtheirprovisionofecosystemservices.AsseawaterpHdrops,theavailabilityofcalciumcarbonatedeclineswhichmakesitdifficultfororganismstofixtheirshells,aphenomenawhichisalreadyaffectingcoralreefs(Gattusoetal.2014).ChangesinpHarealsoexpectedtoaffectoceans’abilitytoabsorbCO2,whichisakeyecosystemserviceformitigatingclimatechange.Oceansareestimatedtoabsorbupto30%ofCO2emissionsintheatmosphere(IPCC2014).Furthermore,asCO2dissolvesmoreincolderwater,oceanacidificationisexpectedtoprogressmorerapidlyintheArcticandAntarctic(AMAP2013).OceanacidificationisalsopredictedtoseverelyaffecttheBalticSeaduetothelowbufferingcapacityofthesystem(Hjalmarssonetal.2008).InSwedensubstantialresourceshavebeendevotedtoresearchandpolicymeasuresonacidificationinfreshwater.Theconnectionbetweenfossil-fuelemissionsandacidicrainscausingacidificationinlakeswereprovenin1960s.Thelowlimestone“concentration”inScandinaviangeologylimitstheabilityoflakestoneutraliseacidrain.Atthepeakoftheproblemin1990,17%ofSweden’slakes(16000)wereaffectedbyacidification(HaV2015).Since1970limehasbeenaddedtoSwedishlakes.Reviewsofthislarge-scaleenvironmentprotectionmeasurearepositive.After13to16yearsofliming,thefishstockintreatedlakeshasgoneuptonormallevels(HaV2015).ResearchgapsOnagloballeveltheevidencebaseisconsideredstrongenoughforscientiststodrawsomepreliminaryconclusionsonoceanacidificationwithvariouslevelsofconfidence.Atthesametimeconsiderableresearchgapsonoceanacidificationremain(IGBPetal.2013).Toimprovethecapacityofmakingreliableprojectionsoftheimpactsonmarineecosystems,includingtheirabilitytoadapttoacidification,increasedresearcheffortsareneededtodevelopcoordinatedandstandardisedmethodsofmonitoring.Theresearchcommunitycouldalsoplayanenhancedroleinfosteringcoordinatedglobalnetworksofmarineexperimental,observationandmodellingresearch(IGBPetal.2013).ParticipantsattheSEIFormasworkshophighlightedaneedforamorecomprehensiveunderstandingofoceans’abilitytoabsorbCO2andserveasacarbonsink.AsoneoftheleastresearchedregionsoftheworldmostoftheassumptionsabouttheArctic’secosystemaredrawnfromresearchfindingsfromotheroceansystems.Thissuggeststhatresearchgapsonacidificationareaparticularconcernintheregion,particularlyintermsofitsimpactsonArcticspeciesandecosystems,anditseffectswhenitcombineswithotherenvironmentalstressors(AMAP2013).TheArcticMonitoringandAssessmentProgrammeproposedfillingthisknowledgegapsthroughinterdisciplinarystudiesonoceanacidificationandincreasedcooperationbetweenresearchcommunitiesandmarineresourceend-users,



