ROOT EVILS OF AFRIKA'SDOWNFALLConcepts in White World Terror Domination

ContentsArticles

Colonialism 1Neocolonialism 18Hegemony 31Cultural hegemony 35Imperialism 38Cultural imperialism 45New Imperialism 51

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 64Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 66

Article LicensesLicense 68

ROOT EVILS OF AFRIKA'S DOWNFALL, Concepts in White World Terror Domination

Colonialism 1

Colonialism

The pith helmet (in this case, of the SecondFrench Empire) is an icon of colonialism in

tropical lands

Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition andexpansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory.It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over thecolony, and the social structure, government, and economics of thecolony are changed by colonizers from the metropole. Colonialism is aset of unequal relationships between the metropole and the colony andbetween the colonists and the indigenous population.[1]

The European colonial period was the era from the 1500s to, arguably,the 1990s when several European powers (particularly (but notexclusively) Spain, Portugal, Britain, the Netherlands and France)established colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. At first thecountries followed mercantilist policies designed to strengthen thehome economy at the expense of rivals, so the colonies were usuallyallowed to trade only with the mother country. By the mid-19thcentury, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilismand trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, with few restrictions or tariffs.

Definitions

1541 founding of Santiago de Chile

Collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as "the policy andpractice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples orareas."[2] The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions,including "something characteristic of a colony" and "control by onepower over a dependent area or people."[3]

The 2006 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "uses the term'colonialism' to describe the process of European settlement andpolitical control over the rest of the world, including Americas,Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia." It discusses the distinctionbetween colonialism and imperialism and states that "given thedifficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms, this entry will use colonialism as a broad conceptthat refers to the project of European political domination from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries that endedwith the national liberation movements of the 1960s."[4]

In his preface to Jürgen Osterhammel's Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Roger Tignor says, "For Osterhammel,the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies, which are by definition governed differently from otherterritories such as protectorates or informal spheres of influence."[5] In the book, Osterhammel asks, "How can'colonialism' be defined independently from 'colony?'"[6] He settles on a three-sentence definition:

Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous (or forcibly imported) majority and a minority of foreigninvaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the colonized people are made and implemented bythe colonial rulers in pursuit of interests that are often defined in a distant metropolis. Rejecting culturalcompromises with the colonized population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority and theirordained mandate to rule.[7]

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Colonialism 2

Types of colonialism

Dutch family in Java, 1927

Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms ofcolonialism:

• Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, oftenmotivated by religious, political, or economic reasons.

• Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuseson access to resources for export, typically to the metropole.This category includes trading posts as well as larger colonieswhere colonists would constitute much of the political andeconomic administration, but would rely on indigenousresources for labour and material. Prior to the end of the slavetrade and widespread abolition, when indigenous labour wasunavailable, slaves were often imported to the Americas, firstby the Spanish Empire, and later by the Dutch, French andBritish.

Plantation colonies would be considered exploitation colonialism; but colonizing powers would utilize either type fordifferent territories depending on various social and economic factors as well as climate and geographic conditions.

Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by colonial power, in which most of the settlers do notcome from the mainstream of the ruling power.Internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a nation state. The source of exploitationcomes from within the state.

Sociocultural evolutionAs colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas sociocultural evolution included the creation of variousethnically hybrid populations. Colonialism gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as themestizos of the Americas, as well as racially divided populations as found in French Algeria or Southern Rhodesia.In fact everywhere where Colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence hybrid communitiesexisted.Notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese people, Anglo-Indian, Burgher people, Eurasian Singaporean,Filipino mestizo, Kristang people and Macanese people. In the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) the vast majorityof Dutch settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, formally belonging to the European legal class inthe colony.[8] [9]

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Colonialism 3

History

World map of colonialism in 1800

This map of the world in 1914 shows the large colonial empires that powerfulnations established across the globe

World map of colonialism at the end of the Second World War in 1945

Activity that could be called colonialism hasa long history. The Egyptians, Phoenicians,Greeks and Romans all built colonies inantiquity. The word "metropole" comesfrom the Greek metropolis [Greek:"μητρόπολις"]—"mother city". The word"colony" comes from the Latin colonia—"aplace for agriculture". Between the 11th and18th centuries, the Vietnamese establishedmilitary colonies south of their originalterritory and absorbed the territory, in aprocess known as nam tiến.[10]

Modern colonialism started with the Age ofDiscovery. Portugal and Spain discoverednew lands across the oceans and builttrading posts or conquered large extensionsof land. For some people, it is this buildingof colonies across oceans that differentiatescolonialism from other types ofexpansionism. These new lands weredivided between the Portuguese Empire andSpanish Empire, first by the papal bull Intercaetera and then by the Treaty of Tordesillasand the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529).

This period is also associated with theCommercial Revolution. The late MiddleAges saw reforms in accountancy andbanking in Italy and the easternMediterranean. These ideas were adoptedand adapted in western Europe to the highrisks and rewards associated with colonialventures.

The 17th century saw the creation of the French colonial empire and the Dutch Empire, as well as the Englishcolonial empire, which later became the British Empire. It also saw the establishment of a Danish colonial empireand some Swedish overseas colonies.

The spread of colonial empires was reduced in the late 18th and early 19th centuries by the American RevolutionaryWar and the Latin American wars of independence. However, many new colonies were established after this time,including the German colonial empire and Belgian colonial empire. In the late 19th century, many European powerswere involved in the Scramble for Africa.The Russian Empire, Ottoman Empire and Austrian Empire existed at the same time as the above empires, but didnot expand over oceans. Rather, these empires expanded through the more traditional route of conquest ofneighbouring territories. There was, though, some Russian colonization of the Americas across the Bering Strait. TheEmpire of Japan modelled itself on European colonial empires. The United States of America gained overseasterritories after the Spanish-American War for which the term "American Empire" was coined.

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Colonialism 4

After the First World War, the victorious allies divided up the German colonial empire and much of the OttomanEmpire between themselves as League of Nations mandates. These territories were divided into three classesaccording to how quickly it was deemed that they would be ready for independence.[11] However, decolonisationoutside the Americas lagged until after the Second World War. In 1962 the United Nations set up a SpecialCommittee on Decolonization, often called the Committee of 24, to encourage this process.Further, dozens of independence movements and global political solidarity projects such as the Non-AlignedMovement were instrumental in the decolonization efforts of former colonies.

European colonies in 1914The major European empires consisted of the following colonies at the start of World War I (former colonies of theSpanish Empire became independent before 1914 and are not listed; former colonies of other European empires thatpreviously became independent, such as the former French colony Haiti, are not listed):British colonies:

Colonial Governor of the Seychelles inspectingpolice guard of honour in 1972

The defence of Rorke's Drift during theAnglo-Zulu War of 1879

•• Aden•• Anglo-Egyptian Sudan•• Ascension Island•• Australia•• Bahamas•• Basutoland•• Bechuanaland•• British East Africa•• British Guiana•• British Honduras•• British Hong Kong•• British Somaliland•• Burma•• Canada•• Ceylon•• Egypt•• Ellice Island•• Falkland Islands•• Fiji Island•• Gambia•• Gold Coast•• India•• Ireland•• Jamaica•• Malaya•• New Zealand•• Nigeria•• Northern Rhodesia•• Oman•• Papua•• Sarawak•• Sierra Leone•• South Rhodesia

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Colonialism 5

•• St. Helena•• Swaziland•• Trinidad and Tobago•• Uganda•• Union of South AfricaDutch colonies:

•• Curaçao and Dependencies•• Dutch East Indies•• SurinameFrench colonies:

Siege of Constantine (1836) during the Frenchconquest of Algeria.

•• Algeria•• Clipperton Island•• Comoros Islands•• French Guiana•• French Equatorial Africa

•• Chad•• Oubangui-Chari•• French Congo•• Gabon

• French India (Pondichéry, Chandernagor, Karikal, Mahé and Yanaon)•• French Indochina

•• Annam

French officers and Tonkinese riflemen, 1884

•• Cambodia•• Cochinchina•• Laos•• Tonkin

•• French Polynesia•• French Somaliland•• French Southern and Antarctic Lands•• French West Africa

•• Benin•• Côte d'Ivoire•• Dahomey•• Guinea•• French Sudan•• Mauritania•• Niger•• Senegal•• Upper Volta

•• Guadeloupe•• Saint Barthélemy•• Saint Martin

•• La Réunion•• Madagascar•• Martinique

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Colonialism 6

•• Morocco•• New Caledonia•• Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon• Shanghai French Concession (similar concessions in Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, Tientsin, Hankéou)•• Tunisia•• Vanuatu•• Wallis-et-Futuna

Kamerun, 1908

German Empire colonies:

•• Cameroon•• Caroline Islands•• German New Guinea•• German East Africa•• German South West Africa•• Gilbert Islands•• Mariana Islands•• Marshall Islands•• Togo

Portuguese women in Goa, India, 16thcentury

Portuguese colonies:

•• Azores•• Madeira•• Portuguese Africa

•• Portuguese Angola•• Portuguese Cape Verde•• Portuguese Congo•• Portuguese Guinea•• Portuguese Mozambique•• Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe•• Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá

•• Portuguese Asia•• Portuguese India•• Portuguese Macau

•• Portuguese Timor

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Colonialism 7

Numbers of European settlers in the colonies (1500-1914)

Millions of Irish left Ireland for Canada andU.S. following the Great Famine in the

1840s.

By 1914, Europeans had migrated to the colonies in the millions. Someintended to remain in the colonies as temporary settlers, mainly as militarypersonnel or on business. Others went to the colonies as immigrants. Britishcitizens were by far the most numerous population to migrate to thecolonies: 2.5 million settled in Canada; 1.5 million in Australia; 750,000 inNew Zealand; 450,000 in the Union of South Africa; and 200,000 in India.French citizens also migrated in large numbers, mainly to the colonies inthe north African Maghreb region: 1.3 million settled in Algeria; 200,000 inMorocco; 100,000 in Tunisia; while only 20,000 migrated to FrenchIndochina. Dutch and German colonies saw relatively scarce Europeanmigration, since Dutch and German colonial expansion focused uponcommercial goals rather than settlement. Portugal sent 150,000 settlers toAngola, 80,000 to Mozambique, and 20,000 to Goa. During the SpanishEmpire, approximately 550,000 Spanish settlers migrated to LatinAmerica.[12]

Neocolonialism

The term neocolonialism has been used to refer to a variety of contexts since decolonization that took place afterWorld War II. Generally it does not refer to a type of direct colonization, rather, colonialism by other means.Specifically, neocolonialism refers to the theory that former or existing economic relationships, such as the GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Central American Free Trade Agreement, created by former colonialpowers were or are used to maintain control of their former colonies and dependencies after the colonialindependence movements of the post–World War II period.

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Colonialism and the history of thought

Universalism

Paris Colonial Exposition

The conquest of vast territories brings multitudes of diversecultures under the central control of the imperial authorities. Fromthe time of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, this fact has beenaddressed by empires adopting the concept of universalism, andapplying it to their imperial policies towards their subjects farfrom the imperial capitol. The capitol, the metropole, was thesource of ostensibly enlightened policies imposed throughout thedistant colonies.The empire that grew from Athenian conquest spurred the spreadof Greek language, religion, science and philosophy throughoutthe colonies. The Athenians considered their own culture superiorto all others. They referred to people speaking foreign languagesas barbarians, dismissing foreign languages as inferior mutteringsthat sounded to Greek ears like "bar-bar".

Romans found efficiency in imposing a universalist policy towardstheir colonies in many matters. Roman law was imposed onRoman citizens, as well as colonial subjects, throughout theempire. Latin spread as the common language of government andtrade, the lingua franca, throughout the Empire. Romans alsoimposed peace between their diverse foreign subjects, which theydescribed in beneficial terms as the Pax Romana. The use ofuniversal regulation by the Romans marks the emergence of a European concept of universalism andinternationalism. Tolerance of other cultures and beliefs has always been secondary to the aims of empires, however.The Roman Empire was tolerant of diverse cultures and religious practises, so long as these did not threaten Romanauthority. Napoleon's foreign minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, once remarked: "Empire is the art of puttingmen in their place".[13]

Colonialism and geographySettlers acted as the link between the natives and the imperial hegemony, bridging the geographical, ideological andcommercial gap between the colonisers and colonised. Advanced technology made possible the expansion ofEuropean states. With tools such as cartography, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and agricultural productivitycolonisers had an upper hand. Their awareness of the Earth's surface and abundance of practical skills providedcolonisers with a knowledge that, in turn, created power.[14]

Painter and Jeffrey argue that geography as a discipline was not and is not an objective science, rather it is based onassumptions about the physical world. Whereas it may have given “The West” an advantage when it came toexploration, it also created zones of racial inferiority. Geographical beliefs such as environmental determinism, theview that some parts of the world are underdeveloped, legitimised colonialism and created notions of skewedevolution.[14] These are now seen as elementary concepts. Political geographers maintain that colonial behavior wasreinforced by the physical mapping of the world, visually separating “them” and “us”. Geographers are primarilyfocused on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism, more specifically, the material and symbolic appropriation ofspace enabling colonialism.[15]

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Colonialism 9

Colonialism and imperialism

Governor-General Félix Éboué welcomes Charles deGaulle to Chad.

A colony is part of an empire and so colonialism is closely relatedto imperialism. Assumptions are that colonialism and imperialismare interchangeable, however Robert Young suggests thatimperialism is the concept while colonialism is the practice.Colonialism is based on an imperial outlook, thereby creating aconsequential relationship. Through an empire, colonialism isestablished and capitalism is expanded, on the other hand acapitalist economy naturally enforces an empire. In the nextsection Marxists make a case for this mutually reinforcingrelationship.

Marxist view of colonialism

Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcingexploitation and social change. Marx thought that working withinthe global capitalist system, colonialism is closely associated withuneven development. It is an “instrument of wholesale destruction,dependency and systematic exploitation producing distortedeconomies, socio-psychological disorientation, massive povertyand neocolonial dependency.”[16] According to some Marxist historians, in all of the colonial countries ruled byWestern European countries “the natives were robbed of more than half their natural span of life byundernourishment”.[17] Colonies are constructed into modes of production. The search for raw materials and thecurrent search for new investment opportunities is a result of inter-capitalist rivalry for capital accumulation. Leninregarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was distinguished by monopoly capitalism viacolonialism and as Lyal S. Sunga explains: "Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of self-determinationof peoples in his "Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination" as an integralplank in the programme of socialist internationalism" and he quotes Lenin who contended that "The right of nationsto self-determination implies exclusively the right to independence in the political sense, the right to free politicalseparation from the oppressor nation. Specifically, this demand for political democracy implies complete freedom toagitate for secession and for a referendum on secession by the seceding nation."[18]

In his critique of colonialism in Africa, the Guyanese historian and political activist Walter Rodney states:"The decisiveness of the short period of colonialism and its negative consequences for Africa spring mainly from the fact that Africa lost power. Power is the ultimate determinant in human society, being basic to the relations within any group and between groups. It implies the ability to defend one’s interests and if necessary to impose one’s will by any means available. In relations between peoples, the question of power determines manoeuvrability in bargaining, the extent to which one people respect the interests of another, and eventually the extent to which a people survive as a physical and cultural entity. When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself is a form of underdevelopment....During the centuries of pre-colonial trade, some control over social political and economic life was retained in Africa, in spite of the disadvantageous commerce with Europeans. That little control over internal matters disappeared under colonialism. Colonialism went much further than trade. It meant a tendency towards direct appropriation by Europeans of the social institutions within Africa. Africans ceased to set indigenous cultural goals and standards, and lost full command of training young members of the society. Those were undoubtedly major steps backwards.... Colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation, but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits to the so-called ‘mother country’. From an African view-point, that amounted to

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Colonialism 10

consistent expatriation of surplus produced by African labour out of African resources. It meant thedevelopment of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa was underdeveloped."

“Colonial Africa fell within that part of the international capitalist economy from which surplus was drawn to feedthe metropolitan sector. As seen earlier, exploitation of land and labour is essential for human social advance, butonly on the assumption that the product is made available within the area where the exploitation takes place.[19][20]

Liberalism, capitalism and colonialismClassical liberals generally opposed colonialism (as opposed to colonization) and imperialism, including AdamSmith, Frédéric Bastiat, Richard Cobden, John Bright, Henry Richard, Herbert Spencer, H. R. Fox Bourne, EdwardMorel, Josephine Butler, W. J. Fox and William Ewart Gladstone. Moreover, American revolution was the firstanti-colonial rebellion, inspiring others.[21]

Adam Smith wrote in Wealth of Nations that Britain should liberate all of its colonies and also noted that it would beeconomically beneficial for British people in the average, although the merchants having mercantilist privilegeswould lose out.[21]

Post-colonialismFurther information: Dutch Indies literature

Anzac Day Parade in Brisbane, Australia.

Post-colonialism (or post-colonial theory) can refer to a set of theoriesin philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonialrule. In this sense, postcolonial literature may be considered a branchof postmodern literature concerned with the political and culturalindependence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires.Many practitioners take Edward Saïd's book Orientalism (1978) as thetheory's founding work (although French theorists such as AiméCésaire and Frantz Fanon made similar claims decades before Said).

Saïd analysed the works of Balzac, Baudelaire and Lautréamont,exploring how they both absorbed and helped to shape a societalfantasy of European racial superiority. Writers of post-colonial fiction interact with the traditional colonial discourse,but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minorcharacter in the story. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's Can the Subaltern Speak? (1998) gave its name to SubalternStudies.

In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason (1999), Spivak explored how major works of European metaphysics (such asthose of Kant and Hegel) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively preventnon-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human subjects. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), famousfor its explicit ethnocentrism, considers Western civilization as the most accomplished of all, while Kant alsoallowed some traces of racialism to enter his work.

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Impact of colonialism and colonization

The Dutch Public Health Service provides medical carefor the natives of the Dutch East Indies, May 1946

The impacts of colonization are immense and pervasive.[22]

Various effects, both immediate and protracted, include thespread of virulent diseases, the establishment of unequal socialrelations, exploitation, enslavement, medical advances, thecreation of new institutions, and technological progress.Colonial practices also spur the spread of languages, literatureand cultural institutions. The native cultures of the colonizedpeoples can also have a powerful influence on the imperialcountry.

Expansion of trade

Imperial expansion has been accompanied by economicexpansion since ancient times. Greek trade networks spread throughout the Mediterranean region, while Romantrade expanded with the main goal of directing tribute from the colonized areas towards the Roman metropole. Withthe development of trade routes under the Ottoman Empire,

Gujari Hindus, Syrian Muslims, Jews, Armenians, Christians from south and central Europe operated tradingroutes that supplied Persian and Arab horses to the armies of all three empires, Mocha coffee to Delhi andBelgrade, Persian silk to India and Istanbul.[23]

Aztec civilization developed into a large empire that, much like the Roman Empire, had the goal of exacting tributefrom the conquered colonial areas. For the Aztecs, the most important tribute was the acquisition of sacrificialvictims for their religious rituals.[24]

Slaves and indentured servantsFurther information: Atlantic slave trade and Indentured servant

Slave memorial in Zanzibar. The Sultan ofZanzibar complied with British demands thatslavery be banned in Zanzibar and that all the

slaves be freed.

European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal ofenriching the European metropole. Exploitation of non-Europeans andother Europeans to support imperial goals was acceptable to thecolonizers. Two outgrowths of this imperial agenda were slavery andindentured servitude. In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of Englishsettlers came to North America as indentured servants.[25]

African slavery had existed long before Europeans discovered it as anexploitable means of creating an inexpensive labour force for thecolonies. Europeans brought transportation technology to the practise,bringing large numbers of African slaves to the Americas by sail.Spain and Portugal had brought African slaves to work at Africancolonies such as Cape Verde and the Azores, and then Latin America,by the 16th century. The British, French and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries. Ultimately,around 11 million Africans were taken to the Caribbean and North and South America as slaves by Europeancolonizers.[26]

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European empire Colonial destination Number of slaves imported[26]

Portuguese Empire Brazil 3,646,800

British Empire British Caribbean 1,665,000

French Empire French Caribbean 1,600,200

Spanish Empire Latin America 1,552,100

Dutch Empire Dutch Caribbean 500,000

British Empire British North America 399,000

Slave traders in Senegal. For centuriesAfricans had sold other Africans to the Arabs

and Europeans as slaves.

Abolitionists in Europe and America protested the inhumane treatment ofAfrican slaves, which led to the elimination of the slave trade by the late19th century. The labour shortage that resulted inspired Europeancolonizers to develop a new source of labour, using a system ofindentured servitude. Indentured servants consented to a contract with theEuropean colonizers. Under their contract, the servant would work for anemployer for a term of at least a year, while the employer agreed to payfor the servant's voyage to the colony, possibly pay for the return to thecountry of origin, and pay the employee a wage as well. The employeewas "indentured" to the employer because they owed a debt back to theemployer for their travel expense to the colony, which they wereexpected to pay through their wages. In practice, indentured servantswere exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensomedebts created by the employers, with whom the servants had no means ofnegotiating the debt once they arrived in the colony.

