Faith HumblesSenior Project

Insect Consumption Cases Around the World

Introduction

Although there is a stigma attached to entomophagy, the act of eating insects, in America

and Western Europe, it is widely practiced around the world. According to Ramos-

Elorduy (1998), it is practiced by approximately 3,000 cultures. Food preferences are an

important part of cultural identity. These preferences also help to determine the economic

and ecological relationships within a culture. The following essay contains two brief case

studies of entomophagy. One case study explores mopane worms in southern Africa, and

the other explores chapulines in Oaxaca, Mexico. Both cases show entomophagy from

different angles in terms of cultivation and its effect on the environment, but they both

amplify its significance within a culture’s source of food and economic relationships.

Mopane Worms in Southern Africa

In parts of southern Africa, like Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana, a

Lepidopteran larva known as the Mopane Worm is regularly consumed. The worm

(Figure 3) is the larva of the African Emperor Moth (Imbrasia belina) and is

harvested from its host plant, the mopane tree (Colophospermum mopane) during

the rainy season, when the moth lays its eggs (Science Magazine for Africa, 2005).

The quantity of mopane worms that are harvested varies depending on the amount

of rain that an area receives. Collectors depend on heavy for a bountiful harvest.

Typically, there is only a single rainy season, so the worms are only harvested once a

year, in December. In some years a secondary rainy season occurs, and the worms

may be harvested a second time at the end of March or the beginning of April (Toms

& Thagwana, 2005). After the caterpillars hatch, they grow in 4 to 6 weeks and

undergo a series of molts, each of which is called an instar. They are harvested when

they reach the 5th instar before they reach their pupal stage (Gondo, Frost, Kozanayi,

Stack & Mushongahande, 2010). The caterpillars are picked off trees, from the

ground or shaken from branches. The larvae bear urticating spines, so care must be

taken during harvest (Illgner & Nel, 2000).

Once harvested, the Mopane Worms must be processed. The first step is to

remove the intestines and any food that may not have been digested (Stack,

Dorward, Gondo, Frost, Taylor & Kurebgaseka, 2003). One method for doing this is

to put the caterpillar between forefinger and thumb, squeezing on the back of the

organism, and pushing forward until the intestines gush out of the mouth. Because

of the spines, which cause sores and can stain fingers, different methods of

protection have been devised. Sometimes tree bark is used like a glove and is

wrapped around the fingers. Gloves are effective in providing protection, but are

also expensive (Kozanayi & Frost, 2002). During processing it is important that only

the gut contents are removed and that a “yellow substance,” which consumers

prefer because of its nutrition value, is not removed (Kozanayi & Frost, 2002).

Figure 1Mopane worm (Gonimbrasia belina) on a branch. As one can see, their bodies have many spikes in order to protect themselves.

The second step in processing is cooking the larvae. The mopane worms are

roasted, and the spines are removed. One technique of roasting the caterpillars is

over a flame, which is time consuming and often leads to burning of the hand

(Kozanayi & Frost, 2002). Roasting them can cause hazards to the environment

because it exposes the forest to fire, which can cause damage to plants and animals.

Therefore, it is common for Zimbabwean officials to prohibit mopane worm

processing at collection spots for environmental protection purposes, causing the

collectors to prepare them at home (Stack & Ghazoul, 2002). An alternative method

to roasting is to place the caterpillars in a rotary dry-roasting drum. This method is

more productive because more worms can be roasted at a time. It is safer because it

does not have the dangers that come along with roasting them over an open flame

(Stack & Ghazoul, 2002). Some people salt and boil the worms as another

alternative. Mopane worms prepared this way are less desirable because they still

contain the spines and they do not look as appetizing (Kozanayi & Frost, 2002).

After being roasted or boiled, they are sun-dried and need to be turned at regular

intervals (Overstreet, 2003). Preserved mopane worms can be saved and eaten

throughout the year. Mopane worms can be bought canned or packaged in South

African markets (Toms, Thagwana & Lithole, 2003).

