insect biotypes
TRANSCRIPT
Doctoral seminar- II(ENT- 692)
INSECT BIOTYPES
Submitted to:
Course Instructor: Dr. A. L. Narangalkar Head, Dept. of Agril. Entomology
Submitted by:
H. R. Sawai
Ph.D. Scholar (Regd. No. 126)
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGYCOLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DAPOLI
DR. BALASAHEB SAWANT KONKAN KRISHI VIDYAPEETH, DAPOLI - 415712, DIST - RATNAGIRI, (MS)
Page
17
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGYCOLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,
DR. BSKKV, DAPOLI Name : H. R. Sawai Regd No. : 126
Degree : Ph. D. Discipline : Agril.Entomology
course No. : ENT-692 Course title : Doctoral Seminar - II
Course instructor : Dr. A. L. Narangalkar Date : 15-05-2012
Abstact - Insect Biotypes
The concept of insect biotypes has been around for 100 years, having been first touched upon by Walsh (1864). First biotype was recognized by Painter 1930 who referred to them as biological strain. The existence of biotype discovered by Painter 1930 on Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor on resistance varieties of winter wheat. Biotype is known to occur in 36 arthropod species belonging to 17 families of five orders. Aphids constitute about 50 % of the spp. with known biotype (Dhaliwal and Arora 2006).
The continuous growing of insect resistant variety may lead to certain physiological and behavioral changes in insect pest. So that, they are capable of feeding and developing on resistant varieties (kogan, 1998). The biotypes are more prone in rice, wheat, soybean, vegetables crops. The main causes for occurrence of biotypes viz., genetic changes in insect pests, continuous growing of insect resistant varieties, single gene resistance and mutation. Biotype development is, one of the major constraints encountered in breeding programmers for varietal resistance (Dhaliwal and Arora 2006).
Q biotype whitefly reported from Queensland Australia and it is severe on vegetable crops but differs from B biotypes as Q biotype does not induce the physiological changes normally as B biotype, also it has the ability to develop resistance quickly to some insecticide groups, particularly if they are used repeatedly (Fancelli, and Vendramim, 2002). In 2010 the soybean aphid biotypes 3 have been identified by university of Illinois which can multiply on aphid resistant soybean varieties consisting Rag-1 and Rag-2 resistant gene (Hill et al. 2010). Presently in rice five biotypes of BPH, six in rice gall midge in India, seven in Russian wheat aphid have occurred.
For prevention of the insect biotype development systematic surveillance programme, adaptation of IPM, injudicious use of insecticides, sequential cultivar release, maintenance of refugia, and use of tolerant varieties and phytosanitary measures are to be utilized.
References
Dhaliwal, G.S. and Arora, R. (2006). Integrated Pest Management: Concepts and Approaches. Ludhiana,
Kalyani Publishers. Pp135-137.
Fancelli, M., and Vendramim, J. D. (2002). Development of Bemisia tabaci Gennadius biotype B on
Lycopersicon Spp. Scientia Agricola, 59: Pp.665-669.
Hill, C.B., Herman, T. K., Voegtlin, D. J. and Hartman, G. L. (2010). A New Soybean Aphid (Hemiptera:
Aphididae) Biotype Identified. J. Econ. Entomol., 103(2): 509- 515
Kogan, M. (1998). Integrated pest management: Historical perspectives and contemporary developments.