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includingfishersandindigenouspeoples(AMAP2013).Increasedinteractionbetweenresearchersandotherstakeholdersisexpectedtohelpmakebetterlinksbetweenscientificenvironmentalfindingsandsocialandeconomicissues(Schlosseretal.2016).Inaddition,moreresearchisneededtoaddresschallengestomulti-stakeholdercollaboration,notonlytoovercomephysicaldistancebutalsotoaddresscommunicationbarriersbetweenstakeholdersaswellasamongresearchersofdifferentdisciplines(Gascardetal.2017).Researchinstitutescouldalsohelptoprovidemorelong-termplatformsforstakeholdernetworks,andthusavoidnetworksbeingdisruptedattheendofaprojectcycle(Gascard2018).Multi-disciplinaryresearch,aswellashelpingtofillexistingknowledgegapsmoresystematicallybyintegratingexistingknowledge,couldalsoprovideguidanceonwhatresearchgapsdifferentdisciplinescouldfocusontogeneratebenefitsforotherresearchfields(Gascardetal.2017).Atthesametimechallengestotransdisciplinaryresearchneedtobeacknowledgedandaddressed.Forexample,withoutanintegratedsystemforcollectingdata,socio-economicandbiogeophysicaldataisoftennotcompatible.Furthermore,researchcallsarerarelyadaptedtointer-disciplinaryresearchprojectsintermsofbudgets,timelinesandintheassessmentprocess(Crépinetal.2017;Crépin2018).Researchersalsoidentifyweakacademicincentivesasaconstraintonmulti-disciplinaryresearchprojects.Asresearchersareprimarilyassessedbytheirproductivityintermsofpublishedarticles,itisoftenmorestrategicforresearcherstostaywithintheirareaofexpertiseinsteadofinvestingtimeandeffortsininteractingwithotherdisciplines(Ekman2018).PolarresearchishighlightedintheSwedishresearchpolicybill,whichwillguideresearchprioritiesforthecomingtenyears(Utbildningsdepartementet2016).SwedenisconsideredtohavecomparativeadvantagesforresearchinthepolarregionbecauseofitsmembershipintheArcticCouncil,thequalityofSwedishresearch,andbecauseitisviewedasaneutralactorwithoutanyterritorialclaimsineithertheArcticorAntarctic(Björck2018).

4.3 ProtectedareasBiodiversityandconservationwereforalongtimeanmainlythepreserveofenvironmentalexperts.However,inrecentyearstheconnectionbetweenmarinelifeprotectionandthebroaderdevelopmentandenvironmentalagendahasgainedgreaterattentionbothintheresearchcommunityandamongpolicy-makers,notleastinthecontextofAgenda2030.Forexample,climatechangeisregardedasoneofthekeydriversofbiodiversityloss.Basedonmorethan50000occurrencescapturingthegeographicrangesof457parasitespecies,arecentcomprehensivestudystatesthatclimatechangecoulderadicate30%ofallparasitespeciesonearth(Carlsonetal.2017).Atthesametimebiodiversityanditsecosystemservicesarekeyforbothclimatechangemitigationandadaptation.Assuch,theyareameansofaddressingclimatechangeissues,whichwillfurtherprotectbiodiversity.1AccordingtotheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies,morethan79800speciesareredlistedandmorethan23000arethreatenedwithextinction,including33%ofreefbuildingcorals.

1SeetheConventiononBiologicalDiversitySecretariat:https://www.cbd.int/climate/intro.shtml



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IntheSwedishcontexttheissueofbiodiversityisparticularlyproblematicintheBalticSea.Over60speciesand16habitatsareclassifiedasthreatenedand/ordecliningintheBalticSea(RolffandNekoro2013).Inrecentyearsimportantprogressintheglobalcommunityhasbeenmadeonreachingparticulartargetsofglobaltreatiesandconventionsonconservation.Forexample,theworldappearsontracktoachievetheSDGtarget14.5onprotecting10%oftheoceansby2020.Swedenrecentlyachievedthetargetonanationallevel.2However,areviewofprogresstowardsSDG14bytheUNHigh-levelPoliticalForumonSustainableDevelopmentidentifiessignificantchallengesinthemanagementofprotectedareas(ECESA2017).ResearchgapsThereareconsiderableknowledgegapsonbiodiversityintheBalticSea,includingfunctionaldiversityandnon-indigenousspecies.Forexample,itisstillunclearhowthecumulativeandsynergisticeffectscausedbyhumanpressures(e.g.pollution,overfertilisation,fishingpressure,climatechange)willaffectBalticSeabiodiversity(RolffandNekoro2013).Onagloballevelthedocumentationofthelargethreatstobiodiversityinmarinelifeandoceanshasincreasedinrecentyearsbutsignificantknowledgegapsremain.IUCNanditssub-organonmarinespeciesassessmentisworkingonassessingtheextinctionriskof20000marinespeciesforinclusionontheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.Bridgingthisresearchgapisalsoexpectedtocontributetobetterinformednationalandinternationalmarineconservationpolicies.3Improvedknowledgeisalsoneededoninteractionsbetweendifferentecosystems,forexamplebetweencoastalproductivityecosystems.Theknowledgegapsonmarineissuescontributestotheuncertaintyontheimpactsofclimatechangeprojections.Addressingthesegapswouldthusbebeneficialforclimatechangeresearchatlarge(CBD2017).Theresearchcommunityisalsoascribedapotentialroleincontributingtomoreefficientpolicy-makingonconservationandbiodiversity,forexamplebyprovidingmoreinformationonpolicyneedsonlocallevel.Biodiversitypolicy-makingisalsoexpectedtobenefitfrominterdisciplinaryresearchprojectsthatgatherthecontributionsofarangeofsocialandnaturalsciences(CBD2017).ParticipantsattheSEIFormasworkshopstressedtheneedforcomplementingquantitativemeasuresofprotectedmarineareaswithqualitativeresearchthatconsidersthedynamiccharacteristicsofmarineenvironments.Participantsattheworkshopalsoindicatedtheneedfornetworksforinformationandknowledgeexchangeonprotectedareas.