Mopane worms are prepared in different ways. They can be eaten when sun-

dried or rehydrated and cooked (DeFoliart, Dunkel & Gracer, 2009). They are

sometimes fried in cooking oil and are often served with some type of tomato or

chili sauce (DeFoliart, Dunkel & Gracer, 2009). During consumption, it is common to

avoid eating the head.

Mopane worms are essential to the diet of many poor people in southern Africa

(Kozanayi, & Frost, 2002). The caterpillars do not cost much and are high in protein.

In one study, mopane worms were 60.70% raw protein, 16.7% raw fat and 10.72%

minerals on a dry weight basis (Headings & Rahnema, 2002). From their

investigation Headings and Rahnema concluded that, “These worms are a highly

nutritious supplement to the diet of people indigenous to these regions.” Since 15

mopane worms provide an adult’s daily requirement of calcium, iron and riboflavin,

people who eat them receive significant nutritional benefits.

Even though so many people come into contact with mopane worms each year,

allergic reactions are rarely reported. In one case, by Okezie et al. (2010), a 36-year-

old woman from the Tswana tribe of Botswana showed signs of an allergic reaction

after ingesting 20 grams of mopane worms. She developed an itchy skin rash,

swelling in the body and face, and mild hypotension or deceased blood pressure.

This case is peculiar because the subject had never shown atopic syndrome to

mopane worms before. She was treated with an intramuscular injection,

intravenous hydrocortisone and promethazine via venous line. She also received a

saline drip while being observed. She was discharged from the hospital but returned

2 days later with a worsening rash, swelling to the face, nausea, dizziness, yellow

eyes and excessive urinating. She admitted to eating a large quantity of mopane

worms with her family after her initial reaction and treatment. They confirmed her

food allergy and started treatment again. She was advised to stay away from the

worm and as a result, she began show signs of improvement.

Mopane worms are a big part of the diets of southern African people, and

therefore have a heavy impact on the economy. Sellers gain from mopane worm

harvesting because they are free merchandise that makes money. In Botswana, the

mopane worm harvest can earn up to $3.3 million U.S. dollars a year, and provides

seasonal jobs for 10,000 people ("Socioeconomics of the Mopane Worm Trade").

Some commercial farm owners in Botswana aim to harvest 5,000 bags of mopane

worms a year, the equivalent of 90 million caterpillars (DeFoliart, Dunkel & Gracer,

2009). Southern Africans from a variety of social classes participate in mopane

worm harvesting because it is a simple way to make money (Stack, Dorward, Gondo,

Frost, Taylor & Kurebgaseka, 2003). However, in some cases poor families collect

mopane worms more frequently than wealthier families. In areas like the Gwanda,

Chiredzi and Mwenezi Districts in Zimbabwe, wealthy families don’t have time to

collect mopane worms since most spend their time running their businesses (Stack,

Dorward, Gondo, Frost, Taylor & Kurebgaseka, 2003). Even though wealthier

families do not harvest mopane worms, they still contribute to the economics of

mopane worm business by purchasing them for consumption (Stack, Dorward,

Gondo, Frost, Taylor & Kurebgaseka, 2003).

In the last two decades, the instability of the Zimbabwean economy has turned

many people to mopane worm harvesting as a source of income. Communities with

low-income levels encourage households to take advantage of the ‘free forest

resource’ (Stack, Dorward, Gondo, Frost, Taylor & Kurebgaseka, 2003). For this

reason, large quantities of mopane worms are harvested each year. The high

demand for mopane worms leads to over-harvesting, which endangers the African

Emperor moth population. As a result, the population of mopane worms has been

decreasing in recent years, and the financial stability of those who rely on

harvesting for an income is threatened (Toms & Thagwana, 2005).

Though large harvests of mopane worms are beneficial to the local economy, it is

harmful to the mopane worm population. This is a problem, from both a commercial

and wildlife conservation standpoints. Over harvesting disrupts the economy

because sellers make a smaller profit if mopane worms are scarce. This also

interferes with the chain of life for the mopane worms since they are collected

before they can reach adulthood (Toms & Thagwana, 2005). There are constant

droughts in southern Africa that affect the mopane worm population by preventing

successful reproduction. These long periods of time without mopane worm

reproduction already decrease the population, but add to that the number of

mopane worms that are collected each year and the population may eventually

become scarce or extirpated and will no longer play a role in the economy

(DeFoliart, Dunkel & Gracer, 2009).