A. Rev. Ent, 43: 243-270.
www.planthealthaustrelia.com (Q biotypes whitefly)
Page
17
History of insect biotype
The concept of insect biotypes has been around for 100 year, having been first touched
upon by Walsh (1864).The existence of biotype discovered by painter 1930 on Hessian fly
Mayetiola destructor on resistance varieties of winter wheat. First biotypes were recognized by
Painter 1930 who referred to them as biological strain. Occurrences of gall midge biotype in
India were suspected by Khan and Murthy (1955) even when no resistance varieties were
developed (Benture et al 2003). Biotype development in Corn leaf aphid, Rhapalosiphum maidis
was first detected by Cartier and Painter 1956 was observation in population. Carties (1959)
demonstrated the existance of three Acyrthisiphon pisium biotype on peas in field and green
house.First biotype alfalfa aphid Theroaphis maculata was identified by Pesho et al. 1960
Arizona. Eastop (1973) reviewed the concept of biotype with particular reference to aphid and
suggested that the term was synonymous with clone. First reports of a newly evolved biotype of
B. tabaci, the B biotype, appeared in the mid-1980s (Brown et al., 1995). Commonly referred to
as the silverleaf whitefly or Poinsettia strain. Diehl and Bush ( 1984) have presented an
evolutionary and applied perspectives of insect biotype. Saxena and Barrion (1987) have listed
over 35 spp. of insect pest Agriculture importance for which biotype has been reported.
Willam and Shambaaugh (1988) used biological studies to demonstrate that two
Phylloxera biotype exited the clinton biotype unable to feed on concord and six other grape spp.
and concord biotype unable to feed on clinton and nine other spp. of grape. A detailed analysis
on gall midge biotypes in India has been made by Bentur et al in 2003.March 2005, University of
California and Arizona researchers identify Biotype Q on poinsettias. University of Illinois
researchers (May 2010) recently identified a new soybean aphid biotype that can multiply on
aphid-resistant soybean varieties.
Introduction
The continuous growing of insect resistant variety may lead to certain physiological and
behavioral changes in insect pest. So that they are capable of feeding and developing on resistant
varieties.The term biotype is generally used to describe a population of insects capable of
damaging and surviving on plants previously known to be resistant to other populations of the
same species (Kogan, 1994). Biotype refers to the populations within a species which can
survive on and destroy varieties that have gene for resistance (Heinrichs et al., 1985). Bohssini et
Page
17
al. (2001) insect biotype studies genotypic interaction between resistance in plant and virulence
gene in insect. The challenge for the host-plant resistance strategy is the constant development of
new biotypes that can overcome the resistance of deployed genes (Ratcliffe et al. 2000).In these
cases, an insect biotype is considered to be a population of insects that is able to survive,
reproduce on, and/or cause injury to a cultivated plant that is resistant to other populations of the
same species. Biotypes are morphologically similar with normal insect types but they are
physiologically differing from them.Biotypes are convenient and useful designations for applied
problems in agricultural pest management, especially involving host plant resistance. First,
biotypes are intraspeciÞc categories. Second, biotypes are usually morphologically
indistinguishable. Third, bio- types differ in expressed biological attributes (Claridge and et al
1983).
Biotype development is, one of the major constraints encountered in breeding
programmes for varietal resistance. (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2005). Biotypes are developed more on
varieties having more biochemical defense than the varieties offering physical defense. The
development of insect biotype has based has posed a serious threat to the success of plant
resistance for the management of insect pests. Aphids constitute about 50 % of the spp. with
known biotype (Dhaliwal and Arora. 2005) because of parthenogenesis. Although the occurrence
of biotype among insect is comparatively less frequent than in plant pathogen (Dhaliwal and
Arora, 2005).
Causes of insect biotype
1. Many factors are associated with the ability of an insect to overcome plant resistance.
2. Biotype are known to develops on varieties where antibiosis (biochemical defense) is the
major component of resistance and rarely develop on varieties where antixenosis or tolerance
is mechanism of resistance
3. The continuous growing of insect-resistant varieties may lead to development of biotype.
4. Biotypes of the insects are evolving as a result of selection pressure exerted by large scale
growing of resistant cultivars (Kindler, 1999; Naber, 2000).
Due to a high degree of host specificity, the insect may evolve into a resistance breaking biotype.
The widespread use of one resistance gene is decreasing the genetic diversity of a host.
As a result some insect species will break the resistance gene (Heinrichs, 2001).
Page
17
Use of multiple resistance genes conferring different causes of resistance.
Puterka and Burton (1990) reasoned that biotype developed from
1. Mutation or a Pre-existing variability of virulence: Even a single mutant aphid
capable of feeding on a resistant genotype can build up into a new biotype (Pathak,
1970). Insect biotypes are strains of the pest insect that mutate to express virulence
genes that overcome resistance.