4.4 Summary:identifiedresearchgapsforoceanandclimateOceanwarming

2SeetheSwedishAgencyforMarineandWaterManagement(Havs-ochvattenmyndigheten)https://www.havochvatten.se/hav/fiske--fritid/skyddade-omraden.html3SeeICUNhttp://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/marine,andGlobalMarineSpeciesAssessment(GMSA)https://sites.wp.odu.edu/GMSA/about/



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• Largeincertitudeandknowledgegapspersistforestimatingthelonger-termimpactofoceanwarmingontheArcticanditsecosystemservices.

• Duetologisticalandfinancialconstraintsforlong-termobservationresearchprojectstheArcticishighlyreliantonmodels.Thereisneedforapan-ArcticresearchactionplanforobservationsystemandthedevelopmentofspecificArcticsystemmodels.

Oceanacidification• Increasedresearcheffortsareneededondevelopingcoordinatedandstandardised

methodsofmonitoringtoimprovethereliabilityofprojectionsoftheimpactsofacidificationonmarineecosystems,especiallyfortheArctic.

• Theresearchcommunitycouldhelpbridgeresearchgapsbyfosteringinterdisciplinarystudiesandincreasedcooperationbetweenresearchercommunitiesandmarineresourceend-users.Researchinstitutescouldalsohelptoprovidemorelong-termplatformsforstakeholdernetworks.

Protectedareas• ThereareconsiderableknowledgegapsfortheBalticSeaandhowitsbiodiversityis

affectedbyhumanpressures(e.g.pollution,over-fertilisation,fishingpressureandclimatechange.)

• Addressingtheknowledgegapsonmarineissues,whichcancontributetoresolvinguncertaintyontheimpactsofclimatechangeprojections,wouldbenefitclimatechangeresearchatlarge.

• Theresearchcommunitycouldfurthercontributetothedesignofpolicystrategiesbyprovidingmoreinformationonpolicyneedsatthelocallevelandgatheringinterdisciplinaryresearchcontributions.

5 Keytheme3:sustainableuseofoceansandmarineresources

Achievingsustainableuseofoceanandmarineresourcesintermsofbalancingeconomic,socialandeconomicneedsisacoreprincipleofSDG14.Yet,strikingthebalancebetweenstakeholders’differentinterestsandtimeperspectivesisnotaneasytask.Thissectionwillprovideabriefoverviewoftheissuesatstakeandresearchgapsinsustainablemanagementofresourcesandoverfishing,includingfishingsubsidies.Morespecifically,thissectionwillassesstwoareas:• Blueeconomyandsustainablemanagementofmarineresources• Overfishingandfisherysubsidies.

5.1 BlueeconomyandsustainablemanagementofmarineresourcesInrecentyearsseveralconceptsformarinesustainabledevelopmenthaveemerged.Forexample,bluegrowthandblueeconomyhavedevelopedalongsidegreengrowthconceptswhichaimtomoresystematicallyunderstandtheeconomicbenefitsgeneratedbycoastsandoceansinallaspectsofeconomicactivity(UNSCD2014).Morebroadlytheconceptencompassesawiderangeofdifferentsectors,suchasmineralextraction,tourism,energyproduction,aquaculture,fishing,recreation,shipping,culture,andtraditionalproductionand



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processingindustries(Mattsonetal.2017).Awidelyaccepteddefinitionoftheconceptofbluegrowthisyettobeagreedon;insteaddifferentstakeholderstendtoemphasisedifferentdimensionsoftheconcept.Forexample,smallislanddevelopingstateshaveusedthetermtofosteraspecificdevelopmentagenda,whileotheractorshaveusedittopromotecertainsetsofgovernancemechanisms(e.g.marketbased)orideologies(e.g.the“greeneconomy”).Furthermore,theSwedishmaritimestrategyfrom2015setsastrongemphasisonthepromotionofasustainable,innovativeandocean-basedeconomywithalargeemphasisonmultisectoralcollaborationbetweenthepublicandprivatesectors(GOS2015).