Conservationists are coming up with solutions so that local people are able to

harvest mopane worms sustainably. One South African conservationist hopes to

farm the worms, although practical difficulties remain (DeFoliart, Dunkel & Gracer,

2009). It is difficult to get the moths to mate in captivity, and they must be protected

from predators and parasitoids. His goal is to breed them in a controlled

environment, which might help stabilize the population, so that the population will

not decrease at such a fast rate. This would prevent the mopane worms from being

driven to endangerment in the future.

Grasshoppers in Oaxaca, Mexico

In Oaxaca, southern Mexico, Sphenarium purpurascens, an Orthopteran commonly

known as a chapulin, is utilized for food. Chapulines reproduce at a high rate and

have a longer life span than ordinary grasshoppers (Cohen, 2009). These

grasshoppers are collected from agricultural fields called milpas, especially where

maize and alfalfa are grown (Montiel Ishino & Cohen, 2006). The harvesting period

is August through December. Since they are harvested in agricultural areas, they are

considered to be semi-domesticated because farmers consider them part of their

produce (Cohen, 2009). They are harvested from the fields early in the morning,

when the grasshoppers are less active and easier to catch (Montiel Ishino & Cohen,

2006). Men and young boys collect the grasshoppers by catching them with nets

(Montiel Ishino & Cohen, 2006). The grasshoppers can be harvested at any stage.

Newly hatched nymphs are the most sweet to the palate (Cohen, 2009). Fifth instar

nymphs and adults are larger and have a different taste. Their taste changes because

they migrate from the alfalfa fields to the maize fields, where they are exposed to

more sunlight (Cohen, 2009).

Once they are captured, they are cleaned and sorted by size and life stage

(Montiel Ishino & Cohen, 2006). They are put in a dark, dry place without food for a

couple of days so that they can rest and rid themselves of waste (Cohen, 2009). This

leisure period is important because if they are not rested, they taste bitter, and

chilies must be added to cover the taste (Cohen, 2009). They are boiled with garlic,

lime and herbs according to taste. They are then toasted on a comal, a type of

griddle. The cooking is done by women, who may flavor them by tossing them with

lemon and sal de gusano (worm salt), lime with worm salt, plain garlic or plain salt

in various combinations (Cohen, 2009). Once cooked, they can either be sold

immediately or stored for later use. Most vendors are women, who sometimes store

chapulines until there is a high demand for them, so that they can be sold for a

higher price (Cohen, 2009).

The way that they are prepared for consumption varies. Poor rural families tend

to make simpler dishes, and wealthier families make more complex dishes (Montiel

Ishino & Cohen, 2006). For rural families, chapulines are typically eaten toasted in a

tortilla with salsa (Montiel Ishino & Cohen, 2006). Wealthier families might make

something like crema de chapulines, which is a soup that consists of pureed

potatoes, tomatoes, grasshoppers, tortillas and spices (El nuevo rincón de los

sabores). Chapulines can be used as a topping, snack or main dish (Cohen, 2009).

When partaking of chapulines, the legs are removed, leaving the head and thorax.

This allows the consumer to eat the insects without having legs get lodged in their

teeth or irritating their throat.

Chapulines are a cheap source of nutrition for rural families in Oaxaca (Montiel

Ishino & Cohen, 2006). Chapulines contain 56-77% protein, 4-11% fat, 2-5%

minerals and 9-12% carbohydrates (Montiel Ishino & Cohen, 2006). As a result, they

likely provide significant amounts of protein for some rural families.

Chapulines contribute to the economic and financial stability of many people.