2. Biotypes of the insects are evolving as a result of selection pressure exerted by large
scale growing of resistant cultivars. Resistance due to antibiosis will put high pressure
on biotype development. Biotype are known to develops on varieties where antibiosis
(biochemical defense)is the major component of resistance.
3. Resistance due to Antixenosis will put little pressure on biotype development.
Biotypes are known to rarely develop on varieties where antixenosis is mechanism of
resistance.
4. Complete tolerance will put no pressure on biotype development. Biotype not
develops on varieties where tolerance is mechanism of resistance
Example of insect biotype
Biotype are known to be occurs in 36 arthropod species belonging to 17 families of six
order (Saxena and Barrion, 1987). Aphids constitute about 50 % of the spp. with known biotype.
Ten of 18 are aphid species in which parthenogenic reproduction contribute greatly successfully
development of biotype (Smith, 2004).
1. Coleoptera
Species Common name Family Crop Biotype recent reference
Callosobruchus maculatus
Cowpea weevil Bruchidae Cowpea1
Shade et al. (1996)
Phaedonia inclusa
Soyabean weevilCuculionidae Soyabeen 1
Sitophilius oryzae
Rice weevilCuculionidae Corn wheat
2
Page
17
2. Diptera
SpeciesCommon
nameFamily Crop
Biotype no. Recent reference
Agromyzaoryzae
Rice leaf miner AgromyzidaeRice
2
Mayetiola destructor
Hessian fly CecidomyiidaeWheat, Barley
14Bohissini et al. 2001
Naber, 2000
Orseoliaoryzae
Asian rice gall midge
Cecidomyiidae RiceIndian -6Chinese-4
Katitar et al. 2000
Chloropsoryzae
Rice stem maggot
Chloropidae Rice2
Rhagolitiscerasi
CherryFruit fly
Tephritidae Cherry2
3. Lepidoptera
Species Common name Family CropBiotype no. Recent
reference
Ostrinia nubilalis
European corn borer
Pyralidae Corn4
Laspeyresia pomonella
Walnut Coddling Moth
TortricidaeApple,Walnut 3
Yponomeuta padells
Small ermine moth
YponomeutidaeApple,Walnut
1
4. Thysanoptera
Species Common name Family CropBiotype no. Recent
reference
Thrips tabaci Onion thrips Thripidae Tobbaco2
Page
17
5. Homoptera
Species Common name Family CropBiotype no. Recent
reference
Bemisia tabacci Whitefly Aleyrodide Cotton, Okra,Cassava,
9Cervera et al. 2000
Acyrthosiphon pisum Pea aphid Aphididae Alfalfa9
Zarrabi, 1995
Aphis kondi Aphid Aphididae 1
Zarrabi et al 1995
Amphoraphora rubi A. idaei
Raspbery Aphid Aphididae Beeries6
Panda and Khush 1995, Jones, 2000
Aphis craccivora Cowpea aphidAphididae Groundnut
Bush sitao25
Aphis fabae Bean aphid Aphididae Broad bean 2
Aphis gossypii Cotton aphid Aphididae Pepper 2
Aphis nasturtii Buckhorn aphid Aphidida Potato 2
Aulacorthum solani Green spotted potato aphid
Aphididae Potato 1
Brevicoryne brassicae
CabbageAphid
Aphididae Cabbage 2
Chaetosiphon fragaefoli
Strawberry aphid
Aphididae Strawberry 2
Dysaphis directa D. plantaginea
Apple aphid Aphididae Apple3
Morris, 1998
Eriosoma lanigerum Wooly apple
aphidAphididae Apple
3Young, 1982
Macrisiphum euphorbiae
Potato aphid Aphididae Potato 2
Myzus persicaeGreen peach
aphidAphididae Potato 3
Rhopalosiphum maidis
Corn leaf aphid AphididaeBarley,Corn,
Sorghum
55, 2
Panda and Khush, 1995
Rhopalosiphum padiOat-bird cherry
aphidAphididae Cherry 2
Schizaphis graminum Green bug AphididaeBarley, oat, sorghum,
wheat
11
Porter, 2000
Therioaphis maculataSpotted alfalfa
aphidAphididae Alfalfa
6Panda and Khush,
1995
Page
17
Diuraphisnoxia
Russian wheat aphid
Aphididae Wheat Zsuzsa, 2001
Mueleerianella farmaireiNephotettix virescens
Leaf hopperGreen leaf
hopperCicadellidaeCicadellidae
Rice
13(lab)
Panda and khush, 1995
Saisstia oleae Black scale Coccidae Melon 1
Nilaparvata lugensBrown plant
hopper DelphacidaeRice
5Heinrichs, 2001;
Huang, 2001
Lepidosahes ulmiOystershell
scaleDiaspididae Apple 2
DaktulosphairaVitrifoliae
Grapr phylloxera
Phylloxeridae Grapevine 2
Insect’s biotypes known in different crop pest systems
Rice
In brown plant hoppers five different biotypes have been reported from Indian. Most of
the biotypes having morphological variations among biotypes such as rostrum, legs and antennae
got modified both in males and females
BPH Resistance Varieties Released
The host resistance of rice against BPH was first reported for the variety Mudgo in 1969.