Thefishingindustryisoneofthekeysectorsintheblueeconomyconcept.Theimportanceoffishingisreflectedintarget14.7.Fisheryisanimportantsectorinmanydevelopingcountries,especiallyinSIDSandcoastalleastdevelopedcountries(LDCs).Overhalfofthetotalglobalfishcatchisestimatedtocomefromsmall-scalefisheriesindevelopingcountriesandemployalargemajorityoftheworld’sfisheriesworkforce,andarethushardesthitascatchdecreases(UN2017a).Sustainablemanagementislinkedtotheecosystemapproachtomanagement,whichisadaptiveandtakesintoaccountecosystemknowledgeanduncertaintiesandconsidersmultipleexternalinfluences(Francisetal.2007).Theconceptwasinitiallyresistedbythosewhofocusedondefendingsinglespecies.Inrecentyearsaparadigmshifthasbeennoted:whiletheconstraintsonsingle-speciesfisheriesscienceandmanagementhaveincreasinglybeenrecognised,thegainsofamoreholisticscientificapproachthatincorporatestheecosystemcontextoffisheriesintomanagementpolicyhavegainedmoreattention(Francisetal.2007).Theincreasedinterestinecosystemsisfurtherreflectedinarapidincreaseinthenumberofpapersonmarineandcoastalecosystemservices.From2005to2015thenumberofpublicationsonecosystemservicesincreasedfrom20to373(GarciaRodriguesetal.2017).Marineecosystemserviceassessmentsgenerallyfocusoneconomicandenvironmentaldimensionsofprovisioningandregulatingservices,whiledevotinglimitedattentiontothenon-materialbenefitstohumansocietiesofecosystemservices.CulturalEcosystemServices(CES)isanapproachthataimstocomplementeconomicandenvironmentalassessmentsbyincludingthenon-materialbenefitsofhuman-ecosystemrelationships(GarciaRodriguesetal.2017).TheexpectedgainsofmarineandoceanCESassessmentsisamorecomprehensivepictureoftheinteractionsbetweenhumansandmarineecosystems.ResearchgapsTodevelopmorebalanceddecision-supportmechanismsandmoresustainableconservationactionplans,thereisaneedformorecomprehensiveecosystemassessmentsandsystematicinclusionofknowledgeacrossdisciplinesandculturalsettings,includingindigenousandlocalknowledge.Greateremphasisonandmoreresourcesareneededforintegratedvaluationassessments,withinterdisciplinaryresearchteamsdrawingonexpertsinecologyandeconomicsaswellasothersocialsciencesandhumanities(GarciaRodriguesetal.2017).Science-basedmanagementplansforsustainablefisheryarealsoneeded,asisclearlystatedintarget14.4.Forexample,moreworkisneededondevelopingandimplementingintegratedmanagementplansforgoverningecosystems.Inparticular,researcherscanhelpdevelopdecision-supporttoolsthatcananalysetrade-offsacrosssectors(FAO2016).