India and China were the largest source of indentured servants during thecolonial era. Indentured servants from India travelled to British coloniesin Asia, Africa and the Caribbean, and also to French and Portuguesecolonies, while Chinese servants travelled to British and Dutch colonies. Between 1830 and 1930, around 30 millionindentured servants migrated from India, and 24 million returned to India. China sent more indentured servants toEuropean colonies, and around the same proportion returned to China.[27]

Military innovationImperial expansion follows military conquest in most instances. Imperial armies therefore have a long history ofmilitary innovation in order to gain an advantage over the armies of the people they aim to conquer. Greeksdeveloped the phalanx system, which enabled their military units to present themselves to their enemies as a wall,with foot soldiers using shields to cover one another during their advance on the battlefield. Under Philip II ofMacedon, they were able to organize thousands of soldiers into a formidable battle force, bringing together carefullytrained infantry and cavalry regiments.[28] Alexander the Great exploited this military foundation further during hisconquests.The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of weapons made ofstronger metal, predominantly iron, which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the Aztec civilization andothers. The European development of firearms using gunpowder cemented their military advantage over the peoplesthey sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere.

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The end of empire

Gandhi having tea with Lord Mountbatten, 1947

The populations of some colonial territories, such as Canada, enjoyedrelative peace and prosperity as part of a European power, at leastamong the majority; however, minority populations such as FirstNations peoples and French-Canadians experienced marginalizationand resented colonial practises. Francophone residents of Quebec, forexample, were vocal in opposing conscription into the armed servicesto fight on behalf of Britain during World War I, resulting in theConscription crisis of 1917. Other European colonies had much morepronounced conflict between European settlers and the localpopulation. Rebellions broke out in the later decades of the imperialera, such as India's Sepoy Rebellion.

The territorial boundaries imposed by European colonizers, notably in central Africa and south Asia, defied theexisting boundaries of native populations that had previously interacted little with one another. European colonizersdisregarded native political and cultural animosities, imposing peace upon people under their military control. Nativepopulations were relocated at the will of the colonial administrators. Once independence from European control wasachieved, civil war erupted in some former colonies, as native populations fought to capture territory for their ownethnic, cultural or political group. The Partition of India, a 1947 civil war that came in the aftermath of India'sindependence from Britain, became a conflict with 500,000 killed. Fighting erupted between Hindu, Sikh andMuslim communities as they fought for territorial dominance. Muslims fought for an independent country to bepartitioned where they would not be a religious minority, resulting in the creation of Pakistan.[29]

Post-independence population movement

The annual Notting Hill Carnival in London is acelebration led by the Trinidadian and

Tobagonian British community.

In a reversal of the migration patterns experienced during the moderncolonial era, post-independence era migration followed a route backtowards the imperial country. In some cases, this was a movement ofsettlers of European origin returning to the land of their birth, or to anancestral birthplace. 900,000 French colonists (known as thePied-Noirs) resettled in France following Algeria's independence in1962. A significant number of these migrants were also of Algeriandescent. 800,000 people of Portuguese origin migrated to Portugal afterthe independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979;300,000 settlers of Dutch origin migrated to the Netherlands from theDutch West Indies after Dutch military control of the colony ended.[30]

After WWII 300,000 Dutchmen from the Dutch East Indies, of which the majority were people of Eurasian descentcalled Indo Europeans, repatriated to the Netherlands. A significant number later migrated to the US, Canada,Australia and New Zealand.[31][32]

Global travel and migration in general developed at an increasingly brisk pace throughout the era of Europeancolonial expansion. Citizens of the former colonies of European countries may have a privileged status in somerespects with regard to immigration rights when settling in the former European imperial nation. For example, rightsto dual citizenship may be generous,[33] or larger immigrant quotas may be extended to former colonies.

In some cases, the former European imperial nations continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies. The Commonwealth of Nations is an organization that promotes cooperation between and among Britain and its former colonies, the Commonwealth members. A similar organization exists for former colonies of France, the Francophonie; the Community of Portuguese Language Countries plays a similar role for former Portuguese

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colonies, and the Dutch Language Union is the equivalent for former colonies of the Netherlands.Migration from former colonies has proven to be problematic for European countries, where the majority populationmay express hostility to ethnic minorities who have immigrated from former colonies. Cultural and religious conflicthave often erupted in France in recent decades, between immigrants from the Maghreb countries of north Africa andthe majority population of France. Nonetheless, immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France; by the1980s, 25% of the total population of "inner Paris" and 14% of the metropolitan region were of foreign origin,mainly Algerian.[34]

Impact on health

Aztecs dying of smallpox, (“The FlorentineCodex” 1540–85)

Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the worldoften introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused localepidemics of extraordinary virulence.[35] For example, smallpox,measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown inpre-Columbian America.[36]

Disease killed the entire native (Guanches) population of the CanaryIslands in the 16th century. Half the native population of Hispaniola in1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlan alone, including the emperor,and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killeda further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century. In1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.[37] Smallpox epidemics in1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians.[38] Some believethat the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old Worlddiseases.[39] Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while theindigenous peoples had no time to build such immunity.[40]

Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of indigenous Australians in the earlyyears of British colonisation.[41] It also killed many New Zealand Māori.[42] As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduceddiseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island.[43] In 1875, measles killed over40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population.[44] The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19thcentury, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.[45]

Conversely, researchers concluded that syphilis was carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus'svoyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where theorganisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe.[46] The disease wasmore frequently fatal than it is today; syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance.[47] The firstcholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. Ten thousand British troops and countlessIndians died during this pandemic.[48] Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of East India Company's officerssurvived to take the final voyage home.[49] Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, who developed andused vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague in the 1890s, is considered the first microbiologist.

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Colonialism 15

Countering disease

As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organised a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccineto the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there.[50] By 1832, the federal government of theUnited States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.[51] Under the direction ofMountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India.[52] From the beginningof the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for allcolonial powers.[53] The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematicallyscreening millions of people at risk.[54] In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population inhuman history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.[55] The worldpopulation has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to over 7 billion today.

Notes[1] Origins – the invention of colonialism: see article on Ronald Daus, references and bibliography[2] "Colonialism" (http:/ / www. collinsdictionary. com/ dictionary/ english/ colonialism). Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. 2011. .

Retrieved 8 January 2012.[3] "Colonialism" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ colonialism). Merriam-Webbster. Merriam-Webster. 2010. . Retrieved 5

April 2010.[4] Margaret Kohn (2006). "Colonialism" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ colonialism/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford

University. . Retrieved 5 April 2010.[5] Tignor, Roger (2005). preface to Colonialism: a theoretical overview (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&

pg=PR10#v=onepage). Markus Weiner Publishers. p. x. ISBN 1-55876-340-6, 9781558763401. . Retrieved 5 April 2010.[6] Osterhammel, Jürgen (2005). Colonialism: a theoretical overview (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&

pg=PA15#v=onepage). trans. Shelley Frisch. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 1-55876-340-6, 9781558763401. . Retrieved 5 April2010.

[7] Osterhammel, Jürgen (2005). Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&pg=PA16#v=onepage). trans. Shelley Frisch. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 1-55876-340-6, 9781558763401. . Retrieved 5 April2010.

[8] Bosma U., Raben R. Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920 (University of Michigan, NUS Press,2008) P.223 ISBN 9971-69-373-9 Googlebook (http:/ / books. google. nl/ books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C& dq=Carel+ Pieter+ Brest+ van+Kempen& source=gbs_navlinks_s)

[9] Gouda, Frances ‘Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies 1900-1942.’ (Publisher: Equinox, 2008) ISBN978-979-3780-62-7 Chapter 5, P.163 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=nN6G-lMk_DEC& source=gbs_navlinks_s)

[10] The Le Dynasty and Southward Expansion (http:/ / countrystudies. us/ vietnam/ 11. htm)[11] "The Trusteeship Council - The mandate system of the League of Nations" (http:/ / www. nationsencyclopedia. com/ United-Nations/

The-Trusteeship-Council-THE-MANDATE-SYSTEM-OF-THE-LEAGUE-OF-NATIONS. html). Encyclopedia of the Nations. Advameg.2010. . Retrieved 8 August 2010.

[12] King, Russell (2010). People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 34–5.ISBN 0-520-26151-8.

[13] Pagden, Anthony (2003). Peoples and Empires. New York: Modern Library. pp. xxiii. ISBN 0-8129-6761-5.[14] "Painter, J. & Jeffrey, A., 2009. Political Geography 2nd ed., Sage. “Imperialism” pg 23 (GIC)[15][15] Gallaher, C. et al., 2008. Key Concepts in Political Geography, Sage Publications Ltd. "Imperialism/Colonialism" pg 5 (GIC)[16][16] Dictionary of Human Geography, "Colonialism"[17][17] The Labour Government 1945-51 by Denis Nowell Pritt[18][18] In the Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments and Codification, Brill Publishers (1997) at page 90, Sunga traces the

origin of the international movement against colonialism, and relates it to the rise of the right to self-determination in international law.[19] Walter Rodney. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CwSSkemSJLcC& pg=PA224). East African

Publishers. p. 149, 224. .[20] Henry Schwarz; Sangeeta Ray (2004). A Companion To Postcolonial Studies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eyiZafDHpqoC&

pg=PA271). John Wiley & Sons. p. 271. .[21] Liberal Anti-Imperialism (http:/ / www. setav. org/ ups/ dosya/ 24514. pdf), professor Daniel Klein, 1.7.2004[22] Come Back, Colonialism, All is Forgiven (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ world/ article/ 0,8599,1713275,00. html)[23] Pagden, Anthony (2003). Peoples and Empires. New York: Modern Library. pp. 45. ISBN 0-8129-6761-5.[24] Pagden, Anthony (2003). Peoples and Empires. New York: Modern Library. pp. 5. ISBN 0-8129-6761-5.[25] " White Servitude (http:/ / www. montgomerycollege. edu/ Departments/ hpolscrv/ whiteser. html)", by Richard Hofstadter, Montgomery

College

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Colonialism 16

[26] King, Russell (2010). People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 24.ISBN 978-0-520-26124-2.

[27] King, Russell (2010). People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 26–7.ISBN 978-0-520-26124-2.

[28] Pagden, Anthony (2003). Peoples and Empires. New York: Modern Library. pp. 6. ISBN 0-8129-6761-5.[29] White, Matthew (2012). The Great Big Book of Horrible Things. London: W.W. Norton & Co. Ltd.. pp. 427. ISBN 978-0-393-08192-3.[30] King, Russell (2010). People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 35.

ISBN 978-0-520-26124-2.[31] Willlems, Wim "De uittocht uit Indie (1945–1995), De geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders" (Publisher: Bert Bakker, Amsterdam,

2001). ISBN 90-351-2361-1[32][32] Crul, Lindo and Lin Pang. Culture, Structure and Beyond, Changing identities and social positions of immigrants and their children (Het

Spinhuis Publishers, 1999). ISBN 90-5589-173-8[33] "British Nationality Act 1981" (http:/ / www. legislation. gov. uk/ ukpga/ 1981/ 61). The National Archives, United Kingdom. . Retrieved

February 24, 2012.[34] Seljuq, Affan (July 1997). "Cultural Conflicts: North African Immigrants in France" (http:/ / www. gmu. edu/ programs/ icar/ ijps/ vol2_2/

seljuq. htm). The International Journal of Peace Studies 2, (2). ISSN 1085-7494. . Retrieved February 24, 2012.[35] Kenneth F. Kiple, ed. The Cambridge Historical Dictionary of Disease (2003)[36] Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (1974)[37] Smallpox The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge (http:/ / www. ucpress. edu/ books/ pages/ 9968/ 9968. ch01. html), David A. Koplow[38] "The first smallpox epidemic on the Canadian Plains: In the fur-traders' words" (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender.

fcgi?artid=2094753), National Institutes of Health[39] The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ gunsgermssteel/ variables/ smallpox. html)[40] Stacy Goodling, "Effects of European Diseases on the Inhabitants of the New World" (http:/ / www. millersville. edu/ ~columbus/ papers/

goodling. html)[41] "Smallpox Through History" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?id=1257008292443871). Archived from the original (http:/ / encarta.

msn. com/ media_701508643/ Smallpox_Through_History. html) on 2009-10-31. .[42] New Zealand Historical Perspective (http:/ / www. canr. msu. edu/ overseas/ nzenvironsci/ infopart2. htm)[43] How did Easter Island's ancient statues lead to the destruction of an entire ecosystem? (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ science/

how-did-easter-islands-ancient-statues-lead-to-the-destruction-of-an-entire-ecosystem-455877. html), The Independent[44] Fiji School of Medicine (http:/ / www. fsm. ac. fj/ aboutfsm. html)[45] Meeting the First Inhabitants (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ asia/ features/ ontheroad/ japan. sapporo. ainu. html), TIMEasia.com, 21

August 2000[46] Genetic Study Bolsters Columbus Link to Syphilis (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 01/ 15/ science/ 15syph. html?_r=1), New York

Times, January 15, 2008[47] Columbus May Have Brought Syphilis to Europe (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ history/ 080114-syphilis-columbus. html), LiveScience[48] Cholera's seven pandemics (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ health/ story/ 2008/ 05/ 09/ f-cholera-outbreaks. html). CBC News. December 2, 2008[49] Sahib: The British Soldier in India, 1750-1914 by Richard Holmes (http:/ / www. asianreviewofbooks. com/ arb/ article. php?article=610)[50] Dr. Francisco de Balmis and his Mission of Mercy, Society of Philippine Health History (http:/ / www. doh. gov. ph/ sphh/ balmis. htm)[51] Lewis Cass and the Politics of Disease: The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832 (http:/ / muse. jhu. edu/ login?uri=/ journals/ wicazo_sa_review/

v018/ 18. 2pearson01. html)[52] Smallpox History - Other histories of smallpox in South Asia (http:/ / www. smallpoxhistory. ucl. ac. uk/ Other Asia/ ongoingwork. htm)[53] Conquest and Disease or Colonialism and Health? (http:/ / www. gresham. ac. uk/ event. asp?PageId=45& EventId=696), Gresham College |

Lectures and Events[54] WHO Media centre (2001). Fact sheet N°259: African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness (http:/ / www. who. int/ mediacentre/ factsheets/

fs259/ en/ index. html). .[55] The Origins of African Population Growth, by John Iliffe (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 182701), The Journal of African HistoryVol. 30, No.

1 (1989), pp. 165-169

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Colonialism 17

References• Cooper, Frederick. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (2005)• Getz, Trevor R. and Heather Streets-Salter, eds. Modern Imperialism and Colonialism: A Global Perspective

(2010)• Stuchtey, Benedikt: Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450-1950 (http:/ / nbn-resolving. de/

urn:nbn:de:0159-20101025319), European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved:July 13, 2011.

• Wendt, Reinhard: European Overseas Rule (http:/ / nbn-resolving. de/ urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921437), EuropeanHistory Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: June 13, 2012.

Primary sources• Conrad, Joseph, Heart of Darkness, 1899• Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth, Pref. by Jean-Paul Sartre. Translated by Constance Farrington. London

: Penguin Book, 2001• Kipling, Rudyard, The White Man's Burden, 1899• Las Casas, Bartolomé de, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (1542, published in 1552)• LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier, Coloniser, Exterminer - Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, Fayard, 2005, ISBN

2-213-62316-3• Lindqvist, Sven, Exterminate All The Brutes, 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), ISBN

978-1-56584-359-2• Maria Petringa, Brazza, A life for Africa (2006), ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0• Jürgen Osterhammel, Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997.• Said, Edward, Orientalism, 1978; 25th-anniversary edition 2003 ISBN 978-0-394-74067-6

External links• Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf) (http:/ / lsb. scu. edu/ ~dklein/ papers/ PdfPapers/

Liberalanti-imperialism. pdf) - by professor Daniel Klein• Colonialism (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ colonialism) entry by Margaret Kohn in the Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy• Globalization (and the metaphysics of control in a free market world) (http:/ / www. pinkyshow. org/ archives/

episodes/ 070307/ ) - an online video on globalization, colonialism, and control.

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Neocolonialism

The Motherland and her dependant colonial offspring.(William-Adolphe Bouguereau, 1883)

Neocolonialism (also Neo-colonialism) is the geopoliticalpractice of using capitalism, business globalization, andcultural imperialism to control a country, in lieu of eitherdirect military control or indirect political control, i.e.imperialism and hegemony. The term neo-colonialism wascoined by the Ghanaian politician Kwame Nkrumah, todescribe the socio-economic and political control that can beexercised economically, linguistically, and culturally, wherebypromotion of the culture of the neo-colonist country,facilitates the cultural assimilation of the colonised people,and thus opens the national economy to the multinationalcorporations of the neo-colonial country.

The European world empires and their colonies in the late 19thcentury, before the Spanish-American War (1898), Boxer Rebellion

(1899–1901), and the Second Boer War (1899–1902).

The European world empires and their colonies in the mid 20thcentury, after the Second World War (1939–45).

In post-colonial studies, the term neo-colonialism describes the domination-praxis (social, economic, cultural) of countries from the developed world in the respective internal affairs of the countries of the developing world; that, despite the decolonisation occurred in the aftermath of the Second World War (1939–45), the (former) colonial powers continue to apply existing and past international economic arrangements with their former colony countries, and so maintain colonial control. A neo-colonialism critique can include de facto colonialism (imperialist or hegemonic), and an economic critique of the disproportionate involvement of modern capitalist business in the economy of a developing country, whereby multinational corporations continue to exploit the natural resources and the people of the former colony; that such economic control is inherently neo-colonial, and thus is akin to the

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imperial and hegemonic varieties of colonialism practiced by the empires of Great Britain, France, and otherEuropean countries, from the 16th to the 20th centuries.[1] The ideology and praxis of neo-colonialism are discussedin the works of Jean-Paul Sartre (Colonialism and Neo-colonialism, 1964)[2] and Noam Chomsky (The WashingtonConnection and Third World Fascism, 1979).[3]

The termOrigins

A 1989 edition of a ten-kopeck U.S.S.R. postagestamp of Kwame Nkrumah, the Ghanaian

politician who coined the term Neo-colonialism.

The political-science term neo-colonialism became popular usage inreference to the continued European control — economic, cultural,etc. — of African countries that had been decolonized in theaftermath of the Second World War (1939–45). Kwame Nkrumah,president of Ghana (1960–66), coined the term neo-colonialism in thebook Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism (1965)[4][5] As apolitical scientist, Nkrumah theoretically developed and extended, tothe post–War 20th century, the socio-economic and politicalarguments presented by Lenin in the pamphlet Imperialism, theHighest Stage of Capitalism (1917), about 19th-century imperialismas the logical extension of geopolitical power to meet the financialinvestment needs of the political economy of capitalism.[6]

The Cuban revolutionary Ché Guevaradescribed neo-colonialism as the continuedcolonial rule of decolonized countries by

other means.

In Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism, Kwame Nkrumah saidthat:

In place of colonialism, as the main instrument of imperialism, wehave today neo-colonialism . . . [which] like colonialism, is anattempt to export the social conflicts of the capitalist countries. . . .The result of neo-colonialism is that foreign capital is used for theexploitation rather than for the development of the less developedparts of the world. Investment, under neo-colonialism, increases,rather than decreases, the gap between the rich and the poorcountries of the world. The struggle against neo-colonialism is notaimed at excluding the capital of the developed world fromoperating in less developed countries. It is aimed at preventing thefinancial power of the developed countries being used in such a wayas to impoverish the less developed.[7]

In 1965, at Algiers, in the Afro–Asian Conference, the Cubanrevolutionary Ché Guevara spoke to the participants of the SecondEconomic Seminar of Afro–Asian Solidarity about the continued foreigndomination of the underdeveloped countries of the world:

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As long as imperialism exists it will, by definition, exert its domination over other countries. Today, thatdomination is called neo-colonialism.

— Ché Guevara (24 February 1965)[8]

The non-aligned world

The non-aligned world: "We face neither East norWest: We face forward", a Zambian political

advertisement quotes Kwame Nkrumah. (2005)

“Neo-colonialism” became the standard term, describing a type offoreign intervention, because of its practical and historicalapplication to the internal affairs (economic, social, political) ofthe countries of the Pan-Africanist movement and because of itslike usage in the Bandung Conference (Asian–AfricanConference, 1955), from which derived the Non-AlignedMovement (1961). The formal definition of neo-colonialism wasestablished by the All-African Peoples’ Conference (AAPC) andpublished in the Resolution on Neo-colonialism of theorganisation. At the Tunis conference (1960) and at the Cairoconference (1961), the AAPC specifically identified asneo-colonial behaviour, the actions of the French Community ofindependent states, which was organised by France.[9]

Throughout the decades of the U.S.–U.S.S.R. Cold War (1945–91), the countries of the Non-Aligned Movement andthe Organization of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin America defined neo-colonialism as theprimary, collective enemy of the economies and cultures of their respective countries. Moreover, neo-colonialismwas integrated to the national-liberation ideologies of Marxist guerrilla armies. During the 1970s, in the PortugueseAfrican colonies of Mozambique and Angola, upon assuming government power, the Liberation Front ofMozambique (FRELIMO, Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) and the People’s Movement for the Liberation ofAngola — Labour Party (MPLA, Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola — Partido do Trabalho),respectively, established policies to counter neo-colonial agreements with the (former) colonist country.