Following gene inserted in different variety of rice for development of resistance of brown plant
hopper.
Biotypes Location
Biotypes 1 & 2 Southeast Asia
Biotype 3 Philippines
Biotype 4 Indian subcontinent
Page
17
BPH Resistance Varieties Released
BPH Resistance Varieties BPH Resistance Gene
IR26, IR 1561-228-3 , Mudgo, TKM6 Bph 1 gene
IR36, IR38 ,ASD 7, IR1154-243 Bph 1 gene
IR50, IR60 , Rathu Heenati Bph 3 gene
Babawee Bph4
ARC10550 bph5 (Khush et al., 1985)
Swarnalatha Bph6 (Kabir and Khush, 1988)
T12 bph7 (Kabir and Khush, 1988)
Chin Saba bph8 (Nemoto et al., 1989)
Kharamana, Balamwee and Pokkali Bph9 (Ikeda, 1985)
Introgression line of O. australiensisBph10 (Jena and Khush, 1990).
Resistance and Susceptible to Insect Biotype
The following table shows that the different resistance varieties of rice develop biotypes.
Gene Resistance and susceptible to insect biotype
Bph3,bph4 Resistant to all four biotype
Bph5, Bph6, Bph7 Susceptible to biotypes 1,2,3, Resistant to biotype 4
Bph8, Bph9,Bph 10 Resistant to biotypes1, 2,3
Scheme for selection of new Biotypes of Nilaparvata lugens
BiotypeResponse of Cultivar
Resistance SusceptibleBiotype 1 IR26,ASD7,Rathu Heenati, Babawee TN1
Biotype 2 Rathu Heenati, Babawee, ASD7 IR26,TN1
Biotype 3 IR26, Rathu Heenati, Babawe ASD7,TN1
Biotype 4
Babawee(Coimbatore)RathuHeenati,Babawee (Bangladesh and hyderabad)
IR26,ASD7,Rathu Heenati (Coimbatore)IR26,TN1, ASD7(Bangladesh and Hyderabad
Insect biotype in rice gall midge (GM)
Page
17
The losses of rice due to rice gall midge are about – 477 thousand tons of grain or 0.8%
of total production (Rs 330 Crores) in India. The occurrence of biotype in India suspected by
Khan and Murthy in 1955.The Biotype developed in rice gall midge in Indian-6 and Chinese-4
(Katiyar et al 2000).Genetic studies have identified, so far, 10 major genes conferring resistance
(Kumar et al., 2005). Most of the 60 plus gall midge resistant rice varieties developed to date
contain one of the three major genes viz., Gm1, Gm2 and an unidentified gene(s) in Ptb21
conferring immune level of resistance. Six distinct gall midge biotypes have been characterized
so far the reaction of biotype among different group of cultivars of rice against rice gall midge is
follows.