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Differentstakeholdersunderstandandusetheblueeconomyconceptindifferentways,whichisproblematic.Researchopportunitieshavebeenidentifiedforstakeholderstofurtherdeveloptheterm,forexamplebyallowingittoadvanceabroadersetofobjectivesandgovernancepractices(Silveretal.2015).Morework,bothinpolicyandresearch,isneededonadvancedsystemsthinkingandimprovedcross-sectoralmanagementmodels(Mattsonetal.2017).Anotherareaforincreasedresearcheffortsisindevelopingguidelinesandregionallycoordinatedindicatorsandreportingprocessesforoceansustainability.Progressonoceansustainabilitydependsontheactionsandeffortsofabroadspectrumofstakeholders,includingacademia,theprivatesectorandpolicy-makers.Moreeffortsarethusneededtosetupframeworksandmechanismstobringthesestakeholderstogether(IASS2017).Policyframeworksareparticularlyweakforthehighseas,atermwhichreferstoopenoceanthatisnotwithinanycountry’sjurisdiction.Thehighseasrepresent58%oftheworld’soceans.ThehighseasareregulatedunderseveralUN-ledsector-specificagreements,whichhasledtoafragmentedgovernanceregimeprovidinginadequateprotectionoftheseas’resources(Silveretal.2015;LaffoleyandBaxter2016).AsunderlinedintheintroductionofthisreportandthereviewofrelevanceofSDG14,bluecarbonandbioprospectingofoceansareissuesofparticularconcernforthehighseasbutwhicharenotincludedinSDG14.Thehighseasisthusanareawhereresearcherscouldplayanimportantroleinbridgingpolicygapsbyresearchingdifferentgovernanceandsustainablemanagementregimes(LaffoleyandBaxter2016;ICSU2017).AttheSEIFormasworkshop,participantsstressedtheirconcernovertheconceptofmaximumsustainableyield(MSY),andstressedtheneedforcomplementarymeasurestobedevelopedinspeciesassessments,includingfishingquotas.TheconceptofMSYisbasedonsingle-speciesassessmentsanddoesnotconsiderhowecosystemsinteractwithexploitedspecies.Topromoteamoreholisticapproachanalternativeconceptof“ecologicalsustainableyield”hasbeensuggested(Francisetal.2007).

Inaddition,participantsattheworkshophighlightedthattheresearchcommunityhasapotentialroleinincreasingtheuptakeanduseofmoresustainablefisherymanagementbyfocusingmoreoneducationalandlearningmaterialsforknowledgetransferandlessonslearnedonsustainablemanagementpractices.

5.2 OverfishingandfisherysubsidiesThedepletionoffishstocksisanincreasingproblemworldwide.Theproportionofassessedmarinefishstocksfishedwithinbiologicallysustainablelevelsisestimatedtohavedeclinedfrom90%in1974to68.6%in2013.Closetoathirdoftheassessedfishstocksareatbiologicallyunsustainablelevels(FAO2016).Theincreasedthreattofishstocksislinkedtohuman-inducedstressfactorssuchaspollutionandclimatechange,whichinfluencebiologicaleventssuchasspawningandmigration(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).Butmoreimportantlythedecreasingfishpopulationsarelinkedtopoorgovernanceandmanagementoftheoceansandtheirresources,andmorespecificallytoharmfulformsoffisheriessubsidiestogetherwithillegal,unreportedandunregulatedfishing(FAO2016).FAOestimatesillicitfishingto