During the season, harvesting and selling chapulines is a full time job for some

families. Woman process and sell the chapulines while the other family members

harvest them in the fields (Cohen, 2009). The demand is so high for chapulines in

Oaxaca that vendors buy them from Puebla for re-sale (Montiel Ishino & Cohen,

2006). Many of the women who sell chapulines in the Oaxacan markets rely on the

money to help support their families. A handful of chapulines costs 20 pesos (1.66

USD) and a kilogram costs 90-100 pesos (8.31 USD) (Montiel Ishino & Cohen, 2006).

A family with four to six people can last a few days on a kilo of chapulines (Cohen,

2009). For consumers, chapulines are cheap, and sellers make a good income

(Montiel Ishino & Cohen, 2006). Since they are inexpensive, poor rural families

purchase chapulines (Cohen, 2009). A vendor can make up to 100 USD a day from

chapulines (Montiel Ishino, & Cohen, 2006). Chapulines offers jobs to people in

regions with few job opportunities (Cohen, 2009). There is even a small export

market to parts of the United States like Los Angeles, Columbus, Ohio and New York

for Oaxacans who want a taste of home (Cohen, 2009).

Even through chapulines are generally a good source of nutrition, they have

recently been found to be contaminated with lead. In 2007, the California Health

department issued a warning to consumers, pregnant woman and children in

particular, to avoid eating chapulines from Mexico because they have high levels of

lead (Lead-Contaminated Chapulines, 2007). Ingesting lead can lead to damage to

the central nervous system and to learning disabilities. The U.S. Food and Drug

Administration recommends that children under the age of 6 be exposed to a

maximum of 6 micrograms of lead a day (Lead-Contaminated Chapulines, 2007). If a

child were to eat contaminated chapulines, they could ingest 60 times the

recommended daily allowance, which could result in health problems.

In 2000, there was an investigation of a lead poisoning outbreak among

immigrants from Oaxaca, Mexico. There have been lead poisoning cases in Mexican

sub-populations in Monterey, California (Brown, R. W., & Longoria, 2009). More

Hispanic children have elevated blood lead levels than the general population

(Brown, R. W., & Longoria, 2009). This makes Hispanic children more vulnerable to

lead exposure, and they are included in screening programs in California (Brown, R.

W., & Longoria, 2009). Investigators believe that this lead outbreak is linked to the

chapulines.

Investigators found that chapulines contain up to 300 mg/kg of lead

contamination (Villalobos, Merino-Sánchez, Hall, Grieshop, Gutiérrez-Ruiz &

Handley, 2009). Investigators looked for what might have caused chapulines to

carry so much lead and they came up with two possibilities. One possibility was that

lead was blown from lead mines to agricultural fields, contaminating soil, plants and

life forms (Villalobos, Merino-Sánchez, Hall, Grieshop, Gutiérrez-Ruiz & Handley,

2009). Another possibility was that the chapulines acquired lead from the lead-

glazed cookware in which they were prepared. Tests indicated that there are high

levels of lead in mines close to fields where chapulines are collected, but there are

no signs of soil contamination (Villalobos, Merino-Sánchez, Hall, Grieshop,

Gutiérrez-Ruiz & Handley, 2009). However, experiments confirmed that lead

contaminates food through grinding spices and using acidic limejuice on cookware

during chapulin preparation (Villalobos, Merino-Sánchez, Hall, Grieshop, Gutiérrez-

Ruiz & Handley, 2009).

Conclusion

In these two case studies, entomophagy can be seen from different perspectives.

In the case of mopane worms, we can see entomophagy from a non-domesticated

point of view, where the insects are collected straight from the wild. Since they are a

free resource openly utilized by the people, over-harvesting comes into play and

threatens the African Emperor moth population. In Oaxaca, chapulines are semi-

domesticated and are collected in a controlled environment that does not harm the

chapulin population. However, even though they are acquired by different means,

they both play a significant economic role. These insects are important to the

nutritional lives of poor people in these societies because they are cheap and offer

steady amounts of protein. These cases show the importance of entomophagy as a

traditional component of vey different cultures. Even though these are only two case

studies, they suggest that entomophagy has been prominent in different cultures in

the past and that it may also contribute to the future.