Biotype in rice gall midge
Biotype Location
1 Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh
2 Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka
3 Bihar, Manipur
4 Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra (Sakoli)
5 Kerala
6 Manipur
Important biotype in whitefly Bemisia tabaci
Common names of whitefly are Tobacco whitefly, Sweet potato whitefly, Cotton
whitefly.The host of whitefly are Cassava, Cotton, Sweet potatoes, Tobacco,
Tomatoes ,Capsicum, Cucurbita pepo, Cucumbers , Hibiscus, Gerbera, lettuces, poinsettia,
soybeans, green beans, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower. Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), is one of the
most devastating pest insects of agriculture and horticulture in the world (Denholm et al. 1996)
but it is also an efficient vector of a great many plant viruses (Brown 2007). The pest status of
this insect is further complicated by the recognition of more than 20 distinct strains or biotypes
worldwide(Brown et al. 1995; Perring 2001).Of these, the B(silverleaf whitefly or poinsettia
strain) and Q biotypes represent the greatest threat to growers.
First reports of a newly evolved biotype of B. tabaci, the B biotype, appeared in the mid-
1980s (Brown et al., 1995) B biotype has been shown to be highly polyphagous. The B biotype
Page
17
is able to cause phytotoxic disorders in certain plant species, e.g. silverleaf in squashes
(Cucurbita sp.) Although indistinguishable in appearance from silverleaf whitefly (biotype B),
these insects are much less susceptible to insect growth regulators and many neonicotinoid
insecticides. The Q biotype was detected in the United States in 2004 on greenhouse poinsettia
plants (Dennehy et al. 2005). Q-biotype populations are generally less susceptible to many
insecticides currently used in this country, including pyriproxifen (Distance), buprofezin (Talus,
Applaud), imidacloprid (Marathon), thiamethoxam (Flagship), and acetamiprid (Tristar).
Important biotype in soyabean aphid
Rhamnus cathartica L.(buckthorn) is the primary or overwintering host ofA.glycines on
which sexual reproduction occurs; how-ever, eggs can be laid on Rhamnus alnifolia L. (Voegtlin
et al. 2004). Soybean aphids are the No. 1 insect threat to soybean production in the North
Central region of the United States.Soybean is the most important secondary or summer host of
A. glycines (Hill et al. 2004). Soybean aphid has the ability to transmit plant viruses to soybean
such as Alfalfa mosaic virus, Soybean dwarf virus, and Soybean mosaic virus (Hartman et al.
2001, Hill et al. 2001, Clark and Perry 2002, Wang and Ghabrial 2002, Domier et al. 2003).
Earlier study identifying a soybean aphid biotype that could colonize plants with the
Rag1 resistance geneThis gives the pest a high potential to adapt to and reduce the effective life
of resistance genes deployed in production." When farmers plant aphid-resistant soybean
varieties, they provide protection against Biotype 1. However, recent research indicates that
Biotype 2, which was first discovered in 2006, can overcome some aphid-resistant varieties
University of Illinois researchers recently identified a new soybean aphid biotype that can
multiply on aphid-resistant soybean varieties The most recently identified soybean aphid,
Biotype 3, was discovered in Springfield Fen, Ind., on an overwintering host, glossy buckthorn
They found it was capable of feeding and multiplying on varieties carrying the resistance genes
Rag1 and Rag2. Biotype 3 was capable of feeding and multiplying on varieties carrying the
resistance genes Rag1 and Rag2 in soybean.Other resistance genes against soybean aphid Rag 3
Rag 4, are currently on the breeding pipelines for incorporation into elite varieties to suppress
biotype 3
Prevention of Insect Biotype Development
Page
17
Systemic surveillance programme should be designed for monitoring the insect biotype
development. (Ratcliffe, 2001).
Adaptation of integrated pest management techniques likes inters- cropping mixed
cropping.
Reduction of the alate phase will slow down the development of the insect towards a
resistance breaking biotype.
Use of insect growth regulator:
Example-Buprofezin inhibits acetylcholinesterase activity in B-biotype Bemisia tabaci
(Cottage and Gunning, 2006).