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accountforupto26milliontonsoffishperyear,whichwouldrepresentmorethan15%oftheworld’stotalannualfisheriescatch.Inadditiontoimposingsignificanteconomicdamage,illicitfishingthreatenslocalbiodiversityandfoodsecurity(FAO2016).FisherysubsidiesareonagloballevelestimatedtobeuptoUS$35billionayear,ofwhichcloseto60%areconsideredtocontributetooverfishing.Internationaleffortstoaddressfisherieshavebeenhinderedbystrongnationaleconomicandpoliticalinterestsaswellasbytechnicalaspectsrelatedtothewidespectrumofsubsidies(ECESA2017).Subsidiesinthefishingsectorinvolvegrants,lowcostloans,guarantees,taxbreaks,pricesupportsaswellasdirectprovisionofgoodsandservices.Thesubsidiesareprovidedfordifferentreasons,forexampletofostereconomicgrowth,supportfisheriesdevelopment,ensurecrewsafetyorintroducelessharmfulfishingmethods.Cross-sectoralaspectsofsubsidiesarealsocontributingtotheircomplexity.Forexample,certainsubsidiesarepartofbroaderdevelopmentprogrammesandaimingtocontributetoprogressinothersectors(ECESA2017).Thepressureonoceansfromcommercialfishingissignificant.Astudyusingatrackingsysteminstalledonallindustrialfishingvesselsestimatedthatindustrialfishingextendsovermorethan55%oftheoceansurface.Thisisequaltoanareafourtimesthatcoveredbyagriculture.Thestudyalsofindsthatfishingeffortsdependmoreonsocialandpoliticalschedulesthaneconomicorenvironmentaldrivers(Kroodsmaetal.2018).Theconsequencesofoverfishingarealreadynoticeable.Globalcatcheshavefallensteadilysincetheirpeakin1996(PaulyandZeller2016).ThedepletionoffishspeciesisestimatedtocauseoceanfisheriestoreducefishingrevenuesbyUS$50billionperyearglobally(UN2017a).Thereducedfishstockandcatchesthreatensstakeholdersrelyingonfishforemploymentandfoodsecurity.Together,fisheriesandaquacultureprovide4.3billionpeoplewithabout15%oftheiraveragepercapitaintakeofanimalprotein.By2050,anadditional75milliontonsoffishwillbeneededtomeettheconsumptionneedsofmorethan9billionpeople(LaffoleyandBaxter2016).FAOestimatesthat,providedoverfishedstocksarewellmanaged,worldfishcaptureproductionisprojectedtoincreasebyonly1%.Oceanfishingwillthusnotbeabletomeetincreasingconsumptiondemands,whichimpliesalargerrelianceonaquacultureproduction(FAO2016).AsanEUmemberstateSwedenispartofthelargestsinglemarketforfishimports,estimatedin2014atUS$54000million.FAOestimatesthatSwedenin2014importedfishofatotalvalueofUS$4783millionwhichmakesittheworld’seighthlargestimporteroffish(FAO2016).75%offishconsumedinSwedenisimported,withthelargestsharefromNorway,butalsofromAsiancountriessuchasVietnamandChina.ConsumptionpatternsincountrieslikeSwedenthushasanimpactonwell-beingoffish-stockinotherpartsoftheworld(ZieglerandBergman2017).Furthermore,inSwedenoverfishingandunsustainablefishingtechniquesarediscussedinthecontextofasuggestedbanonbottomtrawlingforcodintheBalticSea.Anindependentstudyontheimpactoftrawlinghasbeencommissionedbythegovernment(Zachrisson2018).4

4See:http://www.balticsea2020.org/english/alla-projekt/rovfisken/fishery-ongoing-projects/404-save-the-baltic-sea-cod-protect-coastal-fisheries



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ThegrowinginternationalcommitmenttoaddressoverfishingandillegalfishingiswellreflectedinSDG14.Target14.4focusonendingoverfishing,illegalfishinganddestructivefishingpractices.Thetargetalsohighlightstheimplementationofscience-basedmanagementplanstorestorefishstocks.Target14.6focusesonthefisheriessubsidieswhichcontributetoovercapacityandoverfishing.ResearchgapsAchallengeinpromotingresponsibleseafoodandfishconsumptioninSwedenislimitedinformationonsupplychains.ToguideconsumerstowardsmoresustainablefoodconsumptionmoreinformationonthefishconsumedinSwedenisneeded.Thiswould,forexample,requiremorecoherentreportingmethodsontradeandconsumptionoffish(ZieglerandBergman2017).ParticipantsattheSEIandFormasworkshophighlightedtheneedformoreresearchonconsumers’andproducers’attitudesandbehaviour,withanemphasisonyoungconsumers’perspectives,tobeabletopromotebehaviourchangeandsustainableconsumptionpatterns.Anothersuggestedareaofresearchwastomapconsumptionpatternsinrelationtofishvaluechainstoaddresstheriskofoverfishingbothinsmall-scaleandcommercialfishing.Participantsalsoidentifiedtheneedtoassessfutureglobalfoodproductionsystems,includingtheconnectionbetweenoceanandland-basedfoodproduction.Moreresearchisneededtohelpidentifymethodstooptimisefoodproductionwhilerespectingenvironmentalandanimalwelfarerequirements.Workshopparticipantsexpressedaparticularinterestinmoreresearchonhowaquacultureonlandandintheseacancontributesustainablytomeetingtherisingglobalfooddemand,forexamplebyusingnewfishspeciesandfish-farmingtechniques.Increasedresearchisalsoneededonantimicrobialresistance,becauseaquaculture,especiallyindevelopingcountries,isconsideredarisksector.Tobetterprotectremoteoceanareas,includingthehighseas,fromoverfishingandillegalfishing,thereisneedforinnovativeinstrumentsformonitoringandpolicing.Researchinstitutesandnon-governmentalorganisationshavecontributedtofillingthisgapwithinnovativewaysofusingsatellitestocollectdataonvesselcompliancewithfishingregulations.ExamplesofthisincludetheworkofOceanMindandGlobalFishingWatch(Economist2017).5ThesciencecommunitycouldfurthercontributetoSDG14,butalsothewiderimplementationofAgenda2030,byprovidingtechnologicalandinnovativesolutions,suchassatellitemonitoringtools.