Paternalistic neo-colonialismThe term “paternalistic neo-colonialism” describes the ideologic and cultural beliefs, by the people of the colonialcountry, that their continued (neo) colonial domination of a colonial people, is, in the long term, to the benefit of thesubject people. The praxis of paternalistic neo-colonialism illuminates the basic belief-system as racialist and asexploitative, because it is a reformulation of the imperialist racism of the French Mission civilisatrice and of thePortuguese Missão civilizadora, each a type of “civilizing mission” that was characteristic of the varieties ofEuropean imperialism in the 19th century.In imperial practice, the civilising mission is an ideological rationale for military intervention and colonisation,which actions rationalise imperialism as the national and cultural duty to propagate European civilisation, byestablishing colonies in the Other countries of the other continents of the Earth. In practice, colonialism was theeconomic exploitation and the cultural Westernization of the indigenous peoples, which was effected with thecolonial ideology of “cultural assimilation”; a basic principle of empire of French and Portuguese colonial rule in theAsia of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.Culturally, each European colonial power, Portugal, Great Britain, France, et al., exercised a self-imposed moral andimperial duty to take Western civilization to the “primitive cultures” of Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Yet, because eachprimitive culture was “The Other” to a European culture, the exotic African, Asian, and Oceanian cultures wereperceived as cultural inferiors.

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FrançafriqueThe representative example of European neo-colonialism is Françafrique, the “French Africa” constituted by thecontinued close relationships between Metropole France and its former African country colonies. In 1955, the initialusage of the “French Africa” term, by President Félix Houphouët-Boigny, of Côte d’Ivoire, denoted positive social,cultural, and economic Franco–African relations. It was later was applied by critics of neo-colonialism to describe animbalanced international relation. The term Françafrique is derived from the essay La Françafrique, le plus longscandale de la République (French Africa: The Longest Scandal of the Republic, 1998), by François-XavierVerschave, which critically analysed French neo-colonial policies towards the countries of Africa.[10] Moreover,Main basse sur le Cameroun, autopsie d’une décolonisation (Cruel Hand on Cameroon: Autopsy of aDecolonization, 1972), by Mongo Beti, is a critical history of contemporary Cameroon that reported the continueddependance — economic, social, cultural — of decolonised African nations and countries upon Metropole France,whose dependance was actively continued by the the post-independence, national political élites of the givencountries.The politician Jacques Foccart, the principal advisor for African matters to the French presidents Charles de Gaulle(1958–69) and Georges Pompidou (1969–1974), was the principal proponent of neo-colonial Françafrique.[11] TheFrench Africa works of Verschave and Beti reported a forty-year, post-independence relationship with the formercolonial peoples of France, which feature colonial garrisons in situ and monopolies by French multinationalcorporations, usually for the exploitation of mineral resources. The African leaders with close ties to France —especially during the Russo–American Cold War (1945–91) — acted more as agents of French business andgeopolitical interests, than as the national leaders of sovereign states, such as Omar Bongo (Gabon), FélixHouphouët-Boigny (Côte d'Ivoire), Gnassingbé Eyadéma (Togo), Denis Sassou-Nguesso (Republic of the Congo),Idriss Déby (Chad), and Hamani Diori (Niger).FrancophonieThe French Community (1958–95) and the seventy-five-country Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie(International Francophone Organisation) were agents of French neo-colonial African influence, especially by meansof the French language; about which, in 1966, the Algerian intellectual Kateb Yacine said:

La Francophonie is a neo-colonial political machine, which only perpetuates our alienation, but the usage ofthe French language does not mean that one is an agent of a foreign powe; and I write in French to tell theFrench that I am not French.

— Kateb Yacine biography, Arabesques[12][13]

Belgian CongoAfter a hastened decolonization process of the Belgian Congo, Belgium continued to control, through the SociétéGénérale de Belgique, an estimate of 70% of the Congolese economy following the decolonization process. Themost contested part was in the province of Katanga where the Union Minière du Haut Katanga, part of the Société,had control over the mineral- and resource-rich province. After a failed attempt to nationalize the mining industry inthe 1960s, it was reopened to foreign investment.

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Neo-colonial economic dominance

Neo-colonialism: U.S. President Harry Truman and MohammadMosaddeq, the Iranian Prime Minister in 1951. Two years later, the

Persian nationalisation of the petroleum of Iran was halted withOperation Ajax, a British–American coup d’ état, which deposedP.M. Mossadeq on 19 August 1953, and reinstated the deposed,

absolute monarchy of the Pahlavi family.

Petroleum-producing Africa: U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Lt.Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo on tour of Lagos, Nigeria, in April, 1978.

Three years earlier, with a coup d’ état, Gen. Obasanjo assumedpower, and later was politically courted by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.,

as part of the Cold War.

In 1961, regarding the economic mechanism ofneo-colonial control, in the speech Cuba: HistoricalException or Vanguard in the Anti-colonial Struggle?,the Cuban revolutionary Ché Guevara said:

We, politely referred to as “underdeveloped”, intruth, are colonial, semi-colonial or dependentcountries. We are countries whose economieshave been distorted by imperialism, which hasabnormally developed those branches of industryor agriculture needed to complement its complexeconomy. “Underdevelopment”, or distorteddevelopment, brings a dangerous specializationin raw materials, inherent in which is the threatof hunger for all our peoples. We, the“underdeveloped”, are also those with the singlecrop, the single product, the single market. Asingle product whose uncertain sale depends on asingle market imposing and fixing conditions.That is the great formula for imperialisteconomic domination.

— Ché Guevara, 9 April 1961.[14]

Dependency theory

Dependency theory is the theoretic basis of economicneo-colonialism, which proposes that the globaleconomic system comprises wealthy countries at thecenter, and poor countries at the periphery. Economicneo-colonialism extracts the human and the naturalresources of a peripheral (poor) country to flow to theeconomies of the wealthy countries at the center of theglobal economic system; hence, the poverty of theperipheral countries is the result of the how they areintegrated to the global economic system. Dependencytheory derives from the Marxist analysis of economicinequalities within the world’s system of economies, thus, the under-development of the Global South is a directresult of the development in the Global North; the theories of the semi-colony from the late 19th century.[15] TheMarxist perspective of the Theory of Colonial Dependency is contrasted with the capitalist economics of the freemarket, which propose that such poverty is a development stage in the poor country’s progress towards full,economic integration to the global economic system. Proponents of Dependency Theory, such as Venezuelanhistorian Federico Brito Figueroa, who has investigated the socio-economic bases of neo-colonial dependency, haveinfluenced the thinking of the current President of Venezuela, Hugo Chávez.

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The Cold WarDuring the mid-to-late 20th century, in the course of the Cold War (1945–91) ideological conflict between the U.S.and the U.S.S.R., each country and its satellite states accused each other of practising neo-colonialism in theirimperial and hegemonic pursuits.[16][17][18][19][20][21][22] The geopolitical conditions that defined theRusso–American Cold War led to proxy war, fought by client states in the decolonised countries; Cuba, the WarsawPact bloc, Egypt under the leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser (1956–70), et al. accused the U.S. of sponsoringanti-democratic governments whose régimes did not represent the interests of the majority of the populace, and ofdeposing Third-World elected governments (African, Asian, Latin American) who did not subscribe to thegeopolitical interests of the U.S., as defined by the East–West Cold War.In the 1960s, under the leadership of Chairman Mehdi Ben Barka, the Cuban Tricontinental Conference(Organization of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin America) recognised and supported the validityof revolutionary anti-colonialism as a means for colonised peoples of the Third World to achieve theirself-determination, which policy angered the U.S. and France. Moreover, Chairman Barka headed the Commissionon Neo-colonialism, which dealt with the worked to resolve the neo-colonial involvement of colonial powers indecolonised counties; and said that the U.S., as the leading capitalist country of the world, was, in practise, theprincipal neo-colonialist political actor.

Multinational corporationsCritics of neo-colonialism also argue that investment by multinational corporations enriches few in underdevelopedcountries, and causes humanitarian, environmental and ecological devastation to the populations which inhabit theneocolonies whose "development" and economy is now dependent on foreign market's and large scale tradeagreements. This, it is argued, results in unsustainable development and perpetual underdevelopment; a dependencywhich cultivates those countries as reservoirs of cheap labor and raw materials, while restricting their access toadvanced production techniques to develop their own economies. In some countries, privatization of nationalresources, while initially leading to immediate large scale influx of investment capital, is often followed by dramaticincreases in the rate of unemployment, poverty, and a decline in per-capita income.[23] This is particularly true in theWest African nations of Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Mauritania where fishing has historically been central to thelocal economy. Beginning in 1979, the European Union began brokering fishing rights contracts off the coast ofWest Africa. This continues to this day. Commercial unsustainable over-fishing from foreign corporations haveplayed a significant role in the large-scale unemployment and migration of people across the region.[24] This standsin direct opposition to United Nations Treaty on the Seas which recognizes the importance of fishing to localcommunities and insists that government fishing agreements with foreign companies should be targeted at surplusstocks only.[25]

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International banks

Economic neo-colonialism, 2004: A Jakartan protestor against theWorld Bank’s manipulation of the economy of Indonesia.

Critics of neo-colonialism portray the choice to grant orto refuse granting loans (particularly those financingotherwise unpayable Third World debt), especially byinternational banks such as the International MonetaryFund (IMF), and the World Bank, as a decisive form ofcontrol. That, in order to qualify for such loans, andother forms of financial aid, economically weakcountries are forced to take impose the financialrepayment burdens upon their populations, to ensurethat the economic interests of the lenders — the WorldBank, the IMF, et al. — are met, at the expense, the(continued) impoverishment of the people and theireconomies; although meant to improve economicallyimprove the life of the borrower country, the financialand economic “structural adjustments” required by thelenders perpetuate the poverty of the borrower society.

Neo-colonial praxis allows certain cartels of state-supported organisations, such as the World Bank, to control andexploit the under-developed countries by fostering unpayable national debts. In effect, Third World governmentsgive commercial concessions and business monopolies to foreign multinational corporations in return for theconsolidation of economic power and bribes. In most cases, much of the money loaned to such Third Worldcountries is returned “kicked-back” to the multinational corporations fovoured by the given Third World government;hence, the bank loans effectively are financial subsidies to the corporations, by the lending organisation, which is thepractise of corporatocracy, government by business corporation. The banks and the organizations accused ofeconomic neo-imperialism include the World Bank, the World Trade Organization, the Group of Eight, and theWorld Economic Forum. In Confessions of an Economic Hit Man (2004), by John Perkins, reports that First Worldcountries, such as the U.S., practise such neo-colonialism.

The International Monetary FundTo alleviate some of the effects of neo-colonialism, the American economist Jeffrey Sachs recommended that theentire African debt (ca. 200 billion U.S. dollars) be dismissed, and recommended that African nations not repay theWorld Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF):

The time has come to end this charade. The debts are unaffordable. If they won’t cancel the debts, I wouldsuggest obstruction; you do it, yourselves. Africa should say: “Thank you very much, but we need this moneyto meet the needs of children who are dying, right now, so, we will put the debt-servicing payments into urgentsocial investment in health, education, drinking water, the control of AIDS, and other needs”.

— Prof. Jeffrey Sachs, Director of The Earth Institute (Columba University), and Special Economic Advisorto UN Secretary General Kofi Annan.

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Sino–African relations

Exotic animals such as the giraffe, caught andsold by Somali merchants, were very popular

commodities in Ming Dynasty China.

Historically, China and Somalia had a strong trading tie. In recentyears, the People's Republic of China has built increasingly strongerties with African nations.[26][27] China is currently Africa's largesttrading partner.[28][29] As of August 2007, there were an estimated750,000 Chinese nationals working or living for extended periods indifferent African countries.[30][31] China is picking up naturalresources — petroleum and minerals — to fuel the Chinese economyand to finance international business enterprises.[32][33] In 2006,two-way trade had increased to $50 billion.[34]

Not all dealings have involved direct monetary exchanges. In 2007, thegovernments of China and Democratic Republic of the Congo enteredinto an agreement whereby Chinese state-owned firms would providevarious services (infrastructure projects) in exchange an equivalentamount of copper ore extracted from Congolese copper mines.[35]

Human rights advocates and opponents of the Sudanese governmentportray China's role in providing weapons and aircraft as a cynicalattempt to obtain petroleum and natural gas just as colonial powersonce supplied African chieftains with the military means to maintaincontrol as they extracted natural resources.[36][37][38] According toChina's critics, China has offered Sudan support threatening to use itsveto on the U.N. Security Council to protect Khartoum from sanctionsand has been able to water down every resolution on Darfur in order toprotect its interests in Sudan.[39]

Communist Chinese rescueThe cash money reserves of Communist China allowed theirparticipation in the development of the economies of Third World African countries, as a counter to the financialneo-colonialism of the International Monetary Fund; the example case is the lending of money to Angola, in 2006,that allowed the Angolans to not borrow money from the IMF.[35]

South Korea’s land acquisitionsTo ensure a reliable, long-term supply of food stuffs, the South Korean government and powerful Koreanmultinational corporations from have bought the exploitation rights to millions of hectares of agricultural land inunder-developed countries of the Third World. Thereby, South Korea no longer imports food, because said lands areeffectively part of Korea; such agricultural imperialism might be considered a form of neo-colonialism.[40] SouthKorea's largely mountainous land area of just over 100,000 square kilometres supports a populace of some 50million people, yet the industrialised economy (ca. $1,000,000,000,000) was almost the equal of the entire economyof Africa, in 2007.[41]

South Korea's RG Energy Resources Asset Management CEO Park Yong-soo stressed that "the nation does notproduce a single drop of crude oil and other key industrial minerals. To power economic growth and support people'slivelihoods, we cannot emphasize too much that securing natural resources in foreign countries is a must for ourfuture survival."[42] The head of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Jacques Diouf, has warned that thecontroversial rise in land deals could create a form of "neo-colonialism", with poor states producing food for the richat the expense of their own hungry people.

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In 2008, the South Korean multinational Daewoo Logistics secured 1.3 million hectares of farmland in Madagascar,half the size of Belgium, to grow maize and crops for biofuels. Roughly half of the country's arable land, as well asrainforests of rich and unique biodiversity, were to be converted into palm and corn monocultures, producing foodfor export from a country where a third of the population and 50 percent of children under 5 are malnourished, usingworkers imported from South Africa instead of locals. Those living on the land were never consulted or informed,despite being dependent on the land for food and income. The controversial deal played a major part in prolongedanti-government protests on the island that resulted in over a hundred deaths.[40] Shortly after the Madagascar deal,Tanzania announced that South Korea was in talks to develop 100,000 hectares for food production and processingfor 700 to 800 billion won. Scheduled to be completed in 2010, it will be the largest single piece of agriculturalinfrastructure South Korea has ever built overseas.[40]

In 2009, Hyundai Heavy Industries acquired a majority stake in a company cultivating 10,000 hectares of farmlandin the Russian Far East and a wealthy South Korean provincial government secured 95,000 hectares of farmland inOriental Mindoro, central Philippines, to grow corn. The South Jeolla province became the first provincialgovernment to benefit from a newly created central government fund to develop farmland overseas, receiving acheap loan of $1.9 million for the Mindoro project. The feedstock is expected to produce 10,000 tonnes of feed in thefirst year for South Korea.[43] South Korean multinationals and provincial governments have also purchased land inSulawesi, Indonesia, Cambodia and Bulgan, Mongolia. The South Korean government itself announced its intentionto invest 30 billion won in land in Paraguay and Uruguay. Discussions with Laos, Myanmar and Senegal are alsocurrently underway.[40]

The South Korean government's strategy is quickly yielding results and despite predicting that farmland is shrinkingon the country, the government announced in August 2009 that South Korea would enjoy a 10% increase in riceproduction in 2009, the first since 2005, and the government has begun purchasing large quantities of rice to keepprices stable.[40]

Other approaches to neo-colonialismAlthough the concept of neo-colonialism was originally developed within a Marxist theoretical framework and isgenerally employed by the political left, the term "neo-colonialism" is also used within other theoretical frameworks.

Cultural theoryOne variant of neo-colonialism theory critiques the existence of cultural colonialism, the desire of wealthy nations tocontrol other nations' values and perceptions through cultural means, such as media, language, education andreligion, ultimately for economic reasons. One element of this is a critique of "Colonial Mentality" which writershave traced well beyond the legacy of 19th century colonial empires. These critics argue that people, once subject tocolonial or imperial rule, latch onto physical and cultural differences between the foreigners and themselves, leadingsome to associate power and success with the foreigners' ways. This eventually leads to the foreigners' ways beingregarded as the better way and being held in a higher esteem than previous indigenous ways. In much the samefashion, and with the same reasoning of better-ness, the colonised may over time equate the colonisers' race orethnicity itself as being responsible for their superiority. Cultural rejections of colonialism, such as the Negritudemovement, or simply the embracing of seemingly authentic local culture are then seen in a post colonial world as anecessary part of the struggle against domination. By the same reasoning, importation or continuation of culturalmores or elements from former colonial powers may be regarded as a form of neo-colonialism.

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Post-colonialism theory

Post-colonialism theories in philosophy, film, political science, and post-colonial literature deal with the culturallegacy of colonial rule; that is, the cultural identity of the colonised peoples, in which neo-colonialism is thebackground for the contemporary dilemmas of developing a national identity after colonial rule. Post-colonialismstudies how writers articulate, present, and celebrate their post-colonial national identity, which often first must bereclaimed from the coloniser, whilst maintaining strong connections with the colonialist country; how knowledge ofthe sub-ordinated (colonised) people was generated, and applied against the colonised people in service to thecultural and economic interests of the colonial country; and how colonialist literature justified colonialism bymisrepresenting the colonised people as an inferior race whose society, culture, and economy must be managed forthem. Post-colonial studies comprehend Subaltern Studies of “history from below”; post-colonial manifestations ofpeople outside the hegemony; the psychopathology of colonization (by Frantz Fanon); and the cinema of filmmakers such as the Cuban Third Cinema, e.g. Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, and the Filipino Kidlat Tahimik.

Critical theoryWhile critiques of postcolonialism/neo-colonialism theory is widely practiced in literary theory, internationalrelations theory also has defined "postcolonialism" as a field of study. While the lasting effects of culturalcolonialism is of central interest in cultural critiques of neo-colonialism, their intellectual antecedents are economictheories of neo-colonialism: Marxist dependency theory and mainstream criticism of capitalist neoliberalism. criticalinternational relations theory frequently references neo-colonialism from Marxist positions as well as postpositivistpositions, including postmodernist, postcolonial and feminist approaches, which differ from both realism andliberalism in their epistemological and ontological premises.

Conservation and neo-colonialismThere have been other critiques that the modern conservation movement, as taken up by international organizationssuch as the World Wide Fund for Nature, has inadvertently set up a neocolonialist relationship with underdevelopednations.[44]

References[1] United Nations General Assembly Resolutions 1514 (http:/ / wpik. org/ Src/ unga1514. html) and 1541 (http:/ / wpik. org/ Src/ unga1541.

html)[2] Sartre, Jean-Paul (2001-03-27). Colonialism and neo-colonialism. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-19146-3.[3] Chomsky, Noam; Edward S. Herman (1979-07-01). The Washington connection and Third World fascism. Black Rose Books Ltd.. p. 42ff.

ISBN 978-0-919618-88-6.[4] Neo-Colonialism: the Last Stage of Imperialism (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ subject/ africa/ nkrumah/ neo-colonialism/ index. htm) (1965).[5] Ali Mazrui, Willy Mutunga, ed. Debating the African Condition: Governance and Leadership. Africa World Press, 2003 ISBN

1-59221-147-X pp.19-20, 69.[6] Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ lenin/ works/ 1916/ imp-hsc/ index.

htm). transcribed from Lenin’s Selected Works, Progress Publishers, 1963, Moscow, Volume 1, pp. 667–766.[7] From the Introduction. Kwame Nkrumah. Neo-Colonialism, The Last Stage of Imperialism (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ subject/ africa/

nkrumah/ neo-colonialism/ introduction. htm). First Published: Thomas Nelson & Sons, Ltd., London (1965). Published in the USA byInternational Publishers Co., Inc., (1966);

[8] "At the Afro-Asian Conference in Algeria" (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ guevara/ 1965/ 02/ 24. htm) speech by Ché Guevara to theSecond Economic Seminar of Afro–Asian Solidarity, in Algiers, on 24 February 1965

[9] Wallerstein, p. 52: ‘It attempted the one serious, collectively agreed-upon definition of neo-colonialism, the key concept in the armory of therevolutionary core of the movement for African unity’; and William D. Graf’s review of Neo-colonialism and African Politics: a Survey of theImpact of Neo-colonialism on African Political Behaviour (1980, Yolamu R. Barongo, in the Canadian Journal of African Studies, p. 601:‘The term, itself, originated in Africa, probably with Nkrumah, and received collective recognition at the 1961 All-African People'sConference.'

[10] François-Xavier Verschave. La Françafrique, le plus long scandale de la République. Paris (ISBN 2234049482).[11] Kaye Whiteman, “The Man Who Ran Françafrique — French Politician Jacques Foccart’s Role in France’s Colonization of Africa Under the

Leadership of Charles de Gaulle”, obituary in The National Interest, Fall 1997.

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[12] http:/ / www. afrique-du-nord. com/ article. php3?id_article=1877 (Quote by Kateb Yacine in French)[13] http:/ / www. arabesques-editions. com/ fr/ biographies/ kateb-yacine1974605. html?page=0%2C1 (Quote by Kateb Yacine in French)[14] "Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle?" (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ guevara/ 1961/ 04/ 09. htm)

speech by Che Guevara on 9 April 1961[15] Ernest Mandel, "Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent Countries", New International (New York), No.5, pp.149-175[16] Anuradha M. Chenoy. “Soviet New Thinking on National Liberation Movements: Continuity and Change”, Soviet Foreign Policy in

Transition pp. 145–162. Roger E. Kanet, Deborah Nutter Miner, Tamara J. Resler, International Committee for Soviet and East EuropeanStudies. Cambridge University Press, (1992) ISBN 0-521-41365-6; See pp. 149–150 for the Soviet Bloc academic definitions of“Neo-colonialism”.