Use good non-chemical controls: Remove older leaves, keep areas free from weeds,
segregate infested from non-infested plants, discard heavily infested material.
E.g. Q biotype of white flies (Sanderson et al 2005). Insecticides for rotation include
Azatin, Insecticidal soap, Horticultural oil, Botanigard etc.
No single control treatment can be used on a long-term basis against this pest.Example:
There have also been good results with applications of Orthene followed several days
later by a pyrethroid. Give good result to control Q and B biotype of white fly.
(Sanderson et al 2005).
Maintenance of Refugia: Provide harborage for susceptible moth production to reduce the
chance of resistant (R).To support avirulent individuals to mate with virulent individuals
in the insect population.
Use of susceptible cultivars for at least 20% of the growing area to offer refugees to the main
avirulent biotype in the insect population. (Sloderbeck, 1997 and Kerlin, 2002).
1. To preserve and promote the activity of parasites and predators.Avoid the use of broad-
spectrum insecticides such as pyrethroids, organophosphates, Oraganochlorine.
2. Increasing the number of miner gene in a variety may enhance the level of horizontal
resistance and its stability.
Page
17
1. Miner gene may be combined with major gene.
2. Gene rotating: Use cultivars with one gene in one season, then a different resistance
gene the next (gene rotation).To minimize selection pressure on given resistance
varieties on insect population may be reduced.
3. DNA marker technology is currently used to map and identify specific gene structures
conferring resistance traits in plants. Understanding the genetics of resistance in plants will
provide the knowledge to improve resistance deployment strategies.
4. Use of tolerant cultivars that tolerant varieties would not only check yield loss caused by
insects, but this character combined with major genes.
5. Crop multiline: Different resistance genes in different plants of the same crop within a single
field of area
6. Sequential cultivar release: Use until failure, switch to next gene or when varieties with a
major gene become susceptible due to selection for new biotype another a variety with a new
major gene for resistance is released.
7. Gene pyramiding combines multiple resistance genes (against one pest) in the hybrid or
cultivar OR two or more major gene for vertical resistance is incorporated into a variety to
impart resistance to more biotype. Since monogenic resistance is generally more vulnerable to
biotype development than polygenic resistance.
8. Phytosanitary risk
Very few countries remain free from B. tabaci, illustrating the difficulty of preventing its
movement in international trade. Emergence of the B biotype of B. tabaci, with its ability to feed
on many different host plants has given whitefly-transmitted viruses the potential to infect new
plant species.(Tobacco leaf curl, transmissible tomato yellow leaf curl bean golden mosaic,
squash leaf curl. Particular attention is needed from countries where certain B. tabaci isted
viruses.
Conclusion
Insect biotypes are main limitation of host plant resistance.
An average period of 5-8 years is required for development of variety; however, it has taken less
than 10 years for breakdown of resistance in the field. Insect biotypes are more developed in
Homopteran insect (50% in aphids). Developed more on varieties having more biochemical
Page
17
defense than the varieties offering physical defense. Monogenic resistance is generally more
vulnerable to biotype development than polygenic resistance.
References
Cervera, M, Pina J. A, Juárez, J, Navarro L, Peña, L. (2000). A broad exploration of a
transgenic population of citrus: stability of gene expression and phenotype. Theor. Appl.
Genet. 100: 670-677.
Claridge, K. L. ( 1983). The biotype concept and its application to insect pests of agriculture.
Crop Protection. 2: 85-95.
Dhaliwal, G.S. and Ram Singh, (2004). Host plant resistance to insect: Concepts and
Applications. New Delhi Panima Publishing Corporation. Pp.141-187.
Dhaliwal, G.S. and Ramesh Arora (2006). Integrated Pest Management: Concepts and
Approaches. Ludhiana, Kalyani Publishers. Pp.135-137.
Fancelli, M. and Vendramim, J. D. (2002). Development of Bemisia tabaci Gennadius biotype B on
Lycopersicon Spp. Scientia Agricola, 59: Pp.665-669.