5.3 Summary:identifiedresearchgapsforsustainableuseofoceansandmarineresources

Blueeconomyandsustainablemanagementofmarineresources• Moreresearchisneededtofurtherdevelopconceptsofsustainablemarine

development,includingtheblueeconomy,sotheycanserveasaplatformtoadvanceabroadersetofobjectivesandgovernancepractices.

5SeeOceanmind,vesselmonitoringandinsights:http://www.oceanmind.global/work-initiatives/work/vessel-monitoring-and-insight



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• Theresearchcommunitycanhelpestablishframeworksandmechanismsthatcanbringtogetherabroadspectrumofstakeholders(e.g.researchers,privatesector,andpolicy-makers)andpromotejointactions.

• Researcherscouldplayanimportantroleinbridgingpolicygapsrelatedtothehighseasbyresearchingdifferentgovernanceandsustainablemanagementregimes.

Overfishingandfisherysubsidies• TopromoteresponsibleseafoodandfishconsumptioninSweden,morecoherent

reportingmethodsontradeandconsumptionoffishisneeded.• Thesciencecommunitycouldfurthercontributetotheprotectionofoceans,including

addressingillegalfishinginthehighseas,byprovidingtechnologicalandinnovativesolutionssuchasinnovativesatellitemonitoringtools.

• Theuseandimplementationofmanagementplansforsustainablefisherywouldbenefitfromincreasedresearcheffortsondevelopingtoolsfordecision-makinganalysingtrade-offsacrosssectors.

6 ConcludingremarksTheliteraturereviewhasservedtoidentifyresearchneedsinabroadspectrumofareasrelatedtoSDG14:LifeBelowWater.Intheassessmentofwhatrolescience,technologyandinnovationcanplayincontributingtoSDG14,twoofthethreeidentifiedroleshavebeenemphasised:characterisingthechallengesandprovidingthesolutions(Nilsson2016).Mostoftheresearchgapsidentifiedinthisreportrelatetotheneedforfurtherclarificationinresearchareasthatalreadyexist.Thisincludesmorebasicresearch,forexampleonimpactsonspeciesandecosystemsofthecombinedeffectofdifferenthuman-inducedfactors.Inadditiontotopic-specificresearchgaps,whicharediscussedunderthethematicsections,theliteraturereviewalsoidentifiedseveralcross-cuttingresearchneedsandobservationsforSDG14.Thesearelistedbelow.

• Balancecompetingsocial,economicandenvironmentaldemandsforoceanresources.TheformulationoftheSDG14anditstargetsaimstobalancesocial,economicandenvironmentaldemandsforoceanandmarineresources.Althoughallthreedimensionsofsustainabledevelopmentinthelong-termwouldmutuallybenefitfromabalancedapproach,thereisriskfortrade-offstooccurintheshort-term,e.g.betweentheenvironmentalprotectionofmarineresourcesandtheeconomicuseofthesameresources.

• Balancebetweentimelypolicymeasuresandmoreresearch-informedpolicies.Byaddressingthesignificantknowledgegapsonmarineandoceanissuestheresearchcommunitycouldcontributetotheformulationofmoreeffective,efficientandsustainablepolicies.However,climateresearchoftenrequireslong-termobservationswhichcreatesamismatchwiththeshortertimeperspectiveofnationalpolicy-makingbutalsoofAgenda2030.Theremaining12yearsuntil2030ischallengingfordevelopingnewresearchprojects,securingrobustresults,communicatingthesetopolicy,andsecuringpoliticalagreementonpolicymeasures.