[17] Rosemary Radford Ruether. Christianity and Social Systems: Historical Constructions and Ethical Challenges. Rowman & Littlefield,(2008) ISBN 0-7425-4643-8 p. 138: “Neo-colonialism means that European powers and the United States no longer rule dependent territories,directly through their occupying troops and imperial bureaucracy. Rather, they control the area’s resources indirectly, through businesscorporations and the financial lending institutions they dominate. . . .”

[18] Yumna Siddiqi. Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue. Columbia University Press, (2007) ISBN 0-231-13808-3, pp. 123–124provides the standard definition of “Neo-colonialism” specific to the US and European colonialism.

[19] Thomas R. Shannon. An Introduction to the World-system Perspective. Second Edition. Westview Press, (1996) ISBN 0-8133-2452-1 pp.94–95, wherein “Neo-colonialism” is defined as a capitalist phenomenon.

[20] William H. Blanchard. Neo-colonialism American Style, 1960-2000. Greenwood Publishing Group, (1996) ISBN 0-313-30013-5 pp. 3-12,defines “Neo-colonialism” in page 7.

[21] Hugh Seton-Watson. Nations and States: an Enquiry into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism. Taylor & Francis, (1977)ISBN 0-416-76810-5. Provides the history of the word “neo-colonialism” as an anti-capitalist term (pp. 339–339) also applicable to theU.S.S.R. (p. 322).

[22] Edward M. Bennett. “Colonialism and Neo-colonialism” (pp. 285–291) in Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy. Alexander DeConde,Richard Dean Burns, Fredrik Logevall eds. Second Edition. Simon and Schuster, (2002) ISBN 0-684-80657-6. Clarifies that neo-colonialismis a practice of the colonial powers, that “the Soviets practiced imperialism, not colonialism”.

[23] "World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin" (http:/ / www. commondreams. org/ views02/ 0404-06. htm) The Baltimore Sun, April 4,2002

[24] "Europe Takes Africa’s Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 01/ 14/ world/ africa/ 14fishing. html)The New York Times, January 14, 2008

[25][25] United Nations 2007[26] Military backs China's Africa adventure (http:/ / www. atimes. com/ atimes/ China/ IF08Ad02. html), Asia Times[27] Mbeki warns on China-Africa ties (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 6178897. stm)[28] http:/ / english. cntv. cn/ program/ bizasia/ 20101015/ 101588. shtml[29] http:/ / www. businessdailyafrica. com/ Company%20Industry/ -/ 539550/ 850122/ -/ t43ipjz/ -/ index. html[30] Chinese flocking in numbers to a new frontier: Africa (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 2007/ 08/ 17/ africa/ malawi. php)[31] Chinese imperialism in Africa (http:/ / en. internationalism. org/ wr/ 299/ china-africa)[32] China, Africa, and Oil (http:/ / www. cfr. org/ publication/ 9557/ )[33] Is China Africa's new imperialist power? (http:/ / www. greenleft. org. au/ 2007/ 701/ 36384)[34] "Is China the new colonial power in Africa?" (http:/ / www. taipeitimes. com/ News/ editorials/ archives/ 2006/ 11/ 01/ 2003334317) Taipei

Times, November 1, 2006[35] China's Quest for Resources - A ravenous dragon (http:/ / www. economist. com/ printedition/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=10795714) The

Economist, March 13, 2008[36] "CHINA’S INVOLVEMENT IN SUDAN: ARMS AND OIL" (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ reports/ 2003/ sudan1103/ 26. htm). Human Rights

Watch. 2007-12-23. .[37] Goodman, Peter S. (2007-12-23). "China Invests Heavily In Sudan's Oil Industry" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ articles/

A21143-2004Dec22. html). Washington Post. . Retrieved May 20, 2010.[38] Reeves, Eric (2007-04-16). "Artists abetting genocide?" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ globe/ editorial_opinion/ oped/ articles/ 2007/ 04/

16/ artists_abetting_genocide/ ). Boston Globe. .[39] "The Increasing Importance of African Oil" (http:/ / www. pinr. com/ report. php?ac=view_report& report_id=460). Power and Interest

News Report. 2007-03-20. .[40] http:/ / koreatimes. co. kr/ www/ news/ biz/ 2009/ 12/ 123_56697. html[41] Report for Selected Countries and Subjects, IMF.org (http:/ / www. imf. org/ external/ pubs/ ft/ weo/ 2009/ 01/ weodata/ weorept. aspx?pr.

x=12& pr. y=13& sy=2007& ey=2007& scsm=1& ssd=1& sort=country& ds=. & br=1&c=512,941,914,446,612,666,614,668,311,672,213,946,911,137,193,962,122,674,912,676,313,548,419,556,513,678,316,181,913,682,124,684,339,273,638,921,514,948,218,943,963,686,616,688,223,518,516,728,918,558,748,138,618,196,522,278,622,692,156,694,624,142,626,449,628,564,228,283,924,853,233,288,632,293,636,566,634,964,238,182,662,453,960,968,423,922,935,714,128,862,611,716,321,456,243,722,248,942,469,718,253,724,642,576,643,936,939,961,644,813,819,199,172,184,132,524,646,361,648,362,915,364,134,732,652,366,174,734,328,144,258,146,656,463,654,528,336,923,263,738,268,578,532,537,944,742,176,866,534,369,536,744,429,186,433,925,178,746,436,926,136,466,343,112,158,111,439,298,916,927,664,846,826,299,542,582,443,474,917,754,544,698&s=NGDPD& grp=0& a=)

[42] http:/ / koreatimes. co. kr/ www/ news/ nation/ 2009/ 07/ 123_48943. html[43] http:/ / koreatimes. co. kr/ www/ news/ nation/ 2009/ 07/ 113_48556. html[44] In a manner consistent with Immanuel Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory (Wallerstein, 1974) and Andre Gunder Frank’s Dependency

Theory (Frank, 1975).

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• Opoku Agyeman. Nkrumah's Ghana and East Africa: Pan-Africanism and African interstate relations (FairleighDickinson University Press, 1992).

• Ankerl, Guy (2000). Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1:Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press.ISBN 2-88155-004-5.

• Bill Ashcroft (ed., et al.) The post-colonial studies reader (Routledge, London, 1995).• Yolamu R Barongo. neo-colonialism and African politics: A survey of the impact of neo-colonialism on African

political behavior (Vantage Press, NY, 1980).• Mongo Beti, Main basse sur le Cameroun. Autopsie d'une décolonisation (1972), new edition La Découverte,

Paris 2003 [A classical critique of neo-colonialism. Raymond Marcellin, the French Minister of the Interior at thetime, tried to prohibit the book. It could only be published after fierce legal battles.]

• Frédéric Turpin. De Gaulle, Pompidou et l'Afrique (1958-1974): décoloniser et coopérer (Les Indes savantes,Paris, 2010. [Grounded on Foccart's previously inaccessibles archives]

• Kum-Kum Bhavnani. (ed., et al.) Feminist futures: Re-imagining women, culture and development (Zed Books,NY, 2003). See: Ming-yan Lai's "Of Rural Mothers, Urban Whores and Working Daughters: Women and theCritique of Neocolonial Development in Taiwan's Nativist Literature," pp. 209–225.

• David Birmingham. The decolonization of Africa (Ohio University Press, 1995).• Charles Cantalupo(ed.). The world of Ngugi wa Thiong'o (Africa World Press, 1995).• Laura Chrisman and Benita Parry (ed.) Postcolonial theory and criticism (English Association, Cambridge,

2000).• Renato Constantino. Neocolonial identity and counter-consciousness: Essays on cultural decolonization (Merlin

Press, London, 1978).• George A. W. Conway. A responsible complicity: Neo/colonial power-knowledge and the work of Foucault, Said,

Spivak (University of Western Ontario Press, 1996).• Julia V. Emberley. Thresholds of difference: feminist critique, native women's writings, postcolonial theory

(University of Toronto Press, 1993).• Nikolai Aleksandrovich Ermolov. Trojan horse of neo-colonialism: U.S. policy of training specialists for

developing countries (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1966).• Thomas Gladwin. Slaves of the white myth: The psychology of neo-colonialism (Humanities Press, Atlantic

Highlands, NJ, 1980).• Lewis Gordon. Her Majesty’s Other Children: Sketches of Racism from a Neocolonial Age (Rowman &

Littlefield, 1997).• Ankie M. M. Hoogvelt. Globalization and the postcolonial world: The new political economy of development

(Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001).• J. M. Hobson, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation (Cambridge University Press, 2004).• M. B. Hooker. Legal pluralism; an introduction to colonial and neo-colonial laws (Clarendon Press, Oxford,

1975).• E.M. Kramer (ed.) The emerging monoculture: assimilation and the "model minority" (Praeger, Westport, Conn.,

2003). See: Archana J. Bhatt's "Asian Indians and the Model Minority Narrative: A Neocolonial System,"pp. 203–221.

• Geir Lundestad (ed.) The fall of great powers: Peace, stability, and legitimacy (Scandinavian University Press,Oslo, 1994).

• Jean-Paul Sartre. 'Colonialism and neo-colonialism. Translated by Steve Brewer, Azzedine Haddour, TerryMcWilliams Republished in the 2001 edition by Routledge France. ISBN 0-415-19145-9.

• Stuart J. Seborer. U.S. neo-colonialism in Africa (International Publishers, NY, 1974).• D. Simon. Cities, capital and development: African cities in the world economy (Halstead, NY, 1992).

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• Phillip Singer(ed.) Traditional healing, new science or new colonialism": (essays in critique of medicalanthropology) (Conch Magazine, Owerri, 1977).

• Jean Suret-Canale. Essays on African history: From the slave trade to neo-colonialism (Hurst, London 1988).• Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o. Barrel of a pen: Resistance to repression in neo-colonial Kenya (Africa Research &

Publications Project, 1983).• Carlos Alzugaray Treto. El ocaso de un régimen neocolonial: Estados Unidos y la dictadura de Batista durante

1958,(The twilight of a neocolonial regime: The United States and Batista during 1958), in Temas: Cultura,Ideología y Sociedad, No.16-17, October 1998/March 1999, pp. 29–41 (La Habana: Ministry of Culture).

• United Nations (2007). Reports of International Arbitral Awards. XXVII. United Nations Publication. p. 188.ISBN 978-92-1-033098-5.

• Richard Werbner(ed.) Postcolonial identities in Africa (Zed Books, NJ, 1996).

External links• China, Africa, and Oil (http:/ / www. cfr. org/ publication/ 9557/ )• Mbeki warns on China-Africa ties (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 6178897. stm)• "neo-colonialism" in Encyclopedia of Marxism. (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ glossary/ terms/ n/ e. htm)• Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism, by Kwame Nkrumah (former Prime Minister and President of

Ghana), originally published 1965 (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ subject/ africa/ nkrumah/ neo-colonialism/ )• Comments by Prof. Jeffrey Sachs - BBC (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 3869081. stm)• Harvard economist Jeffrey Sachs video (ram) - hosted by Columbia Univ. (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ cu/ news/

vforum/ 03/ globalization_inequality/ jeffreySachs. ram)• The myth of Neo-colonialism by Tunde Obadina, director of Africa Business Information Services (AfBIS) (http:/

/ www. afbis. com/ analysis/ neo-colonialism. html)• http:/ / www. africahistory. net/ imf. htm — IMF: Market Reform and Corporate Globalization, by Dr. Gloria

Emeagwali, Prof. of History and African Studies, Conne. State Univ.

Academic course materials• Sovereignty in the Postcolonial African State, Syllabus (http:/ / keemtaan. net/ PostcolonialAfrica/ syllabus. html)

: Joseph Hill, University of Rochester, 2008.• Studying African development history: Study guides (http:/ / www. valt. helsinki. fi/ staff/ lasiiton/ opetus/

AFRICANDEVHIST/ Tips. html), Lauri Siitonen, Päivi Hasu, Wolfgang Zeller. Helsinki University, 2007.

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Hegemony 31

Hegemony

The threat of the threat: Greece under the hegemony of Thebes, 371–362BC.

Hegemony (UK /hɪˈɡɛməni/, US /ˈhɛdʒɪmoʊni/,US /hɪˈdʒɛməni/; Greek: ἡγεμονία hēgemonía,“leadership”, “rule”) is an indirect form of imperialdominance in which the hegemon (leader state)rules geopolitically sub-ordinate states by theimplied means of power, the threat of the threat,rather than by direct military force.[1] In AncientGreece (8th c. BC – AD 6th c.), hegemonydenoted the politico–military dominance of acity-state over other city-states.[2] In the 19thcentury, hegemony denoted the geopolitical andthe cultural predominance of one country uponothers; from which derived hegemonism, theGreat Power politics meant to establish Europeanhegemony upon continental Asia and Africa.[3] Inthe 20th-century, Antonio Gramsci developed thephilosophy and the sociology of geopoliticalhegemony into the theory of cultural hegemony,whereby one social class can manipulate thesystem of values and mores of a society, in order to create and establish a ruling-class Weltanschauung, a worldviewthat justifies the status quo of bourgeois domination of the other social classes of the society.[2][4][5][6]

In the praxis of hegemony, imperial dominance is established by means of cultural imperialism, whereby the leaderstate (hegemon) dictates the internal politics and the societal character of the sub-ordinate states that constitute thehegemonic sphere of influence; either by an internal, sponsored government or by an external, installed government.The imposition of the hegemon’s way of life — an imperial lingua franca language and bureaucracies (social,economic, educational, governing) — transforms the concrete imperialism of direct military domination into theabstract power of the status quo, indirect imperial domination.[1] Under hegemony, rebellion (social, political,economic, armed) is eliminated either by co-optation of the rebels or by suppression (police and military), withoutdirect intervention by the hegemon; the examples are the latter-stage Spanish and British empires, and the 19th- and20th-century reichs of unified Germany (1871–1945).[7]

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History

The League of Corinth hegemony: the Kingdom ofMacedon (362 BC) and the Corinthian League

(yellow).

AntiquityIn the Græco–Roman world of 5th-century European Classicalantiquity, the city-state of Sparta was the hegemon of thePeloponnesian League (6th – 4th centuries BC) and King Philip IIof Macedon was the hegemon of the League of Corinth in 337 BC(a kingship he willed to his son, Alexander the Great). In AncientEastern Asia, Chinese hegemony was present during the Springand Autumn Period (ca. 770–480 BC), when the weakened rule ofthe Eastern Zhou Dynasty led to the relative autonomy of the FiveHegemons (Ba in Chinese [霸]). They were appointed by feudallord conferences, and thus were nominally obliged to uphold theimperium of the Zhou Dynasty over the sub-ordinate states. Inlate-16th– and early-17th-century Japan, the term hegemonapplied to its “Three Unifiers” — Oda Nobunaga, ToyotomiHideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu — who ruled most of the country by hegemony.

Middle Ages and RenaissanceAs a universal, politico–cultural hegemonic practice, the cultural institutions of the hegemon establish and maintainthe political annexation of the sub-ordinate peoples; in Italy, the Medici maintained their medieval Tuscanhegemony, by controlling the production of woolens by controlling the Arte della Lana guild, in the Florentinecity-state. In Holland, the Dutch Republic’s 17th-century (1609–1672) mercantilist dominion was a first instance ofglobal, commercial hegemony, made feasible with its technological development of wind power and its Four GreatFleets, for the efficient production and delivery of goods and services, which, in turn, made possible its Amsterdamstock market and concomitant dominance of world trade; in France, Louis XIV (1638–1715) and Napoleon I(1799-1815) established French hegemony via economic, cultural, and military domination of most of continentalEurope.

Soviet hegemony: The extent of the politico-militaryinfluence of the USSR, after the Cuban Revolution

(1959) and before the Sino–Soviet split (1961).

20th centuryThe USSR (1922–1991), Nazi Germany (1933–1945), and theUSA (1945–present) each sought regional (sphere of influence),then global hegemony.[8] Nazi Germany launched the SecondWorld War (1939–1945) in its attempt to gain geographicdominance of Eurasia and Africa; afterwards, the USA and theUSSR fought the Cold War (1945–1991) after the Second WorldWar had destroyed the old European empires of France, Britain,the Netherlands, et al. In the mid-20th century, the hegemonicconflict was ideologic, between the Communist Warsaw Pact andthe Capitalist NATO, wherein each hegemon competed directly(the arms race) and indirectly (proxy wars) against any countrywhose internal, national actions might destabilise its hegemony.The USSR defeated the nationalist Hungarian Revolution of 1956,and the USA precipitated the US–Vietnam War (1965–1975) byparticipating in the Vietnamese Civil War (1955–1965) that theNational Liberation Front fought against the Republic of Vietnam, the client state of the United States.[9]

21st century

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In the post–Cold War (1945–1991) world, the French Socialist politician Hubert Védrine described the USA as ahegemonic hyperpower, because of its unilateral military actions worldwide, especially against Iraq; while the USpolitical scientists John Mearsheimer and Joseph Nye counter that the USA is not a true hegemon because it hasneither the financial nor the military resources to impose a proper, formal, global hegemony.[10]

GeographyThe Neo-Marxist Henri Lefebvre proposes that geographic space is not a passive locus of social relations, but that itis trialectical — human geography is constituted by mental space, social space, and physical space — hence,hegemony is a spatial process influenced by geopolitics. In the ancient world, hydraulic despotism was established inthe fertile river valleys of Egypt, China, and Mesopotamia. In China, during the Warring States Era (476–221 BC),the Qin State created the Chengkuo Canal for geopolitical advantage over its local rivals. In Eurasia, successor statehegemonies were established in the Middle East, using the sea (Greece) and the fringe lands (Persia, Arabia).European hegemony moved westwards, to Rome (27 BC – AD 476/145), then northwards, to the Holy RomanEmpire (962–1806) of the Franks. Later, at the Atlantic Ocean, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France, and theUnited Kingdom established their hegemonic centres.[11]

Political science

Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), the theoretician ofcultural hegemony

In the historical writing of the 19th century, the denotation ofhegemony extended to describe the predominance of one countryupon other countries; and, by extension, hegemonism denoted theGreat Power politics (ca. 1880s–1914) for establishing hegemony(indirect imperial rule), that then leads to a definition ofimperialism (direct foreign rule). In the early 20th century, in thefield of international relations, the Italian Marxist philosopherAntonio Gramsci developed the theory of cultural domination (ananalysis of economic class) to include social class; hence, thephilosophic and sociologic theory of cultural hegemony analysedthe social norms that established the social structures (social andeconomic classes) with which the ruling class establish and exertcultural dominance to impose their Weltanschauung (world view)— justifying the social, political, and economic status quo — asnatural, inevitable, and beneficial to every social class, rather thanas artificial social constructs beneficial solely to the rulingclass.[12][13][14]

From the Gramsci analysis derived the political science denotationof hegemony as leadership; thus, the historical example of Prussiaas the militarily and culturally predominant province of theGerman Empire (Second Reich 1871–1918); and the personal and intellectual predominance of Napoleon Bonaparteupon the French Consulate (1799–1804).[15] Contemporarily, in Hegemony and Socialist Strategy (1985), ErnestoLaclau and Chantal Mouffe defined hegemony as a political relationship of power wherein a sub-ordinate society(collectivity) perform social tasks that are culturally unnatural and not beneficial to them, but that are in exclusivebenefit to the imperial interests of the hegemon, the superior, ordinate power; hegemony is a military, political, andeconomic relationship that occurs as an articulation within political discourse.[16]

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SociologyCulturally, hegemony also is established by means of language, specifically the imposed lingua franca of thehegemon (leader state), which then is the official source of information for the people of the society of thesub-ordinate state. Therefore, in the selection of the particular information to be communicated to the sub-ordinatepopulace, the language of the hegemon thus limits what is communicated; hence, the source practises hegemonicinfluence upon the person or people receiving the given information. In contemporary society, the exemplarhegemonic organisations are churches and the mass communications media that continually transmit data andinformation to the public. As such, the ideologic content of the data and information are determined by thevocabulary with which the messages are presented — how the messages are presented; thereby determines the valueof the information as “realiable” or “unreliable”, as “true” or “false”, for the recipient reader, listener, and viewer.Hence is language essential to the imposition, establishment, and functioning of the cultural hegemony thatinfluences what and how people think about the status quo of their society.

References[1] Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (1994), pp. 23–24.[2] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Fifth Edition (1994) p. 1215.[3] Alan Bullock and Stephen Trombley, eds. The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, Third Edition (1999) pp. 387–388.[4] Clive Upton, William A. Kretzschmar, Rafal Konopka: Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English. Oxford University Press

(2001)[5][5] Oxford English Dictionary[6] US Hegemony (http:/ / www. flagrancy. net/ timeline. html)[7] Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy (1984), pp. 137-138: "European coalitions were likely to arise to contain Germany's Nazis growing, potentially

dominant, power"; p.145: "Unified Germany was achieving the strength to dominate Europe all by itself — an occurrence which Great Britainhad always resisted in the past when it came about by conquest".