Frank B. P., Puterka, G. J., Hammon, R. W., Burd, J. D., Randolph, T., and Rodney , W. C.,
(2009). Host Associations and Incidence of Diuraphis spp. in the Rocky Mountain
Region of the United States, and Pictorial Key for Their Identification. J. Econ. Entomol.
103(5): 1875-1885.
Heinrichs, E. A. (1988). Plant stress- Insect interaction. John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA.
Heinrichs, E. A. (2001). Development of multiple pest resistance crop cultivars. J. Agric. Ent. 11: 325-
353.
Hill, C.B., Herman, T. K., Voegtlin, D. J. and Hartman, G. L. (2010). A New Soybean Aphid
(Hemiptera: Aphididae) Biotype Identified. J. Econ. Entomol., 103(2): 509- 515
Ikeda R, Kaneda C. 1985. Genetic analysis of resistance to BPH Nilaparvata lugens Stål in rice.
Jpn. J. Breed. 31:279-285.
J. A. Webster and D. R. Porter. 2000. Plant Resistance Components of Two Greenbug
(Homoptera: Aphididae) Resistant Wheats. Journal of Economic Entomology, 93(3):
1000-1004
Page
17
Jones, A. T., Mcgavin, W. J. and Birch, A. N. E., 2000, Effectiveness of resistance genes to the
large raspberry aphid, Amphorophora idaei Börner, in different raspberry (Rubus
idaeus L.) genotypes and under different environmental conditions. Annal of Appl. Biol.
136: 107-113.
Kabir, M.A., and G.S. Khush. 1988. Genetic analysis of resistance to brown planthopper in rice
(Oryza sativa L). Plant Breed. 100:54–58.
Katiyar, S.K. Tan, Y. Huang, B. Chandel, G. Zhang, Y. and Bennett, J. (2001). Molecular
mapping of gene Gm-6(t) which confers resistance against four biotypes of Asian rice
gall midge in China. Theor Appl Genet, 103: 953–961
Khush, G. S. (1985). Rice varietal improvement. Int.Rice Commn. Newsl. 34 (2):111-125.
Kogan, M. (1998). Integrated pest management: Historical perspectives and contemporary developments.
A. Rev. Ent, 43: 243-270.
Naber, N, Bouhssini, M, Labhilili, M, Udupa S. M, Nachit M. M, Baum, M, Lhaloui
S, Benslimane A, El Abbouyi H., (2000). Genetic variation among populations of the
Hessian fly Mayetiola destructor (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in Morocco and Syria. Bull
Entomol Res., 90(3):245-52.
Nemamoto, H., R. lkeda, and C. Kaneda, 1989. New genes for resistance to
brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens Stal., in rice. J. Breed. 39:23–
28.
Painter, R. H. (1951). Insect Resistance in Crop Plants. The Macmillan Co. New York, USA.
Panda, N. and Khush, G.S. (1995). Host plant resistance to insects. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK.
Pathak, M. D. (1970). Genetics in plants in pest management. In: R.L. Rabb and S.K. Sinha
(eds). Concepts of Pest Management. North Carolina State University Press, Raleigh,
USA, pp.138-157.
Perring, T. M. (2001). The Bemisia tabaci species complex. Crop Protect, 20:725–737.
Smith, C. M. (1989). Plant resistance to insect: A fundamental Approach. John Wiley and Sons,
New York. Pp. 12-18.
Page
17
Smith, C. M. (2000). Biological and biotechnological control of insect pests. Ed. By Nancy. A.
R. and Rechcigl. J. E. CRC. Press.
www.planthealthaustrelia.com (Q biotypes whitefly)
Zarrabi, A. A. Berberet, R. C. and Caddel. J. L. (1995). New biotype of Acyrthosiphon
kondoi (Homoptera: Aphididae) on alfalfa in Oklahoma. J. Econ. Entomol ., 88:1461–
1465.
Zsuzsa B., Keith. Hopper, R, Jordan, J, Saayman, T, (2001). Biotype differences in Russian
wheat aphid (Diuraphisnoxia) between South African and Hungarian agro-ecosystems.
Agric. Ecosystems & Environment, 83: 121–128
Sl. No. Content Page No.
Page
17