References

Anne, D. J. (n.d.). Health Benefits of Essential Amino Acids. Buzzle Web Portal:

Intelligent Life on the Web. Retrieved January 05, 2011, from

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/health-benefits-of-essential-amino-acids.html

Benefits of Vitamin D - Vitamin D3 Supplements. (n.d.). AlgaeCal Calcium Supplement

Builds Stronger Bones - Guaranteed! Retrieved January 05, 2011, from

http://www.algaecal.com/vitamin-d/vitamin-d-benefits.html

Brett, J. (n.d.). Discovery Health "The Benefits of Vitamin E" Discovery Health "Health

Guides" Retrieved January 20, 2011, from

http://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/food-nutrition/vitamin-supplements/

benefits-of-vitamin-e.htm

Brown, R. W., & Longoria, T. (2009). Multiple Risk Factors for Lead Poisoning in

Hispanic Sub-Populations: A Review. Multiple Risk Factors for Lead Poisoning

in Hispanic Sub-Populations: A Review, 12(5). doi: 10.1007/s10903-009-9245-8

Carbohydrates in Honey - Carbohydrate Counter. (n.d.). Carbohydrate Counter - Carb

Counter Search. Retrieved January 17, 2011, from http://www.carbohydrate-

counter.org/sweets/search.php?cat=Honey&fg=1900

Carbohydrates Nutrition - Nutrition, Function, Side Effects - NY Times Health

Information. (n.d.). Health News - The New York Times. Retrieved January 17,

2011, from

http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/nutrition/carbohydrates/overview.html

Compton's by Britannica. (2009). Amino acid (Vol. 06). Retrieved March 09, 2011, from

Elibrary.

Daintith, J. (n.d.). Vitamin A. In The Facts On File Dictionary of Biochemistry. Retrieved

March 09, 2011, from Science Online.

DeFoliart, G., & Dunkel, F. V. (2009). The food insects newsletter volumes 1-13; 1998

through 2000: chronicle of a changing culture unabridged collection of the food

insects newsletter. Salt Lake City, UT: Aardvark Global Publishing.

Digestion. (n.d.). My Web Page. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from

http://www.mmeade.com/cheat/digestion.html

Edible insects, important source of protein in central Africa. (n.d.). FAO: FAO Home.

Retrieved January 21, 2011, from

http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2004/51409/index.html

Edible insects, important source of protein in central Africa. (2004, November 8). FAO:

FAO Home. Retrieved March 09, 2011, from

http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2004/51409/index.html

Essential Recommended Daily Allowances. (2011). Beginners Fitness Information for

Free Fitness Information & Advice. Retrieved January 17, 2011, from

http://www.fitnessbegin.com/nutrition/essentialrdas.html

Fat Nutrition - Nutrition, Function, Side Effects - NY Times Health Information. (n.d.).

Health News - The New York Times. Retrieved January 05, 2011, from

http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/nutrition/fat/overview.htm

Food For Nutrition | Tutornext.com | 8939. (n.d.). Tutornext.com - Online Tutoring,

Homework Help for Math, Science, English from Best Online Tutor. Retrieved

January 16, 2011, from http://www.tutornext.com/food-nutrition/8939

Gordon, D. G. (1998). The eat-a-bug cookbook. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

Higdon, J., & Drake, V. J. (2009, April). Essential Fatty Acids. Linus Pauling Institute at

Oregon State University. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from

http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/othernuts/omega3fa/

High Fiber Diet. (n.d.). Jackson Siegelbaum Gastroenterology. Retrieved January 05,

2011, from http://www.gicare.com/diets/high-fiber-diets.aspx

Hine, R. (n.d.). Vitamin C. In Vitamin C (Vol. 4). Retrieved March 09, 2011.

Http://www.euronet.nl/~jonkr/, R. J. (n.d.). Insect bites and stings. University of

Maryland Medical Center. Retrieved January 05, 2011, from

http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/insect-bites-000095.htm

LA Productions. (2008). ChamownersWeb Insect Nutritional Values. ChamownersWeb

Home Page. Retrieved March 10, 2011, from

http://chamownersweb.net/insects/nutritional_values.htm

Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University. (n.d.). Retrieved January 05, 2011,

from http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminA/

Mayo Clinic Staff. (2009, November 19). Dietary fiber: Essential for a healthy diet.