[8] Christopher Hitchens Why Orwell Matters (2002) pp. 86–87.[9] George C. Kohn Dictionary of Wars (1986) p.496[10] Joseph S. Nye Sr., Understanding International Conflicts: An introduction to Theory and History, pp. 276-277[11] Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (1992)[12] Alan Bullock and Stephen Trombley, eds., The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, Third Edition (1999) pp. 387–388[13] K. J. Holsti, The Dividing Discipline: Hegemony and Diversity in International Theory (1985).[14] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Fifth Edition. (1994) p. 1215[15] Chris Cook, Dictionary of Historical Terms (1983) p. 142.[16] Ernest Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy, Second Edition. (2001) pp. 40-59, 125-144.

Further reading• DuBois, T. D. (2005). "Hegemony, Imperialism and the Construction of Religion in East and Southeast Asia."

History & Theory, 44, 4, 113-131.•• Hopper, P. (2007). Understanding Cultural Globalization. 1st ed. Malden, MA: Polity Press.• Howson, Richard, ed. (2008). Hegemony: studies in consensus and coercion (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=Nhq3fV6tWfwC). Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-95544-7.• Joseph, Jonathan (2002). Hegemony: A Realist Analysis. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26836-2.• Slack, Jennifer Daryl (1996). "The Theory and Method of Articulation in Cultural Studies". In Morley, David &

Chen, Kuan-Hsing. Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies. Routledge. pp. 112–127.

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Hegemony 35

External links• Hegemonism/ Hegemony (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Issues/ Global/ Hegemonism/ ) at the Open

Directory Project• Mike Dorsher, Ph.D., Hegemony Online: The Quiet Convergence of Power, Culture and Computers (http:/ /

www. uwec. edu/ mdorsher/ ica2001/ hegemony_online. htm)• Hegemony and the Hidden Persuaders — the Power of Un-common sense (http:/ / www. caledonia. org. uk/

hegemony. htm)• Parag Khanna, Waving Goodbye to Hegemony (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 01/ 27/ magazine/ 27world-t.

html?ex=1359176400& en=1af8c9c386cc212d& ei=5124& partner=permalink& exprod=permalink)• Hegemonic (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ album/ r663263)

Cultural hegemony

The Marxist intellectual Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937)developed cultural hegemony in aid to the

establishment of a working-class worldview.

In Marxist philosophy, cultural hegemony describes theruling-class domination of a culturally diverse society by onesocial class, which manipulates the societal culture — beliefs,explanations, perceptions, values, mores — so that its ruling-classWeltanschauung, becomes the worldview that is imposed andaccepted as the cultural norm; the universally valid dominantideology that justifies the social, political, and economic statusquo as natural and inevitable, perpetual and beneficial foreveryone, rather than as artificial social constructs that benefitonly the ruling class.[1][2] As a philosophy term and as a sociologyterm, cultural hegemony derived from the Ancient Greek wordhegemony (“leadership” and “rule”), which denoted the geopoliticalmethod of indirect imperial dominance, with which the hegemon(leader state) rules sub-ordinate states, by the implied means ofpower, the threat of the threat of intervention, rather than by directmilitary force — invasion, occupation, and annexation.[3]

Background

Etymologic

In Ancient Greece (8th c. BC – AD 6th c.), hegemony (leadership) denoted the politico–military dominance of acity-state upon other city-states, as in the Hellenic League.[2] In the 19th century, hegemony (rule) denoted thegeopolitical and cultural predominance of one country upon other countries, as in the European colonialism imposedin the Americas, Africa, and Asia.[4] In the 20th century, the political-science denotation of hegemony (dominance)expanded to include the ruling-class cultural domination of a socially stratified society; by manipulating the culture(values and mores) of the society, the ruling class can intellectually dominate the other social classes with animposed worldview that ideologically justifies the social, political, and economic status quo as natural and normal,inevitable and perpetual.[2][5][6][7]

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HistoricalIn 1848, Karl Marx proposed that the economic recessions and practical contradictions of a capitalist economywould provoke the working class to proletarian revolution, depose capitalism, restructure societal institutions(economic, political, social) per rational, socialist models, and thus begin the transition to a communist society.Therefore, the dialectical changes to the functioning of the economy of a society determine its social superstructures(culture and politics), and the composition of its economic and social classes. To that end, Antonio Gramsciproposed a strategic distinction, between a War of Position and a War of Manoeuvre. The war of position is anintellectual and cultural struggle wherein the anti-capitalist revolutionary creates a proletarian culture whose nativevalue system counters the cultural hegemony of the bourgeoisie. The proletarian culture will increase classconsciousness, teach revolutionary theory and historical analysis, and thus propagate further revolutionaryorganisation among the social classes. On winning the war of position, socialist leaders would then have thenecessary political power and popular support to begin the political manoeuvre warfare of revolutionary socialism.

Cultural hegemonyThe initial, theoretic application of cultural domination was as an analysis of economic class, which AntonioGramsci developed to comprehend social class; hence, the theory of cultural hegemony proposes that the prevailingcultural norms of society, which are imposed by the ruling class (bourgeois cultural hegemony), must not beperceived as natural and inevitable, but must be recognized as artificial social constructs (institutions, practices,beliefs) that must be investigated to discover their roots as instruments of social-class domination. That such praxisof knowledge is indispensable for the intellectual liberation of the proletariat, so that urban workers and peasants cancreate their own culture, which specifically addresses their social and economic needs as social classes.In a society, the praxis of cultural hegemony is neither monolithic nor a unified system of values, rather it is acomplex of stratified social structures; each social and economic class has a societal purpose and an internal classlogic allowing its members to behave in a particular way that is different from the behaviour of members of othersocial classes, whilst co-existing with them as constituents of the society. Because of their different social purposes,the classes will be able to coalesce into a society with a greater social mission. In a person perceiving the socialstructures of cultural hegemony, personal common sense has a dual structural role (personal and public). Personally,individual men and women apply common sense to cope with daily life, and to explain (to themselves) the smallsegment of the social order stratum that they experience as life. Publicly, the perceptual limitations of common senseemerge and inhibit individual perception of the greater nature of the systematic socio-economic exploitation madepossible by cultural hegemony. Because of the discrepancy in perceiving the status quo — the socio-economichierarchy of bourgeois culture — most men and women concern themselves with their immediate (personal)concerns, rather than (publicly) think about and question the fundamental sources of their social and economicoppression.[8]

At the personal level, cultural hegemony is perceptible; although each person in a society lives a meaningful life inhis or her social class, to him or her, the discrete classes might appear to have little in common with individualprivate life. Yet, when perceived as a whole society, the life of each person does contribute to the greater societalhegemony. Although social diversity, economic variety, and political freedom appear to exist — because mostpeople “see” different life circumstances — they are incapable of perceiving the greater hegemonic pattern createdwhen the lives they witness coalesce as “a society”. The cultural hegemony is manifest in and maintained by anexistence of minor, different circumstances, that are not always fully perceived by the people living it.[9] (See:Marx's theory of alienation)

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Gramsci’s intellectual influenceCultural hegemony much influenced Eurocommunism, the social sciences, and the activist politics of socially liberaland progressive politicians. The analytic discourse of cultural hegemony is important to research and synthesis inanthropology, political science, sociology, and cultural studies; in education, cultural hegemony developed criticalpedagogy.In 1967, the German student movement leader Rudi Dutschke reformulated Gramsci’s philosophy of culturalhegemony with the phrase "Der lange Marsch durch die Institutionen“ (The long march through the institutions),denoting the war of position, in allusion to the Long March (1934–35) of the Communist Chinese People'sLiberation Army.[10][11][12][13][14]

References[1] Bullock, Alan; Trombley, Stephen, Editors (1999), The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought Third Edition, pp. 387–88.[2] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Fifth Edition. (1994), p. 1215.[3] Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (1994), pp. 23–24.[4] Bullock & Trombley 1999, pp. 387–88[5] Clive Upton, William A. Kretzschmar, Rafal Konopka: Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English. Oxford University Press

(2001)[6][6] Oxford English Dictionary[7] "Timeline" (http:/ / www. flagrancy. net/ timeline. html), US Hegemony, Flagrancy,[8] Hall, Stuart (1986). "The Problem of Ideology — Marxism without Guarantees" (http:/ / www. ram-wan. net/ restrepo/ hall/ The problem of

ideology. pdf) (PDF). Journal of Communication Inquiry 10 (2): 28–44. doi:10.1177/019685998601000203. .[9] Gramsci, Antonio (1992). Buttigieg, Joseph A. ed. Prison notebooks. New York City: Columbia University Press. pp. 233–38.

ISBN 0-231-10592-4. OCLC 24009547.[10] Gramsci, Buttigieg, Joseph A, ed., Prison Notebooks (http:/ / english. nd. edu/ faculty/ profiles/ joseph-a-buttigieg/ ) (English critical ed.),

p. 50, , "long march through the institutions21 This phrase is not Gramsci’s, even though it is ubiquitously attributed to him".[11] Buttigieg, Joseph A. (2005). "The Contemporary Discourse on Civil Society: A Gramscian Critique" (http:/ / boundary2. dukejournals. org/

cgi/ pdf_extract/ 32/ 1/ 33). Boundary 2 32 (1): 33–52. doi:10.1215/01903659-32-1-33. ISSN 0190-3659. . Retrieved 2010-06-30.[12] Davidson, Carl (6 April 2006) (web log), Strategy, Hegemony & ‘The Long March’: Gramsci’s Lessons for the Antiwar Movement (http:/ /

carldavidson. blogspot. com/ 2006/ 04/ strategy-hegemony-long-march. html), .[13] Marsch durch die Institutionen at German Wikipedia.[14] Antonio Gramsci: Misattributed at English Wikiquote for the origin of "the long march through the institutions" quotation.

External links• (archive) Gramsci (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ gramsci/ ), Marxists.• International Gramsci society (http:/ / www. internationalgramscisociety. org/ ).• Gramsci, journal (http:/ / www. uow. edu. au/ arts/ research/ gramsci-journal/ ), AU: UOW.• Rethinking Marxism (http:/ / rethinkingmarxism. org/ cms/ ).• (review) Rethinking Marxism: Association for economic & social analysis (http:/ / www. einet. net/ review/

1302-869793/ Rethinking_Marxism_Association_for_Economic_and_Social_Analysis_Home_Page. htm), EI Net• Gramsci, "Selections" (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ gramsci/ prison_notebooks/ selections. htm), Prison

notebooks, Marxists.• Gramsci, Prison notebooks (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ gramsci/ prison_notebooks/ ), Marxists.

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Books• Beech, Dave; Andy Hewitt and Mel Jordan (2007). The Free Art Collective Manifesto for a Counter-Hegemonic

Art. England: Free Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9554748-0-4. OCLC 269432294.• Bullock, Alan; Trombley, Stephen, eds. (1999), The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought (3rd ed.).• Flank, Lenny (2007). Hegemony and Counter-Hegemony: Marxism, Capitalism, and Their Relation to Sexism,

Racism, Nationalism, and Authoritarianism. St. Petersburg, Florida: Red and Black Publishers.ISBN 978-0-9791813-7-5. OCLC 191763227.

• Gramsci, Antonio (1992), Buttigieg, Joseph A, ed., Prison notebooks, New York, NY: Columbia UniversityPress, ISBN 0-231-10592-4, OCLC 24009547

ImperialismSee also: Empire and Hegemony

Imperialism, as defined by the Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequaleconomic, cultural, and territorial relationship, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based ondomination and subordination." Imperialism, as described by that work is primarily a Western undertaking thatemploys "expansionist, mercantilist policies".[1]

Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project.Founded the De Beers Mining Company and

owned the British South Africa Company, whichestablished Rhodesia for itself. He liked to "paintthe map British red," and declared: "all of these

stars ... these vast worlds that remain out of reach.If I could, I would annex other planets."[2]

The term as such primarily has been applied to Western political andeconomic dominance in the 19th and 20th centuries. Some writers,such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any systemof domination and subordination organized with an imperial center anda dominated periphery.

Overview

Imperialism has been found in the histories of Japan, the AssyrianEmpire, the Chinese Empire, the Roman Empire, Greece, theByzantine Empire, the Persian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, ancientEgypt, and India. Imperialism was a basic component to the conquestsof Genghis Khan during the Mongol Empire, and other war-lords.Historically recognized Muslim empires number in the dozens.Sub-Saharan Africa has also had dozens of empires that pre-date theEuropean colonial era, for example the Ethiopian Empire, Oyo Empire,Asante Union, Luba Empire, Lunda Empire and Mutapa Empire. TheAmericas during the pre-Columbian era also had large empires inMesoamerica, such as the Aztec and the Inca.

Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain in Africa, Asia,and the Americas. Imperialism not only describes colonial andterritorial policies, but also economic and military dominance and influence.

Although normally used to imply forcible imposition of a more powerful foreign government's control on a weakercountry, or over conquered territory that was previously without a unified government, "imperialism" is sometimesalso used to describe loose or indirect political or economic influence or control of weak states by more powerfulones.[3] If the dominant country's influence is felt in social and cultural circles, such as "foreign" music beingpopular with young people, it may be described as cultural imperialism.

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"Imperialism has been subject to moral censure by its critics, and thus the term is frequently used in internationalpropaganda as a pejorative for expansionist and aggressive foreign policy."[3]

Colonialism vs imperialism

Territories that were once part of the British Empire

The term 'imperialism' should not beconfused with ‘colonialism’ as it often is.Edward Said suggested that imperialisminvolves “the practice, the theory and theattitudes of a dominating metropolitancentre ruling a distant territory’”. He goes onto say colonialism refers to the “implantingof settlements on a distant territory”. RobertYoung supports this thinking as he putsforward that imperialism operates from thecenter, it is a state policy, and is developedfor ideological as well as financial reasonswhereas colonialism is nothing more than development for settlement or commercial intentions.[4]

Age of ImperialismThe Age of Imperialism was a time period beginning around 1870 when modern, relatively developed nations weretaking over less developed areas, colonizing them, or influencing them in order to expand their own power. Althoughimperialist practices have existed for thousands of years, the term "Age of Imperialism" generally refers to theactivities of nations such as the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United States in the early18th through the middle 20th centuries, e.g., the "The Great Game" in Persian lands, the "Scramble for Africa" andthe "Open Door Policy" in China.[5][6]

Scramble for Africa

The ideas of imperialism put forward by historiansJohn Gallagher and Ronald Robinson during the 19thcentury. European imperialism were influential,andthey rejected the notion that "imperialism" requiredformal, legal control by one government over anothercountry. "In their view, historians have beenmesmerized by formal empire and maps of the worldwith regions colored red. The bulk of Britishemigration, trade, and capital went to areas outsidethe formal British Empire. A key to the thought ofRobinson and Gallagher is the idea of empire'informally if possible and formally if necessary.'"[7]

Europe’s expansion into territorial imperialism hadmuch to do with the great economic benefit fromcollecting resources from colonies, in combinationwith assuming political control often by militarymeans. Most notably, the “British exploited thepolitical weakness of the Mughal state, and, while military activity was important at various times, the economic andadministrative incorporation of local elites was also of crucial significance”. Although a substantial number of

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colonies had been designed or subject to provide economic profit (mostly through the seventeenth and eighteenthcenturies), Fieldhouse suggests that in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in places such as Africa and Asia, thisidea is not necessarily valid[8]:

Modern empires were not artificially constructed economic machines. The second expansion of Europewas a complex historical process in which political, social and emotional forces in Europe and on theperiphery were more influential than calculated imperialism. Individual colonies might serve aneconomic purpose; collectively no empire had any definable function, economic or otherwise. Empiresrepresented only a particular phase in the ever-changing relationship of Europe with the rest of theworld: analogies with industrial systems or investment in real estate were simply misleading.[9]

During this time period, European merchants had the ability to “roam the high seas and appropriate surpluses fromaround the world (sometimes peaceably, sometimes violently) and to concentrate them in Europe.”[10]

European expansion accelerated greatly in the 19th century. In order to obtain raw materials, Europe beganimporting them from other countries. Europeans sought raw materials such as dyes, cotton, vegetable oils, and metalores from overseas. Europe was being transformed into the manufacturing center of the world.[11]

Communication became much more advanced during the European expansion. The invention of railroads andtelegraphs made it easier to communicate with other countries. Railroads assisted in transporting goods and insupplying large armies.[11]

Along with advancements in communication, Europe also continued to develop its military technology. Europeanchemists made deadly explosives that could be used in combat, and with the advancement of machinery they wereable to create lighter, cheaper guns. The guns were also much faster and more accurate. By the late 19th century(1880s) the machine gun had become an effective battlefield weapon. This technology gave European armies anadvantage over their opponents, as armies in less developed countries were still fighting with arrows, swords, andleather shields.[11]

GermanyFrom their original homelands in Scandinavia and far northern Europe Germanic tribes expanded throughoutnorthern and western Europe in the middle period of classical antiquity, and southern Europe in late antiquity,conquering Celtic and other peoples and forming in 800 the Holy Roman Empire, the first German Empire. Howeverunlike China, there was no real systemic continuity from the western Roman Empire to its German successor whichfamously was "not holy, not Roman, and not an empire"[12], and numerous small states existed in variouslyautonomous confederation. Although by 1000 Germanic conquest of central, western, and southern Europe west ofand including Italy was complete, excluding only Muslim Iberia, there was no process equivalent to Han sinification,and "Germany" remained largely a conceptual term referring to an amorphous area of central Europe.Not a maritime power, and not a nation-state, as it became one, Germany's participation in Western imperialism was negligible until the late 19th century and the participation of Austria was primarily as a result of Habsburg control of the First Empire, the Spanish throne, and other royal houses. After the defeat of Napoleon, who caused the dissolution of that first German Empire, Prussia, and the German states continued to stand aloof from imperialism, preferring to manipulate the European system through polices such as those of Metternich. After Prussia unified the other states into the second German Empire, its long-time leader Otto von Bismarck (1862-90) had long opposed colonial acquisitions, arguing that the burden of obtaining, maintaining and defending such possessions would outweigh any potential benefit. He felt that colonies did not pay for themselves, that the German bureaucratic system would not work well in the easy-going tropics, and the diplomatic disputes over colonies would distract Germany from its central interest, Europe itself.[13] However, in 1883-84 he suddenly reversed himself and overnight built a colonial empire in Africa and the South Pacific, and then lost interest in imperialism. Historians have debated exactly why he made this sudden and short-lived move.[14] He was aware that public opinion had started to demand colonies for reasons of German prestige.[15] Bismarck was influenced by Hamburg merchants and traders, his neighbors at

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Friedrichsruh. The establishment of the German colonial empire proceeded smoothly, starting with German NewGuinea in 1884.[16]

After the collapse of the short-lived Third Reich, and the failure of its attempt to create a great land empire inEurasia, Germany was split between Western and Soviet spheres of influence until Perestroika and the collapse ofthe Soviet Union.

Russian and Communist imperialismSee also: Criticism of communist party rule, Soviet Imperialism, and Soviet Empire

The maximum territorial extent of countries in theworld under Soviet influence, after the Cuban

Revolution of 1959 and before the official Sino-Sovietsplit of 1961.

As Germanic tribes conquered western Europe, Slavic peoplesgradually expanded their control over eastern Europe and northernEurasia, and in the form of the Romanov Empire extended thatcontrol to the Pacific forming a common border with the QingEmpire.

Bolshevik leaders had effectively reestablished a polity withroughly the same jurisdiction as that empire by 1921, but with aninternationalist ideology. Beginning in 1923, the policy of"Indigenization" [korenizatsiia] helped native peoples developtheir national cultures within a socialist framework. This wasnever formally revoked. Its cultural and linguistic concessions tonon-Russians, however, stopped being implemented and enforced.After World War II, the Soviet Union installed socialist regimesmodelled on those it had installed in 1919–20 in the old Tsaristempire in areas its forces occupied in Eastern Europe.[17] TheSoviet Union and People's Republic of China supportedpost–World War II anti-colonial national-liberation movements toadvance their own interests but were not always successful.[18]

Trotsky, and others believed that the revolution could only succeed in Russia as part of a world revolution, whichwas in fact shortly after the Russian Revolution spreading in the defeated central powers of Europe. Lenin wroteextensively on the matter and famously declared that Imperialism was the highest stage of capitalism, which in histime it was. However after his death Joseph Stalin established Socialism in one country for the Soviet Union creatingthe model for subsequent inward looking Stalinist states, and purging the early Internationalist elements. Theinternationalist tendencies of the early revolution would be abandoned until they returned in a negative form in thecompetition with the United States in the Cold War.

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"President McKinley fires a cannon into theImperialist Strawman", cartoon by W.A. Rogers

in Harper's Weekly of September 22, 1900

Though the Soviet Union declared itself anti-imperialist, critics arguethat it exhibited tendencies common to historic empires. Some scholarshold that the Soviet Union was a hybrid entity containing elementscommon to both multinational empires and nation states. It has alsobeen argued that the USSR practiced colonialism as did other imperialpowers and was carrying on the old Russian tradition of expansion andcontrol.[19]

The United States as "the world's policeman"

The early United States expressed its opposition to Imperialism, atleast that distinct from its own Manifest Destiny, in policies such as theMonroe Doctrine. Beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuryhowever, policies such as Woodrow Wilson's mission to "make theworld safe for democracy"[20] were often backed by military force, butmore often effected from behind the scenes, consistent with the generalnotion of hegemony and imperium of historical empires.[21][22]. In 1898 Americans who opposed imperialismcreated the Anti-Imperialist League to oppose the US annexation of the Philippines. A year later a war erupted in thePhilippines causing business, labor and government leaders in the US to condemn America's occupation in thePhilippines. They also denounced them for causing the deaths of many Filipinos.[23]

After the second world war the United States became identified with Western interests generally in a global conflictof spheres of influence with the Soviet Union. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States did notdiminish its global ability to project force, remaining "the sole superpower" and what has been called a "unipolar"situation of domination by it globally came into force.Since the end of the previous century Battlespace domination has been an open and variously reported policy of theU.S. Department of defense and U.S. Administrations stated and restated in various Quadrennial Reports, forceposture statements, etc. in execution of its role as sole remaining superpower[24][25]. The 2010 QDR indicates achange in perspective and it is unclear how the policy of the first decade of the 21st century would be sustainedthrough the anticipated fiscal environment of the second.[26]

In 2005, the United States had 737 military bases in foreign countries, according to official sources.[27] As of 2010US Military spending is about 43% of the world total.[28]. Only a handful of countries spent a larger portion of GDPon military in 2010 and of these only Israel, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates spent more than US$10billion.