• Alocal,regionalandglobalperspective.Despitedifferencesinecosystemcharacteristicsandsocio-economiccontext,manyoftheworld’soceansandseasarefacingsimilarchallengesrelatedtoclimatechange.ThereispotentialforSwedish



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nationalandregionalresearchprojects,e.g.acidification,tocontributetoachievingprogressofSDG14onagloballevel.

• Needforimprovedmodels.UncertaintyinmodellingandpredictionsparticularlyaffectsArcticresearch,partlybecausethereislimitedabilitytoconductobservations.Improvedoceanmodelswouldcontributetobetteroverallclimatechangepredictions.

• Needforforward-lookingresearch.ResearchinsupportofAgenda2030needstobeforward-lookingandidentifyissueswhicharenotincludedincurrentgoalsandtargetsbutwhichinthemediumandlonger-termriskbecomingimportantchallengesformarinelife.Animportantroleforscienceisthushorizonscanningandidentifyingthenextgenerationofsustainabilitychallenges,notnecessarilyidentifiedalreadyinAgenda2030.

• Prospectsandchallengesofmulti-disciplinaryresearch.Multi-disciplinaryresearchhasthepotentialtobridgeexistingknowledgegapsbybringingdifferentdisciplinaryknowledgetogether,butisoftenconstrainedbystructuralchallenges,includingresearchfundingstructuresnotfavourabletobuildingmoresustainablemulti-stakeholdernetworks.

• Sciencetofillknowledgegaps;butsolutionsrelyonpoliticalwill.Althoughadditionalresearcheffortscouldcontributetoprovidingabetterunderstandingofclimatechangeimpactsonoceans,effectivemitigatingmeasuresprimarilydependonpoliticalwill.

TheliteraturereviewanditsassessmentofresearchgapswasfurtherenrichedbytheSEIFormasexpertworkshoponSDG14on3May2018,withparticipantsfromscience,policyandpractice.Inputsandreflectionsfromtheexpertswerelargelyinlinewiththeliteraturereview’spreliminarythematicfindingsbutprovidedcomplementaryandadditionalperspectivesonresearchtopicsandneeds.Inadditiontotheexperts’sector-specificsuggestions,whichhavebeenincorporatedintothethemesections,anumberofcross-cuttingobservationsweremadeduringtheworkshop.Whilethecross-cuttingissuesarediscussedindetailinthemainreport,aselectionofkeytakeawaysarelistedbelow.

• Linkagesbetweengoals.ManyoftheresearchgapsidentifiedbyworkshopexpertslinkedtoSDG14butwereatthesametimecloselyconnectedtootherSDGgoalsandtargets,forexampleissuesonsustainableconsumptionandwastemanagement.Bystressinghowprogressonhealthyoceansrequireeffortsinseveralsectorsandatdifferentscales,theworkshopservedasanimportantreminderoftheneedtoapplyacross-sectorapproachforSDG14.

• Agenda2030:apoliticalagenda.SDG14anditstargetsconcernalreadyknownresearchareasandthusdonotprimarilyserveasaplatformtoguideresearcherstonewresearchareas.ExpertsandresearchersinsteadmainlyviewtheSDGsandAgenda2030asapoliticalframeworkdevelopedbygovernmentstakeholders.ItisuptotheresearchcommunitytoadjusttotheagendaandcontributetoachievingtheSDGs.

• Balancebetweentransdisciplinaryandin-depthdisciplinaryresearch.BygatheringexpertsandresearchersfromawiderangeofdisciplinesspanningthenaturalandsocialsciencestheSEIFormasworkshoponSDG14wasagoodexampleofthevalueofcross-sectorexchanges.Expertsattheworkshophighlightedthepotentialgainsthatclimateresearchcanmakebydrawingonartsandpedagogicresearch.Theworkshopalsoservedasanimportantreminderoffindingabalancebetweeneffortsandresourcesdevotedtotransdisciplinaryresearchprojectsandin-depthsector-specific



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researchprojects.Thisbalanceiskeytofostersynergiesandallowcross-cuttingresearchtodrawonsolidsector-specificresearch.

ReferencesAMAP (2013). AMAP Assessment 2013: Arctic Ocean Acidification. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP). https://www.amap.no/documents/doc/amap-assessment-2013-arctic-ocean-acidification/881.

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