Nutrition and healthy eating. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/fiber/NU00033

NDDIC. (2008, July). Diverticulosis and Diverticulitis. National Digestive Diseases

Information Clearinghouse. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from

http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/diverticulosis/

NIH. (2010, June 21). Diverticulosis and Diverticulitis: MedlinePlus. National Library of

Medicine - National Institutes of Health. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/diverticulosisanddiverticulitis.html

Ophardt, C. E. (2003). Transamination. Elmhurst College: Elmhurst, Illinois. Retrieved

January 19, 2011, from

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/631transam.html

Peptide Guide - Complete Guide to Peptide Research. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2011,

from http://www.peptideguide.com/index.html

Polyunsaturate. (2005, September 08). Eastern Suffolk BOCES School Library System

Union Catalog. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from

http://elibrary.bigchalk.es.vrc.scoolaid.net/elibweb/elib/do/document?

set=search&dictionaryClick=&secondaryNav=&groupid=1&requestid=lib_standa

rd&resultid=1&edition=&ts=4550F48F6CCCA56AC5BFDAC0A4166F46_1295

524005153&start=1&publicationId=&urn=urn:bigchalk:US;BCLib;document;12

4095148

Ramos-Elorduy, J., & Menzel, P. (1998). Creepy crawly cuisine: the gourmet guide to

edible insects. Rochester, VT: Park Street Press.

Raw and Living Foods Articles - Enzymes & Protein. (n.d.). Raw Food Society of British

Columbia - Raw BC - Vancouver, BC, Canada. Retrieved January 17, 2011, from

http://www.rawbc.org/articles/enzymes_protein.html

The Benefits of Protein. (n.d.). WebMD - Better information. Better health. Retrieved

January 05, 2011, from http://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/guide/benefits-

protein

Top 10 Foods Highest in Protein. (2011). HealthAliciousNess . com. Retrieved January

21, 2011, from http://www.healthaliciousness.com/articles/foods-highest-in-

protein.php

Truesdell, D. (n.d.). Digestion and Absorption - food, nutrition, body, carbohydrate,

protein, fat, nutrients, eating, carbohydrates, vitamin, amino, acids, water,

vitamins, habits, soluble. Internet FAQ Archives - Online Education - faqs.org.

Retrieved January 20, 2011, from

http://www.faqs.org/nutrition/Diab-Em/Digestion-and-Absorption.html

Unsaturated Fat: General Info | The Diet Channel. (n.d.). Weight Loss, Diets, Nutrition &

Exercise at The Diet Channel. Retrieved January 05, 2011, from

http://www.thedietchannel.com/Unsaturated-Fat.htm

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, &

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2005, June). NHLBI, High Blood

Cholesterol: What You Need to Know. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.

Retrieved March 25, 2011, from

http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/chol/wyntk.htm

Volti, R. (n.d.). Vitamins. Retrieved March 09, 2011, from Science Online.

W. H. Freeman and Company. (n.d.). Vitamins Are Often Precursors to Coenzymes -

Biochemistry - NCBI Bookshelf. Bookshelf. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22549/

W. H. Freeman and Company. (n.d.). Vitamins Are Often Precursors to Coenzymes -

Biochemistry - NCBI Bookshelf. Bookshelf. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22549/

W. H. Freeman and Company. (2002). Vitamins Are Often Precursors to Coenzymes -

Biochemistry - NCBI Bookshelf. Bookshelf: U.S. National Library of Medicine

National Institutes of Health. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22549/

What are Amino Acids? (n.d.). WiseGEEK: clear answers for common questions.

Retrieved January 19, 2011, from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-amino-

acids.htm

What are enzymes. (n.d.). Under construction. Retrieved January 17, 2011, from

http://www.campo-research.com/campo/fruit-enzymes/what.html

Zanecosky, A. (2005). The Skinny on Fat. In Scholastic Choices.