JustificationA controversial aspect of imperialism is the imperial power’s defense and justification of such actions. Mostcontroversial of all is the justification of imperialism done on rational grounds. J. A. Hobson identifies thisjustification: “It is desirable that the earth should be peopled, governed, and developed, as far as possible, by theraces which can do this work best, i.e. by the races of highest 'social efficiency'.”[29] This is clearly the racialargument, which pays heed to other ideas such as the “White Man’s Burden” prevalent at the turn of the twentiethcentury.Technological and economic efficiency were often improved in territories subjected to imperialism through thebuilding of roads and introduction of innovations. However, the majority of the rewards of such infrastructureimprovements are usually shipped to the imperial state or utilized by the local administration. Similarly, the rapidadoption of the scientific method throughout the world was partly a side effect of the British Empire.[30]

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The principles of imperialism are often deeply connected to the policies and practices of British Imperialism "duringthe last generation, and proceeds rather by diagnosis than by historical description."[31] British Imperialist strategyoften but not always used the concept of terra nullius (Latin expression which stems from Roman law meaning‘empty land’). The country of Australia serves as a case study in relation to British imperialism. British settlementand colonial rule of the island continent of Australia in the eighteenth century was premised on terra nullius, for itssettlers considered it unused by its sparse inhabitants.This form of imperialism can also be seen in British Columbia, Canada. In the 1840s, the territory of BritishColumbia was divided into two regions, one space for the native population, and the other for non-natives. Theindigenous peoples were often forcibly removed from their homes onto reserves. These actions were “justified by adominant belief among British colonial officials that land occupied by Native people was not being used efficientlyand productively.”[4]

References[1] Johnston, Ronald John (2000). The Dictionary of Human Geography (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=0-GxowMfwlkC& pg=375) (4th

ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 375. ISBN 0-631-20561-6[2] S. Gertrude Millin, Rhodes, London, 1933, p.138[3] "Imperialism." 'International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2nd edition.[4][4] Gilmartin, Mary. Gallaher, C. et al., 2008. Key Concepts in Political Geography, Sage Publications Ltd. : Imperialism/Colonialism. pg.116[5] "The Age of Imperialism, 1850–1914" (http:/ / docs. google. com/ viewer?a=v& q=cache:QigcXabehRwJ:mclane. fresno. k12. ca. us/

wilson98/ mwh/ C/ MH11C045. PDF+ "age+ of+ imperialism"& hl=en& pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShoA0WBotar1_hzLNv-9Xgbr0KhmGgiHvs6VZK5ODaRsecbPWTVIeZ8PJCovszsXYeJcDWdlca9YDUjAlQGB1uVY9tyy7HUUhtkBi0qMsJSi2Uqd78Dt1vLEEpeqOVRpg-yIY6V&sig=AHIEtbQdQ4H9pgU4AKtL7ZDIlzqVjYPUxA). Google docs. . Retrieved December 30, 2010.

[6] "The United States and its Territories: 1870–1925 The Age of Imperialism" (http:/ / porter. umdl. umich. edu/ p/ philamer/ ). University ofMichigan. . Retrieved February 23, 2011.

[7] Louis, Wm. Roger. (1976) Imperialism page 4.[8] Painter, J. & Jeffrey, A., 2009. Political Geography 2nd ed., Sage. pg.183-184[9] Painter, J. & Jeffrey, A., 2009. Political Geography 2nd ed., Sage. pg.184[10][10] Harvey, D., 2006. Spaces of Global Capitalism: A Theory of Uneven Geographical Development, Verso. pg. 91[11] Adas, Michael; Peter N. Stearns (2008). Turbulent Passage A Global History of the Twentieth Century (Fourth Edition ed.). Pearson

Education, Inc.. pp. 54–58. ISBN 0-205-64571-2.[12] attributed to Voltaire[13] Thomas Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876-1912 (1992) ch 12[14] Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (1988) ch 10[15] Hans-Ulrich Wehler, "Bismarck's Imperialism 1862–1890," Past & Present, (1970) 48: 119–55 online (http:/ / past. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/

reprint/ 48/ 1/ 119. pdf)[16] Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, "Domestic Origins of Germany's Colonial Expansion under Bismarck" Past & Present (1969) 42:140–159

online (http:/ / past. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 42/ 1/ 140. pdf); Crankshaw, pp. 395–7[17] "The Soviet Union and Europe after 1945" (http:/ / www. ushmm. org/ wlc/ en/ article. php?ModuleId=10005506). The U.S. Holocaust

Memorial Museum. . Retrieved December 30, 2010.[18] Melvin E. Page (2003). Colonialism: an international social, cultural, and political encyclopedia (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC& pg=PA138#v=onepage& q& f=false). ABC-CLIO. .[19] Caroe, O. (1953). "Soviet Colonialism in Central Asia". Foreign Affairs 32 (1): 135–144. JSTOR 20031013.[20] Text of Original address (mtholyoke.edu) (http:/ / www. mtholyoke. edu/ acad/ intrel/ ww18. htm)[21] Max Boot (July 15, 2004). "In Modern Imperialism, U.S. Needs to Walk Softly" (http:/ / www. cfr. org/ publication/ 7190/

in_modern_imperialism_us_needs_to_walk_softly. html). Council on Foreign Relations. .[22] Oliver Kamm (October 30, 2008). "America is still the world's policeman" (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ comment/ specials/

article5047143. ece). The Times. .[23] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC& pg=PA1075#v=onepage& q& f=false[24] Quadrennial Review 1997 (http:/ / www. defense. gov/ qdr/ archive/ )[25] 2006 QDR (http:/ / www. defense. gov/ qdr/ archive/ 20060206qdr1. html)[26] Current QDR (2012) (http:/ / www. defense. gov/ qdr/ )[27] Chalmers Johnson (February 19, 2007). "737 U.S. Military Bases = Global Empire" (http:/ / www. alternet. org/ story/ 47998). AlterNet. .[28] Always more, or else (http:/ / www. economist. com/ blogs/ democracyinamerica/ 2011/ 12/ defence-spending) Economist Article December

2011[29][29] Hobson, J. A. "Imperialism: a study." Cosimo, Inc., 2005. pg. 154

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[30] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=L5wdAAAAIAAJ& lpg=PA243& ots=Krjpr-iAPF&dq=scientific%20revolution%20british%20imperialism& pg=PA243#v=onepage& q& f=false

[31][31] Hobson, J. A. "Imperialism: a study." Cosimo, Inc., 2005. pg. V

Further reading• Guy Ankerl, Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharatai, Chinese, and Western, Geneva,

INU PRESS, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5.• Robert Bickers/Christian Henriot, New Frontiers: Imperialism's New Communities in East Asia, 1842–1953,

Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-7190-5604-7• Barbara Bush, Imperialism and Postcolonialism (History: Concepts,Theories and Practice), Longmans, 2006,

ISBN 0-582-50583-6• John Darwin (author), After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000, Penguin Books, 2008,

ISBN 0-14-101022-3• Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World, Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 0-14-100754-0• Michael Hardt and Toni Negri, Empire, Harvard University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-674-00671-2• E.J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875–1914, Abacus Books, 1989, ISBN 0-349-10598-7• E. J. Hobsbawm, On Empire: America, War, and Global Supremacy, Pantheon Books, 2008, ISBN

0-375-42537-3• J. A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study, Cosimo Classics, 2005, ISBN 1-59605-250-3• Michael Hudson, Super Imperialism: The Origin and Fundamentals of U.S. World Dominance, Pluto Press, 2003,

ISBN 0-7453-1989-0• V. I. Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism, International Publishers, New York, 1997, ISBN

0-7178-0098-9• Rosa Luxemburg, The Accumulation of Capital: A Contribution to an Economic Explanation of Imperialism• Petringa, Maria, Brazza, A Life for Africa, Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2006. ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0• Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, Vintage Books, 1998, ISBN 0-09-996750-2• Simon C. Smith, British Imperialism 1750–1970, Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-521-59930-X• Stuchtey, Benedikt, Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450-1950 (http:/ / nbn-resolving. de/

urn:nbn:de:0159-20101025319), European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved:July 13, 2011.

External links• J.A Hobson, Imperialism a Study (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ hobson/ 1902/ imperialism/ index. htm)

1902.• The Paradox of Imperialism (http:/ / www. mises. org/ story/ 2383) by Hans-Hermann Hoppe. November 2006.• Imperialism (http:/ / www. polyarchy. org/ documents/ imperialism. html) Quotations• State, Imperialism and Capitalism (http:/ / www. panarchy. org/ schumpeter/ imperialism. html) by Joseph

Schumpeter• Economic Imperialism (http:/ / www. panarchy. org/ taylor/ imperialism. 1952. html) by A.J.P.Taylor• Imperialism Entry in the Columbia Encyclopedia (Bartleby) (http:/ / www. bartelby. org/ 65/ im/ imperial. html)• (http:/ / www. polis. cam. ac. uk/ contacts/ staff/ eperreausaussine/ imperialism. pdf) Imperialism by Emile

Perreau-Saussine• The Nation-State, Core and Periphery: A Brief sketch of Imperialism in the 20th century. (http:/ /

dostoevskiansmiles. blogspot. com/ 2008/ 10/ nation-state-core-and-periphery-brief. html)• Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order,

Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp.61–93 (http:/ / www. sam. gov. tr/perceptions/ volume12/ winter/ winter-004-PERCEPTION(mehmetakifokur)[4]. pdf)

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• Imperialism 101, Against Empire By Michael Parenti Published by City Lights Books, 1995, ISBN0-87286-298-4, ISBN 978-0-87286-298-2, 217 pages (http:/ / www. michaelparenti. org/ Imperialism101. html)

Cultural imperialismCultural imperialism is defined as the cultural aspects of imperialism. Imperialism, here, is referring to the creationand maintenance of unequal relationships between civilizations favoring the more powerful civilization.[1] Manyscholars employ the term, especially those in the fields of history, cultural studies, and postcolonial theory. The termis usually used in a pejorative sense, often in conjunction with a call to reject such influence. Cultural imperialismcan take various forms, such as an attitude, a formal policy, military action, so long as it reinforces culturalhegemony.

Background and definitionsThe term emerged in the 1960s.[2] and has been a focus of research since at least the 1970s.[3] Terms such as "mediaimperialism", "structural imperialism", "cultural dependency and domination", "cultural synchronization","electronic colonialism", "ideological imperialism", and "economic imperialism" have all been used to describe thesame basic notion of cultural imperialism.[4]

Various academics give various definitions of the term. American media critic Herbert Schiller wrote: "The conceptof cultural imperialism today [1975] best describes the sum of the processes by which a society is brought into themodern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed intoshaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centre ofthe system. The public media are the foremost example of operating enterprises that are used in the penetrativeprocess. For penetration on a significant scale the media themselves must be captured by the dominating/penetratingpower. This occurs largely through the commercialization of broadcasting."[5]

Tom McPhail defined "Electronic colonialism as the dependency relationship established by the importation ofcommunication hardware, foreign-produced software, along with engineers, technicians, and related informationprotocols, that vicariously establish a set of foreign norms, values, and expectations which, in varying degrees, mayalter the domestic cultures and socialization processes."[6] Sui-Nam Lee observed that "communication imperialismcan be defined as the process in which the ownership and control over the hardware and software of mass media aswell as other major forms of communication in one country are singly or together subjugated to the domination ofanother country with deleterious effects on the indigenous values, norms and culture."[7] Ogan saw "mediaimperialism often described as a process whereby the United States and Western Europe produce most of the mediaproducts, make the first profits from domestic sales, and then market the products in Third World countries at costsconsiderably lower than those the countries would have to bear to produce similar products at home."[8]

Downing and Sreberny-Mohammadi state: "Imperialism is the conquest and control of one country by a morepowerful one. Cultural imperialism signifies the dimensions of the process that go beyond economic exploitation ormilitary force. In the history of colonialism, (i.e., the form of imperialism in which the government of the colony isrun directly by foreigners), the educational and media systems of many Third World countries have been set up asreplicas of those in Britain, France, or the United States and carry their values. Western advertising has made furtherinroads, as have architectural and fashion styles. Subtly but powerfully, the message has often been insinuated thatWestern cultures are superior to the cultures of the Third World."[9]

The issue of cultural imperialism emerged largely from communication studies.[10] However, cultural imperialismhas been used as a framework by scholars to explain phenomena in the areas of international relations, anthropology,education, science, history, literature, and sports.[4]

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Theoretical foundationsMany of today's academics that employ the term, cultural imperialism, are heavily informed by the work ofFoucault, Derrida, Said, and other poststructrualist and postcolonialist theorists. Within the realm of postcolonialdiscourse, cultural imperialism can be seen as the cultural legacy of colonialism, or forms of social actioncontributing to the continuation of Western hegemony. To some outside of the realm of this discourse, The term iscritiqued as being unclear, unfocused, and/or contradictory in nature [4]

Michel FoucaultThe work of French philosopher and social theorist, Michel Foucault has been utilized in a variety of disciplines,such as history, philosophy, anthropology, sociology, psychology, and linguistics. Particularly influential for manywho utilize the term, Cultural imperialism, is his philosophical interpretation of power and his concept ofgovernmentality.Following an interpretation of power similar to that of Machiavelli, Foucault defines power as immaterial, as a"certain type of relation between individuals" that has to do with complex strategic social positions that relate to thesubject's ability to control its environment and influence those around itself.[11] According to Foucault, power isintimately tied with his conception of truth. "Truth," as he defines it, is a "system of ordered procedures for theproduction, regulation, distribution, circulation, and operation of statements" which has a "circular relation" withsystems of power.[12] Therefore, inherent in systems of power, is always "truth," which is culturally specific,inseparable from ideology which often coincides with various forms of hegemony. Cultural imperialism may be anexample of this.Foucault's interpretation of governance is also very important in constructing theories of transnational powerstructure. In his lectures at the Collège de France, Foucault often defines governmentality as the broad art of"governing," which goes beyond the traditional conception of governance in terms of state mandates, and into otherrealms such as governing "a household, souls, children, a province, a convent, a religious order, a family".[13] Thisrelates directly back to Machiavelli's The Prince, and Foucault's aforementioned conceptions of truth and power. (i.e.various subjectivities are created through power relations that are culturally specific, which lead to various forms ofculturally specific governmentality such as neoliberal governmentality.)

Edward SaidInformed by the work of Noam Chomsky, Michel Foucault, and Antonio Gramsci, Edward Said is considered to be afounding figure for postcolonialism.[14] Said himself describes his book, Orientalism, as a humanist critique of theenlightenment.[15] In it, he criticizes Western (specifically English and French) knowledge about Westernconstructions of "the East".[16] This "knowledge" then leads to a tendency towards a binary opposition of the orientvs. the occident, where one is defined in opposition to the other, and they are unequal in value.[16] In Culture andImperialism, the sequel to Orientalism, Said argues that while the formal "age of empire" ended after World War II,imperialism has left a cultural legacy in the previously-colonized civilizations that remains today. He furthermoreargues that this legacy of imperialism or cultural imperialism is still very influential in international systems ofpower.[17]

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Gayatri Chakravorty SpivakAnother influential voice in discussing matters of cultural imperialism is the self-described " practicalMarxist-feminist-deconstructionist,"[18] Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Spivak has published a number of workschallenging the "legacy of colonialism" including A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Towards a History of theVanishing Present (1999), Other Asias (2005), and "Can the Subaltern Speak?" (1988).[19]

In "Can the Subaltern Speak?" Spivak critiques common representations in the West of the Sati, as being controlledby authors other than the participants (specifically English colonizers and Hindu leaders). Because of this, Spivakargues that the subaltern, referring to the communities that participate in the Sati are not allowed or able to"speak."[19]

In A critique of Postcolonial Reason, Spivak argues that Western philosophy has a history of not only exclusion ofthe Subaltern from discourse, but also does not allow them to occupy the space of a fully human subject.

Contemporary ideas and debateCultural imperialism can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntaryembracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will. Since these are two very differentreferents, the validity of the term has been called into question.Cultural influence can be seen by the "receiving" culture as either a threat to or an enrichment of its cultural identity.It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority,and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partlydeficient, with imported products.The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such asconsumerism). According to one argument, the "receiving" culture does not necessarily perceive this link, but insteadabsorbs the foreign culture passively through the use of the foreign goods and services. Due to its somewhatconcealed, but very potent nature, this hypothetical idea is described by some experts as "banal imperialism." Somebelieve that the newly globalised economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this process throughthe use of new information technology. This kind of cultural imperialism is derived from what is called "soft power".The theory of electronic colonialism extends the issue to global cultural issues and the impact of major multi-mediaconglomerates, ranging from Viacom, Time-Warner, Disney, News Corp, Sony, to Google and Microsoft with thefocus on the hegemonic power of these mainly United States-based communication giants.

Cultural diversityOne of the reasons often given for opposing any form of cultural imperialism, voluntary or otherwise, is thepreservation of cultural diversity, a goal seen by some as analogous to the preservation of ecological diversity.Proponents of this idea argue either that such diversity is valuable in itself, to preserve human historical heritage andknowledge, or instrumentally valuable because it makes available more ways of solving problems and responding tocatastrophes, natural or otherwise.

Ideas relating to African colonizationOf all the areas of the world that scholars have claimed to be adversely affected by imperialism, Africa is probably the most notable. In the expansive "age of imperialism" of the nineteenth century, scholars have argued that European colonization in Africa has led to the elimination of many various cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies.[20][21] This, arguably has led to uneven development, and further informal forms of social control having to do with culture and imperialism.[22] A variety of factors, scholars argue, lead to the elimination of cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies, such as "de-linguicization" (replacing native African languages with European ones) and devaluing ontologies that are not explicitly individualistic.[22] One scholar, Ali A. Obdi, claims that

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imperialism inherently "involve[s] extensively interactive regimes and heavy contexts of identity deformation,misrecognition, loss of self-esteem, and individual and social doubt in self-efficacy."(2000: 12)[22] Therefore, allimperialism would always, already be cultural.

Ties to neoliberalismNeoliberalism is often critiqued by sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural studies scholars as being culturallyimperialistic. Critics of neoliberalism, at times, claim that it is the newly predominant form of imperialism.[22] OtherScholars, such as Elizabeth Dunn and Julia Elyachar have claimed that neoliberalism requires and creates its ownform of governmentality.[23][24]

In Dunn's work, Privatizing Poland, she argues that the expansion of the multinational corporation, Gerber, intoPoland in the 1990s imposed Western, neoliberal governmentality, ideologies, and epistemologies upon thepost-soviet persons hired.[23] Cultural conflicts occurred most notably the company's inherent individualisticpolicies, such as promoting competition among workers rather than cooperation, and in its strong opposition to whatthe company owners claimed was bribery.[23]

In Elyachar's work, Markets of Dispossession, she focuses on ways in which, in Cairo, NGOs along with INGOs andthe state promoted neoliberal governmentality through schemas of economic development that relied upon "youthmicroentrepreneurs." [24] Youth microentrepreneurs would receive small loans to build their own businesses, similarto the way that microfinance supposedly operates.[24] Elyachar argues though, that these programs not only were afailure, but that they shifted cultural opinions of value (personal and cultural) in a way that favored Western ways ofthinking and being [24]

Ties to development studiesOften, methods of promoting development and social justice to are critiqued as being imperialistic, in a culturalsense. For example, Chandra Mohanty has critiqued Western feminism, claiming that it has created amisrepresentation of the "third world woman" as being completely powerless, unable to resist male dominance.[25]

Thus, this leads to the often critiqued narrative of the "white man" saving the "brown woman" from the "brownman." Other, more radical critiques of development studies, have to do with the field of study itself. Some scholarseven question the intentions of those developing the field of study, claiming that efforts to "develop" the GlobalSouth were never about the South itself. Instead, these efforts, it is argued, were made in order to advance Westerndevelopment and reinforce Western hegemony.[26]

Criticisms of "cultural imperialism theory"Critics of scholars who discuss cultural imperialism have a number of critiques. Cultural imperialism is a term that isonly used in discussions where cultural relativism and constructivism are generally taken as true. (One cannotcritique promoting Western values if one believes that said values are absolutely correct. Similarly, one cannot arguethat Western epistemology is unjustly promoted in non-Western societies if one believes that those epistemologiesare absolutely correct.[4]) Therefore, those who disagree with cultural relativism and/or constructivism may critiquethe employment of the term, cultural imperialism on those terms.John Tomlinson provides a critique of cultural imperialism theory that relies on some of the key points. He arguesthat one of the fundamental conceptual mistakes of cultural imperialism is to take for granted that the distribution ofcultural goods can be considered as cultural dominance. To support this argument, he criticizes the concept thatAmericanization is occurring through global overflow of American television products. He points to a myriad ofexamples of television networks who have managed to dominate their domestic markets and that domestic programsgenerally top the ratings.He also doubts the concept that cultural agents are passive receivers of information. Hestates that movement between cultural/geographical areas always involves translation, mutation, adaptation, and thecreation of hybridity.

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Other major critiques are that the term is not defined well, and employs further terms that are not defined well, andtherefore lacks explanatory power, that cultural imperialism is hard to measure, and that the theory of a legacy ofcolonialism is not always true.[4]

Rothkopf on dealing with cultural dominanceDavid Rothkopf, managing director of Kissinger Associates and an adjunct professor of international affairs atColumbia University (who also served as a senior US Commerce Department official in the Clinton Administration),wrote about cultural imperialism in his provocatively titled In Praise of Cultural Imperialism? in the summer 1997issue of Foreign Policy magazine. Rothkopf says that the United States should embrace "cultural imperialism" as inits self interest. But his definition of cultural imperialism stresses spreading the values of tolerance and openness tocultural change in order to avoid war and conflict between cultures as well as expanding accepted technological andlegal standards to provide free traders with enough security to do business with more countries. Rothkopf's definitionalmost exclusively involves allowing individuals in other nations to accept or reject foreign cultural influences. Healso mentions, but only in passing, the use of the English language and consumption of news and popular music andfilm as cultural dominance that he supports. Rothkopf additionally makes the point that globalization and the Internetare accelerating the process of cultural influence.[27]

Culture is sometimes used by the organizers of society — politicians, theologians, academics, and families — toimpose and ensure order, the rudiments of which change over time as need dictates. One need only look at the 20thcentury's genocides. In each one, leaders used culture as a political front to fuel the passions of their armies and otherminions and to justify their actions among their people.Rothkopf then cites genocide and massacres in Armenia, Russia, the Holocaust, Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,Rwanda and East Timor as examples of culture (in some cases expressed in the ideology of "political culture" orreligion) being misused to justify violence. He also acknowledges that cultural imperialism in the past has beenguilty of forcefully eliminating the cultures of natives in the Americas and in Africa, or through use of theInquisition, "and during the expansion of virtually every empire.".The most important way to deal with culturalinfluence in any nation, according to Rothkopf, is to promote tolerance and allow, or even promote, culturaldiversities that are compatible with tolerance and to eliminate those cultural differences that cause violent conflict:

Multicultural societies, be they nations, federations, or other conglomerations of closely interrelated states,discern those aspects of culture that do not threaten union, stability, or prosperity (such as food, holidays,rituals, and music) and allow them to flourish. But they counteract or eradicate the more subversive elementsof culture (exclusionary aspects of religion, language, and political/ideological beliefs). History shows thatbridging cultural gaps successfully and serving as a home to diverse peoples requires certain social structures,laws, and institutions that transcend culture. Furthermore, the history of a number of ongoing experiments inmulticulturalism, such as in the European Union, India, South Africa, Canada and the United States, suggeststhat workable, if not perfected, integrative models exist. Each is built on the idea that tolerance is crucial tosocial well-being, and each at times has been threatened by both intolerance and a heightened emphasis oncultural distinctions. The greater public good warrants eliminating those cultural characteristics that promoteconflict or prevent harmony, even as less-divisive, more personally observed cultural distinctions arecelebrated and preserved.[28]

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Notes[1][1] Johnston, Ronald John (2000). The Dictionary of Human Geography (4th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 375. ISBN 0-631-20561-6.[2][2] Tomlinson (1991), p. 3[3][3] Hamm, (2005), p. 4[4][4] White (2001)[5] Schiller, Herbert I. (1976). Communication and cultural domination. International Arts and Sciences Press, 901 North Broadway, White

Plains, New York 10603. pp. 9–10. ISBN 0-87332-079-4, 9780873320795.[6] McPhail, Thomas L. (1987). Electronic colonialism: the future of international broadcasting and communication. Volume 126 of Sage

library of social research. Sage Publications. pp. 18. ISBN 0-8039-2730-4, 9780803927308.[7] Lee, Siu-Nam Lee (1988). "Communication imperialism and dependency: A conceptual clarification". International Communication Gazette

(Netherlands: Kiuwer Academic Publishers) (41): 74.[8] Ogan, Christine (Spring 1988). "Media Imperialism and the Videocassette Recorder: The Case of Turkey.". Journal of Communication, 38

(2): p94.[9] Downing,, John; Ali Mohammadi, Annabelle Sreberny-Mohammadi (1995). Questioning the media: a critical introduction (2, illustrated ed.).

SAGE. pp. 482. ISBN 0-8039-7197-4, 9780803971974.[10] Salwen, Michael B. (March 1991). "Cultural imperialism: A media effects approach". Critical Studies in Media Communication 8 (1):

29–38.[11] Foucault, Michel. 1979. "Omnes et Singulatim: Towards a Criticism of Political Reason" in Faubion, James D. (ed.) Essential Works of

Foucault, Volume 3: Power New York: The New Press[12] Foucault, Michel. 1979. "Truth and Power" in Faubion, James D. (ed.) Essential Works of Foucault, Volume 3: Power New York: The New

Press[13] Foucault, Michel. 1978. "Governmentality" in Faubion, James D. (ed.) Essential Works of Foucault, Volume 3: Power New York: The New

Press[14] Robert Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West, New York & London: Routledge, 1990.[15] Orientalism 25 Years Later, by Said in 2003 (http:/ / www. counterpunch. org/ said08052003. html)[16] Said, Edward. 1978. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books[17] Said, Edward. 1993. Culture and Imperialism New York: Pantheon Books[18] LAHIRI, BULAN (2011-02-06). "Speaking to Spivak" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ lr/ 2011/ 02/ 06/ stories/ 2011020650020100. htm). The

Hindu (Chennai, India). . Retrieved 9 December 2011.[19] Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1988. "Can the Subaltern Speak" (http:/ / www. maldura. unipd. it/ dllags/ docentianglo/ materiali_oboe_lm/

2581_001. pdf)[20] Monga, C. 1996. Anthropology of Anger: Civil Society and Democracy in Africa. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner[21] wa Thiongo, N. 1986. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. London: James Curry.[22] Abdi, Ali A. 2000. "Globalization, Culture, and Development: Perspectives on Africa" Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social

Sciences 2(1): 1-26[23] Dunn, Elizabeth C. 2004. Privatizing Poland: Baby Food, Big Business, and the Remaking of Labor Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press[24] Elyachar, Julia. 2005. Markets of Dispossession: NGOs, Economic Development, and the State in Cairo US: Duke University Press[25] Mohanty, Chandra. 1988. "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses" Feminist Review no. 30[26] Dossa, Shiraz. 2007. "Slicing Up 'Development': Colonialism, political theory, ethics." Third World Quarterly 28(5):887-899[27] (http:/ / www. globalpolicy. org/ globaliz/ cultural/ globcult. htm) Rothkopf, David, "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism," Foreign Affairs,

Summer 1997, Volume 107, pp. 38-53; all descriptions of Rothkopf's points and his quotes are from this article[28] O'Meara, Patrick.; Mehlinger, Howard D.; Krain, Matthew. (2000). Globalization and the challenges of a new century : a reader.

Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press. pp. 445–446. ISBN 978-0-253-21355-6.

References• Tomlinson, John (1991). Cultural imperialism: a critical introduction (illustrated, reprint ed.). Continuum

International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-5013-X, 9780826450135.• Hamm, Bernd; Russell Charles Smandych (2005). Cultural imperialism: essays on the political economy of

cultural domination. Reference,Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. University of Toronto Press.ISBN 1-55111-707-X, 9781551117072.

• White, Livingston A. (Spring/Summer 2001). "Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory". TransnationalBroadcasting Studies (The Center for Electronic Journalism at the American University in Cairo and the Centrefor Middle East Studies, St. Antony’s College, Oxford) (6).

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External links• "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?" (http:/ / www. mtholyoke. edu/ acad/ intrel/ protected/ rothkopf. html), by

David Rothkopf, Foreign Policy no. 107, Summer 1997, pp. 38–53, which argues that cultural imperialism is apositive thing.

• "Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory" (http:/ / www. tbsjournal. com/ Archives/ Spring01/ white. html) byLivingston A. White, Transnational Broadcasting Studies no. 6, Spring/Summer 2001, which argues that the ideaof media imperialism is outdated.

• Academic Web page (http:/ / www. uky. edu/ ~drlane/ capstone/ mass/ imperialism. htm) from 24 February 2000,discussing the idea of cultural imperialism

New ImperialismNew Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe's powers and, later, Japan during the 19th andearly 20th centuries; expansion took place from the French conquest of Algeria until World War I: approximately1830 to 1914. The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions.The qualifier "new" is to contrast with the earlier wave of European colonization from the 15th to early 19thcenturies.

Rise of New ImperialismThe American Revolution and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in the early 1810–20s, following the revolutions inthe viceroyalties of New Spain, New Granada, Peru, and the Rio de la Plata ended the first era of Europeanimperialism. Especially in the United Kingdom (UK), these revolutions helped show the deficiencies ofmercantilism, the doctrine of economic competition for finite wealth which had supported earlier imperial expansion.In 1846, The Corn Laws, which were the regulations governing the import and export of grain, were repealed after agreat deal of protesting from the middle class. Because of the repeal, manufacturers were faced with a tremendousbenefit, seeing that the regulations enforced by the Corn Laws had slowed their businesses. With the repeal in place,the manufacturers were then able to trade more freely. Thus, the UK began to adopt the concept of free trade.[1] ThePax era also saw the enforced opening of key markets to European, particularly British, commerce.

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The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, (1819). The congress was actually aseries of face-to-face meetings between colonial powers. It served to divide and

reappropriate imperial holdings.

During this period, between the 1815Congress of Vienna (after the defeat ofNapoleonic France) and the end of theFranco-Prussian War (1870–1871),Britain reaped the benefits of being theworld's sole modern, industrial power.As the "workshop of the world", theUnited Kingdom could producefinished goods so efficiently that theycould usually undersell comparable,locally manufactured goods in foreignmarkets, even supplying a large shareof the manufactured goods consumedby such nations as Germany, France,Belgium, and the United States.

The erosion of British hegemony afterthe Franco-Prussian War, in which a

coalition of German states led by Prussia defeated France, was occasioned by changes in the European and worldeconomies and in the continental balance of power following the breakdown of the Concert of Europe, establishedby the Congress of Vienna. The establishment of nation-states in Germany and Italy resolved territorial issues thathad kept potential rivals embroiled in internal affairs at the heart of Europe (to Britain's advantage). The years from1871 to 1914 would be marked by an extremely unstable peace. France’s determination to recover Alsace-Lorraine, aterritory formerly located in France that had been annexed by Germany, and Germany’s mounting imperialistambitions would keep the two nations constantly poised for conflict.[2]

This competition was sharpened by the Long Depression of 1873-1896, a prolonged period of price deflationpunctuated by severe business downturns, which put pressure on governments to promote home industry, leading tothe widespread abandonment of free trade among Europe's powers (in Germany from 1879 and in France from1881).[3][4]

The Berlin ConferenceThe Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 sought to regulate the competition between the powers by defining "effectiveoccupation" as the criterion for international recognition of a territory claim (specifically in Africa). The impositionof direct rule in terms of "effective occupation" necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenousstates and peoples. Uprisings against imperial rule were put down ruthlessly, most spectacularly in GermanSouth-West Africa and German East Africa in the years 1904 and 1907, respectively. One of the goals of theconference was to reach agreements over trade, navigation, and boundaries of Central Africa. However, of all of the15 nations in attendance of the Berlin Conference, none of the countries represented were African.[9]The main dominating powers of the conference were France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal. They remappedAfrica without considering the cultural and linguistic borders that were already established. At the end of theconference, Africa was divided into 50 different colonies. The attendants established who was in control of each ofthese newly divided colonies. They also planned, noncommittally, to end the slave trade in Africa. This conferencenot only laid out the rules of this "feeding frenzy" but it also made it easier for Germany to participate since theyhosted and planned out the conference.[10]

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Britain during the era of New Imperialism

British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli and Queen Victoria

In Britain, the latter half of the 19th century has been seen asthe period of displacement of industrial capitalism by financecapitalism. As the country's relative commercial andindustrial lag encouraged the creation of larger corporationsand combines, close association of industry and banks addedto the influence of financiers over the British economy andpolitics.[5]

Britain's lag in other fields deepened her reliance on invisibleexports (such as banking, insurance and shipping services) tooffset a merchandise trade deficit dating from the beginningof commercial liberalization in 1813, and thereby keep her"out of the red." Although it had been official British policyfor years to support such investments, the large expansion ofthese investments after about 1860 and the economic andpolitical instability in many areas of high investment such asEgypt, brought increased pressure for their systematicprotection.

Fear of Russia's centuries-old southward expansion was a further factor in British policy: in 1878, Britain tookcontrol of Cyprus as a base for action against a Russian attack on the Ottoman Empire, and invaded Afghanistan toforestall an increase in Russian influence there. The Great Game in Inner Asia ended with a bloody British assaultagainst Tibet in 1903-1904.

At the same time, some powerful industrial lobbies and government leaders in Britain, exemplified by JosephChamberlain, came to view a formal empire as necessary to arrest Britain's relative decline in world markets.Britain's adoption of New Imperialism in the 1890s followed by its quick emergence as the front-runner in thescramble for African territories may be seen as a quest for captive markets or fields for investment of surplus capital,or (somewhat more cynically) as a primarily strategic or preemptive attempt to protect existing trade links and toprevent the absorption of its overseas markets into the imperial trading blocs of rival powers. The failure in the1900s of Chamberlain's campaign for imperial tariffs illustrates the strength of a free trade movement even in theface of loss of international market share.

The New Imperialism and the newly industrialized countriesJust as the U.S. emerged as one of the world's leading industrial, military and political powers after the Civil War, sowould Germany, following its own unification in 1871. Both countries undertook ambitious naval expansion in the1890s. And just as Germany reacted to economic depression with the adoption of tariff protection in 1879 andcolonial expansion in 1884-85, so would the U.S., the landslide election in 1896 of William McKinley, would soonbe associated with the high McKinley Tariff of 1890.United States colonial expansionism had its roots in domestic concerns and economic conditions, much like othernewly industrializing nations whose governments sought to accelerate internal development. Advocates of theimperial system also drew upon a tradition of westward expansion over the course of the previous century. Economicdepression led some U.S. businessmen and politicians from the mid-1880s to come to the same conclusion as theirEuropean counterparts—that industry and capital had exceeded the capacity of existing markets and needed newoutlets. The "closing of the Frontier" identified by the 1890 Census report and publicized by historian FrederickJackson Turner in his 1893 paper The Significance of the Frontier in American History, contributed to fears ofconstrained natural resource.

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Like the Long Depression in Europe, the main features of the U.S. depression included deflation, rural decline, andunemployment, which aggravated the bitter social protests of the "Gilded Age"—the Populist movement, thefree-silver crusade, and violent labor disputes such as the Pullman and Homestead strikes.The Panic of 1893 contributed to the growing mood for expansionism. Influential politicians such as Henry CabotLodge, William McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt advocated a more aggressive foreign policy to pull the UnitedStates out of the depression. However, opposition to expansionism was strong and vocal in the United States.Whatever the causes, the result of the 1898 Spanish-American War was that the U.S. came into the possession ofCuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines. Puerto Rico remains a territory of the United States.Although U.S. capital investments within the Philippines and Puerto Rico were relatively small (figures that wouldseemingly detract from the broader economic implications on first glance), "imperialism" for the United States,formalized in 1904 by the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, would also spur its displacement of Britainas the predominant investor in Latin America — a process largely completed by the end of the Great War.In Germany, Imperial Chancellor Otto von Bismarck revised his initial dislike of colonies (which he had seen asburdensome and useless), partly because he was under pressure for colonial expansion matching that of the otherEuropean states, but also under the mistaken notion that Germany's entry into the colonial scramble could pressBritain into conceding to broader German strategic ambitions.Japan's development after the Meiji Restoration of 1868 followed the Western lead in industrialization andmilitarism, enabling her to gain control of Taiwan in 1895, Korea in 1910 and then a sphere of influence inManchuria (1905), following the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. Japan's colonial boom was in part aresponse to the actions of more established powers, and her expansionism drew on the harnessing of traditionalJapanese values to more modern aspirations for great-power status; not until the 1930s was Japan to become a netexporter of capital.

Social implications of the New ImperialismThe New Imperialism gave rise to new social views of colonialism. Rudyard Kipling, for instance, urged the UnitedStates to "Take up the White Man's burden" of bringing European civilization to the other peoples of the world,regardless of whether these "other peoples" wanted this civilization or not. This part of the white mans burden trulyexemplifies Britain's colonization's of other countries, "Take up the White Man's burden, In patience to abide, Toveil the threat of terror, And check the show of pride; By open speech and simple, An hundred times made plain Toseek another's profit, And work another's gain." While Social Darwinism became popular throughout WesternEurope and the United States, the paternalistic French-style "civilizing mission" (In French: mission civilisatrice)appealed to many European statesmen both in and outside of France. Despite apparent benevolence existing in thenotion of the "White Man's Burden", the unintended consequences of imperialism might greatly outweigh thepotential benefits. Governments become increasingly paternalistic at home and neglected the individual liberties oftheir citizens. Military spending expanded, usually leading to an "imperial overreach", and imperialism createdclients of ruling elites abroad that were brutal and corrupt. Consequently, the corrupt elites were then able toconsolidate power through imperial rents and impede social change and economic development that ran against theirambitions. Furthermore, "nation building" oftentimes can create cultural sentiments of racism and xenophobia.[6]

Many of Europe's major elites also found advantages in formal, overseas expansion: large financial and industrialmonopolies wanted imperial support to protect their overseas investments against competition and domestic politicaltensions abroad; bureaucrats wanted and sought government offices; military officers desired promotion; and thetraditional but waning landed gentries sought increased profits for their investments, formal titles, and high office.Such special interests perpetuate empire building today and throughout history.[6]

Observing the rise of trade unionism, socialism, and other protest movements during an era of mass society in both Europe and later North America, elites sought to use imperial jingoism to co-opt the support of part of the industrial working class. The new mass media promoted jingoism in the Spanish-American War (1898), the Second Boer War

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(1899–1902), and the Boxer Rebellion (1900). The left-wing German historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler has definedsocial imperialism as "the diversions outwards of internal tensions and forces of change in order to preserve thesocial and political status quo", and as a "defensive ideology" to counter the "disruptive effects of industrializationon the social and economic structure of Germany"[7] In Wehler's opinion, social imperialism was a device thatallowed the German government to distract public attention from domestic problems and preserve the existing socialand political order[8] Wehler argued the dominant elites used social imperialism as the glue to hold together afractured society and to maintain popular support for the social status quo[8] Wehler argued German colonial policyin the 1880s was the first example of social imperialism in action, and was followed up by the "Tirpitz plan" forexpanding the German Navy starting in 1897[8] In this point of view, groups such as the Colonial Society and theNavy League are seen as instruments for the government to mobilize public support.[8] The demands for annexingmost of Europe and Africa in World War I are seen by Wehler as the pinnacle of social imperialism.[8]

The notion of rule over tropical lands commanded widespread acceptance among metropolitan populations: evenamong those who associated imperial colonization with oppression and exploitation. For example, the 1904Congress of the Socialist International concluded that the colonial peoples should be taken in hand by futureEuropean socialist governments and led by them into eventual independence.

Asia

IndiaIn the 17th century, the expanding British arrived in India and there, after taking a small portion of land, becameknown as the British East India Company. The British completely took over most of the country of India, a processstarting with Bengal in 1757 and ending in Punjab in 1849, leaving out certain princely states. This was aided by thedecline of the Mughal Empire in India which left a power vacuum since the death of Aurangzeb and the increasedBritish forces in India because of conflicts with France. A kind of ship called clipper ships were engineered and theirlarger sails were able to catch the wind and cut the trip to India from Europe in half from 6 months to 3 months. TheBritish also laid cables on the floor of the ocean allowing telegrams to be sent from India and China. In 1818, theBritish controlled most of India and began imposing their ideas and ways on India but it wasn’t really a kind of takeover. The British were working together with Indian officials. A few of these new impositions were differentsuccession laws that allowed the British to take over a state with no successor and gain its land and armies, newtaxes and monopolistic control of industry. The different Hindu and Muslim Sepoys triggered the Indian Mutinywhich spread to become the First Indian War of Independence. Following this war administrative functions weretransferred from the chartered British East India Company to the British government in 1858.After this revolt was brutally suppressed by the British, India came under the direct control of the British crown.After the British had gained more control over India, they began changing around the financial state of India.Previously Europe had to pay for Indian textiles and spices in bullion. With political control, Britain directed farmersto grow cash crops for the company for exports to Europe while India became a market for textiles from Britain. Inaddition it collected huge revenues from land rent and taxes on its acquired monopoly on salt production. Indianweavers were replaced by new spinning and weaving machines and Indian food crops were replaced by cash cropslike cotton and tea causing widespread famines.[9]

The British also began connecting Indian cities by railroad and telegraph to make travel and communication easierfor the British in India and began building its irrigation system for increasing agricultural production. When Westerneducation was introduced in India, Indians were quite influenced by it, but the glaring inequalities between theBritish ideals of governance and their treatment of Indians became clear. In response to racist treatment, the educatedIndians and the ones that knew such inequality was occurring decided to establish the Indian National Congress thatdemanded that Indians be recognized as equals with the British and that they have the right to govern themselves.

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John Robert Seeley a Cambridge Professor of History said "Our acquisition of India was made blindly. Nothing greatthat has ever been done by englishmen was done so unintentionally or accidentally as the conquest of India".According to him the political control of India was not a conquest in the usual sense because it was not an act of astate.The new administrative arrangement, crowned with Queen Victoria's proclamation as Empress of India in 1876,effectively replaced the rule of a monopolistic enterprise with that of a trained civil service headed by graduates ofBritain's top universities. The administration retained and increased the monopolies held by the company. The IndiaSalt Act of 1882 included regulations enforcing a government monopoly on the collection and manufacture of saltand in 1923 a bill was passed doubling the salt tax.[10]

Malaysia, Singapore and BurmaAfter taking control of much of India, the British expanded further into Singapore, Burma and Malaya (modern dayMalaysia) and these became further sources of trade and raw materials for British goods. They also went intoAfghanistan and Tibet to counter Russian expansion.

Indonesia

Colonial government official J.Rozet,a Indo Eurasian, in negotiation withtribal chiefs (Roti Islanders), Pariti,

Timor, 1896.

Formal colonisation of the Dutch East Indies (now: Indonesia) commenced at thedawn of the 19th century when the Dutch state took possession of all VOCassets. Before that time the Dutch East India Company (VOC) merchants were inprinciple just another trading power among many, establishing trading posts andsettlements (colonies) in strategic places around the archipelago. The Dutchgradually extended their small nation’s sovereignty over most of the islands inthe East Indies. Dutch expansion paused for several years during an interregnumof British rule between 1806 and 1816, when the Dutch Republic was occupiedby the French forces of Napoleon. The Dutch government exiled in England,ceded rule of all its colonies to Great Britain. The Governor of the Dutch EastIndies however fought the British before surrendering the colony. He wasreplaced by Raffles.[11]

The Dutch East Indies became the prize possession of the Dutch Empire. It was not the typical settler colonyfounded through massive emigration from the mother countries (such as the USA or Australia) and hardly involveddisplacement of the indigenous islanders.[12] Neither was it a plantation colony build on the import of slaves (such asHaiti or Jamaica) or a pure trade post colony (such as Singapore or Macau). It was more of an expansion of theexisting chain of VOC trading posts. Instead of mass emigration from the homeland, the sizeable indigenouspopulations, were controlled through effective political manipulation supported by military force. Servitude of theindigenous masses was enabled through a structure of indirect governance, keeping existing indigenous rulers inplace[13] and using the Indo Eurasian population as an intermediary buffer. Being one of the smallest nations in theworld it was in fact impossible for the Netherlands to even attempt to establish a typical settler colony.

In 1869 British anthropologist Alfred Russel Wallace described the colonial governing structure in his book "TheMalay Archipelago"[14]:

"The mode of government now adopted in Java is to retain the whole series of native rulers, from thevillage chief up to princes, who, under the name of Regents, are the heads of districts about the size of asmall English county. With each Regent is placed a Dutch Resident, or Assistant Resident, who isconsidered to be his "elder brother," and whose "orders" take the form of "recommendations," whichare, however, implicitly obeyed. Along with each Assistant Resident is a Controller, a kind of inspectorof all the lower native rulers, who periodically visits every village in the district, examines the

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proceedings of the native courts, hears complaints against the head-men or other native chiefs, andsuperintends the Government plantations."

IndochinaFrance took over Vietnam and Cambodia in the 1880s; during the following decade, France completed herIndochinese empire with the annexation of Laos, leaving the kingdom of Siam (now Thailand) with an uneasyindependence as a neutral buffer between British and French-ruled lands.

China

A shocked mandarin in Manchu robes in the back, withQueen Victoria (United Kingdom), Wilhelm II

(Germany), Nicholas II (Russia), Marianne (France),and Emperor Meiji (Japan) discussing how to cut up aking cake with Chine ("China" in French) written on it.

In 1839, China found itself fighting the First Opium War withBritain. China was defeated, and in 1842 agreed to the provisionsof the Treaty of Nanjing. Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain,and certain ports, including Shanghai and Guangzhou, wereopened to British trade and residence. In 1856, the Second OpiumWar broke out. The Chinese were again defeated, and now forcedto the terms of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin and the 1860Convention of Peking. The treaty opened new ports to trade andallowed foreigners to travel in the interior. Missionaries gained theright to propagate Christianity—another means of Westernpenetration. The United States and Russia obtained the sameprerogatives in separate treaties.

Toward the end of the 19th century, China appeared on the way toterritorial dismemberment and economic vassalage—the fate ofIndia's rulers that played out much earlier. Several provisions ofthese treaties caused long-standing bitterness and humiliationamong the Chinese: extraterritoriality (meaning that in a disputewith a Chinese person, a Westerner had the right to be tried in acourt under the laws of his own country), customs regulation, andthe right to station foreign warships in Chinese waters.

The rise of Japan since the Meiji Restoration as an imperial powerled to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over China's longstanding claim of rule in Korea, war broke outbetween China and Japan, resulting in humiliating defeat for the Chinese. By the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895),China was forced to recognise effective Japanese rule over Korea, and Taiwan was ceded to Japan until its recoveryin 1945 at the end of the WWII by the Republic of China.

In 1897, taking advantage of the murder of two missionaries, Germany demanded and was given a set of exclusivemining and railroad rights around Jiaozhou Bay in Shandong province. In 1898 Russia obtained access to Dairen andPort Arthur and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a largeportion of northeast China. The United Kingdom, France, and Japan also received a number of concessions later thatyear.

At this time, much of China was divided up into "spheres of influence": Germany dominated the Shandong peninsulaand the Huang He (Hwang-Ho) valley; Russia dominated the Liaodong Peninsula and Manchuria; the UnitedKingdom dominated Weihaiwei and the Yangtze Valley; whereas France dominated the Guangzhou Bay and severalother southern provinces neighboring its colony in Vietnam.

China continued to be divided up into these spheres until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In 1899, Secretary of State John

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Hay asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900, several powers agreed to theU.S.-backed scheme, giving rise to the "Open Door" policy, denoting freedom of commercial access andnon-annexation of Chinese territory. In any event, it was in the European powers' interest to have a weak butindependent Chinese government. The privileges of the Europeans in China were guaranteed in the form of treatieswith the Qing government. In the event that the Qing totally collapsed, each power risked losing the privileges that ithad negotiated.The erosion of Chinese sovereignty contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the"Boxers" (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists") attacked foreign legations in Beijing,provoking a rare display of unity among the powers, whose troops landed at Tianjin and marched on the capital,which they took on August 14. Troops from the Eight-Nation Alliance then looted and occupied Beijing for severalmonths. German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador, while Russiatightened its hold on Manchuria in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the war of 1904-1905.Although extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by the United Kingdom and the United States in 1943, foreignpolitical control of parts of China only finally ended with the incorporation of Hong Kong and the small Portugueseterritory of Macau into the People's Republic of China in 1997 and 1999 respectively.Mainland Chinese historians refer to this period as the Century of humiliation.

AfricaBetween 1885 and 1914, Britain brought nearly 30% of Africa's population under its control, to 15% for France, 9%for Germany, 7% for Belgium and 1% for Italy: Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects to Britain, more thanin the whole of French West Africa, or the entire German colonial empire. The only regions not under Europeancontrol in 1914 were Liberia and Ethiopia.[15]

British coloniesBritain's 1882 formal occupation of Egypt (triggered by concern over the Suez Canal) contributed to a preoccupationover securing control of Nile, leading to the conquest of neighboring Sudan in 1896-1898, which in turn led toconfrontation with a French military expedition at Fashoda in September 1898. In 1899, Britain set out to completeits takeover of the future South Africa, which it had begun in 1814 with the annexation of the Cape Colony, byinvading the gold-rich Afrikaner republics of Transvaal and the neighboring Orange Free State. The chartered BritishSouth Africa Company had already seized the land to the north, renamed Rhodesia after its head, the Cape tycoonCecil Rhodes.British gains in southern and East Africa prompted Rhodes and Alfred Milner, Britain's High Commissioner in SouthAfrica, to urge a "Cape to Cairo" empire: linked by rail, the strategically important Canal would be firmly connectedto the mineral-rich South, though Belgian control of the Belgian Congo Free State and German control of GermanEast Africa prevented such an outcome until the end of World War I, when Great Britain acquired the latter territory.Britain's quest for southern Africa and their diamonds led to complicated social complications and fallouts that lastedfor years. To work for their prosperous company, British businessmen hired both white and black South Africans.But when it came to jobs the white South Africans received the higher paid and less dangerous ones, leaving theblack South Africans to risk their lives down in the mines for limited pay. This process of separating the two groupsof South Africans, whites and blacks, was the beginning of segregation between the two that lasted until 1989.Paradoxically, the United Kingdom, a staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largestoverseas empire, thanks to its long-standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the conquest of Africa,reflecting its advantageous position at its inception.

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Belgian coloniesUp until 1876, Belgium had no colonial presence in Africa. It was then that its king, Leopold II created theInternational African Society. Under the façade of being an international scientific and philanthropic association, itwas actually a private holding company of Leopold’s. He hired Henry Morton Stanley to explore and colonize theCongo River basin area of equatorial Africa in order to capitalize on the plentiful resources such as ivory, rubber,diamonds, and metals. Up until this point, Africa was known as “the Dark Continent” because rapids on the CongoRiver had previously made exploration of this area impossible. Over the next few years, Stanley overpowered andmade treaties with over 450 native tribes, acquiring him over 905000 square miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km2) of land, nearly 67 times the size of Belgium, in the sovereignty of King Leopold II.Neither the Belgian government, nor the Belgian people had any interest in imperialism at the time, and the landcame to be personally owned by King Leopold II. At the Berlin Conference in 1884, he was allowed to have land hisown personal nation, called the Congo Free State. The other European countries at the conference allowed this tohappen on the conditions that he suppress the East African slave trade, promote humanitarian policies, guarantee freetrade, and encourage missions to Christianize and educate the people of the Congo. However, Leopold II’s primaryfocus was to make a large profit on the natural resources, particularly ivory and rubber. In order to make this profit,he passed several cruel decrees that can be considered to be genocide. He forced the natives to supply him withrubber and ivory without any sort of payment in return. Their wives and children were held hostage until the workersreturned with enough rubber or ivory to fill their quota, and if they couldn’t, their family would be killed. Theworkers themselves also might be tortured, flogged, or mutilated. When villages refused, they were burned down, thechildren of the village murdered and the men had their hands cut off. These policies led to uprisings that were feeblecompared to the European military and technological might. They opposed the forced labor in other ways, by fleeinginto the forests to seek refuge or setting the rubber forests on fire preventing the Europeans from harvesting therubber.These rebellions were brutally crushed by the FP (Force Publique) which was composed of all whites; a mixture ofBelgian soldiers and mercenaries. They went into the forests where refugees had escaped and killed themmercilessly. In fact, they would bring back a hand for every man they killed to show they were not wastingammunition. If the FP missed a shot or hunted game, they would cut the hands of innocent living people in order tomatch the number of bullets used to the number of hands brought back. This genocide was so widespread andeffervescent, that the population of the area actually decreased from approximately 20-30 million people to 9 millionpeople during his reign. It is estimated that 10-15 million people lost their lives. King Leopold II sure did make hisprofits and had a 700% profit ratio for the rubber he took from Congo and exported. He used propaganda to keep theother European nations at bay, for he broke almost all of the parts of the agreement he made at the BerlinConference. For example, he had some Congolese pygmies sing and dance at the 1897 World Fair in Belgium,showing how he was supposedly civilizing and educating the natives of the Congo. After the Belgian governmentfound out about the atrocities that were being committed in the Congo, they annexed the land and renamed it BelgianCongo, removing it from the personal power of their king, Leopold II. Of all the colonies that were conquered duringthe wave of New Imperialism, the people of the Congo River Basin suffered the worst treatment by their oppressorscompared to other colonized peoples.[16][17][18]

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Polynesia

Dupetit Thouars taking over Tahiti on September9, 1842.

In Oceania France got a leading position as imperial power aftermaking Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853respectively.[19] After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate anincorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888. Byoccupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations.[20](p53) By1900 nearly all Pacific islands were in control of Britain, France,United States, Germany and Chile.[19]

Imperial rivalries

The extension of European control over Africa and Asia added a further dimension to the rivalry and mutualsuspicion which characterized international diplomacy in the decades preceding World War I. France's seizure ofTunisia (1881) initiated fifteen years of tension with Italy, which had hoped to take the country and which retaliatedby allying with Germany and waging a decade-long tariff war with France. Britain's takeover of Egypt a year latercaused a marked cooling of her relations with France.

The most striking conflicts of the era were the Spanish American War of 1898 and the Russo-Japanese War of1904-05, each signaling the advent of a new imperial great power; the United States and Japan, respectively. TheFashoda incident of 1898 represented the worst Anglo-French crisis in decades, but France's buckling in the face ofBritish demands foreshadowed improved relations as the two countries set about resolving their overseas claims.British policy in South Africa and German actions in the Far East contributed to dramatic policy shifts, which in the1900s, aligned hitherto isolationist Britain first with Japan as an ally, and then with France and Russia in the looserEntente. German efforts to break the Entente by challenging French hegemony in Morocco resulted in the TangierCrisis of 1905 and the Agadir Crisis of 1911, adding to tension and anti-German sentiment in the years precedingWorld War I and II.

MotivationsThe British government (as well as the other European imperialist governments) gave many excuses to the public forthe New Imperialism strategy. However, there were often underlying motivations behind what the government said.

HumanitarianismOne of the biggest motivations behind New Imperialism was the idea of humanitarianism and "civilizing" the"lower" class people in Africa and in other undeveloped places. This was a religious motive for many Christianmissionaries, in attempt to save the souls of the "uncivilized" people, and of the idea that Christians and the people ofthe United Kingdom were morally superior. Most of the missionaries that supported imperialism did so because theyfelt the only true religion was their own. Similarly, the Roman Catholic missionaries opposed the Britishmissionaries because the British missionaries were Protestant. At times, however, imperialism did help the people ofthe countries being invaded because the missionaries ended up stopping some of the slavery in some areas.Therefore, Europeans claimed that they were only there because they wanted to protect the weaker tribal groups theyconquered. The missionaries and other leaders suggested that they should stop such practices as cannibalism, childmarriage, and other "savage" things. This humanitarian ideal was described in poems such as the "White Man'sBurden" and other literature. Oftentimes, the humanitarianism was sincere, but with misguided choices. Althoughsome imperialists were trying to be sincere with the notion of humanitarianism, their choices might not have beenbest for the areas they were conquering and the natives living there.[21]

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Dutch Ethical Policy

Dutch, Indo-Eurasian and Javanese professors oflaw at the opening of the Rechts Hogeschool in

1924.

The Dutch Ethical Policy refers to the dominant reformist and liberalpolitical character of colonial policy in the Dutch East Indies duringthe 20th century. In 1901, the Dutch Queen Wilhelmina announcedthat the Netherlands accepted an ethical responsibility for the welfareof their colonial subjects. This announcement was a sharp contrast withthe former official doctrine that Indonesia was mainly a wingewest(region for making profit). It marked the start of modern developmentpolicy; whereas other colonial powers usually talked of a civilizingmission, which mainly involved spreading their culture to colonizedpeoples.

The Dutch Ethical Policy (Dutch: ‘Ethische Politiek’) emphasisedimprovement in material living conditions. The policy suffered,however, from serious underfunding, inflated expectations and lack of acceptance in the Dutch colonialestablishment, and it had largely ceased to exist by the onset of the Great Depression in 1930.[22][23] It did howevercreate an educated indigenous elite able to articulate and eventually establish independence from the Netherlands.

TheoriesThe accumulation theory adopted by Karl Kautsky, John A. Hobson and popularized by Lenin centered on theaccumulation of surplus capital during and after the Industrial Revolution: restricted opportunities at home, theargument goes, drove financial interests to seek more profitable investments in less-developed lands with lower laborcosts, unexploited raw materials and little competition. Hobson's analysis fails to explain colonial expansion on thepart of less industrialized nations with little surplus capital, such as Italy, or the great powers of the next century  —the United States and Russia  — which were in fact net borrowers of foreign capital. Also, military and bureaucraticcosts of occupation frequently exceeded financial returns. In Africa (exclusive of what would become the Union ofSouth Africa in 1909) the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small before and after the1880s, and the companies involved in tropical African commerce exerted limited political influence.The World-Systems theory approach of Immanuel Wallerstein sees imperialism as part of a general, gradualextension of capital investment from the "core" of the industrial countries to a less developed "periphery."Protectionism and formal empire were the major tools of "semi-peripheral," newly industrialized states, such asGermany, seeking to usurp Britain's position at the "core" of the global capitalist system.Echoing Wallerstein's global perspective to an extent, imperial historian Bernard Porter views Britain's adoption offormal imperialism as a symptom and an effect of her relative decline in the world, and not of strength: "Stuck withoutmoded physical plants and outmoded forms of business organization, [Britain] now felt the less favorable effectsof being the first to modernize."

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Other Readings•• Ankerl, Guy: Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU

PRESS, Geneva, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.• Recent imperial historians: Porter, P.J. Cain and A.G Hopkins contest Hobson's conspiratorial overtones and

"reductionism," but do not reject the influence of "the City's" financial interests.

References[1] "Corn Law." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Nov. 2010.

<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137814/Corn-Law>.[2] "Franco-German War." Encyclopædia Britannica.2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Nov. 2010

<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/216971/Franco-German-War>.[3] Kindleberger, C. P., (1961), “Foreign Trade and Economic Growth: Lessons from Britain and France, 1850-1913”, The Economic History

Review, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 289-305.[4] Porter, B., (1996), The Lion’s Share: A Short History of British Imperialism 1850-1995, (London: Longman), pp.118ff.[5] Lambert, Tim. “England in the 19th Century.” Localhistories.org. 2008. 9 Nov. 2010 <http://www.localhistories.org/19thcentengland.html>.[6] Coyne, Christopher J. and Steve Davies. "Empire: Public Goods and Bads" (Jan 2007). (http:/ / econjwatch. org/ issues/

volume-4-number-1-january-2007)[7] Eley, Geoff "Social Imperialism" pages 925-926 from Modern Germany Volume 2, New York, Garland Publishing, 1998 page 925.[8] Eley, Geoff "Social Imperialism" pages 925-926 from Modern Germany Volume 2, New York, Garland Publishing, 1998 page 925.[9][9] Late Victorian Holocausts[10][10] History of the British salt tax in India[11] Bongenaar K.E.M. ‘De ontwikkeling van het zelfbesturend landschap in Nederlandsch-Indië.’ (Publisher: Walburg Press) ISBN

90-5730-267-5[12] With a notable and dramatic exception in the island of Banda during the VOC era. See: Hanna, Willard A. ‘Indonesian Banda: Colonialism

and its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands.’ (1991).[13] This strategy was already established by the VOC, which independently acted as a semi-souvereign state within the Dutch state. See: Boxer,

C.R. ‘The Dutch Seaborne Empire: 1600-1800.’ (London, 1965) and (http:/ / www. colonialvoyage. com/ eng/ voc/ index. html)[14] Wallace, Alfred Russel (1869) 'The Malay Archipelago', (Publisher: Harper, 1869.) Chapter VII (http:/ / www. papuaweb. org/ dlib/ bk/

wallace/ indo-malay. html#vii)[15] Historical Map of Africa (http:/ / unimaps. com/ africa1914/ index. html)[16] Simon Katzenellenbogen "Congo, Democratic Republic of the" Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World. Ed. Peter N. Stearns. © Oxford

University Press 2008. Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World: (e-reference edition). Oxford University Press. 18 November 2010 http:/ /www. oxford-modernworld. com/ entry?entry=t254. e352

[17] Schimmer, Russell. "Belgian Congo." Genocide Studies Program. Yale University, 2010. Web. 11 Nov. 2010.<http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/belgian_congo/ index.html>

[18] • Gondola, Ch. Didier. "Congo (Kinshasa)." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2010. Web. 18 Nov. 2010.[19] Bernard Eccleston, Michael Dawson. 1998. The Asia-Pacific Profile. Routledge. p. 250.[20] William Sater, Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict, 1990 by the University of Georgia Press, ISBN 0-8203-1249-5[21][21] Winks, Robin W. "Imperialism." Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online, 2010. Web. 18 Nov. 2010.[22] Robert Cribb, 'Development policy in the early 20th century', in Jan-Paul Dirkse, Frans Hüsken and Mario Rutten, eds, Development and

social welfare: Indonesia’s experiences under the New Order (Leiden: Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 1993), pp.225-245.

[23] Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300. London: Macmillan. p. 151. ISBN 0-333-57690-X.

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External links• J.A. Hobson's Imperialism: A Study: A Centennial Retrospective by Professor Peter Cain (http:/ / www. yale. edu/

iss/ Hobson-Imperialism-Yale-ISS-Cain. pdf)• Extensive information on the British Empire (http:/ / www. britishempire. co. uk)• British Empire (http:/ / www. btinternet. com/ ~britishempire/ empire/ empire. htm)• The Empire Strikes Out: The "New Imperialism" and Its Fatal Flaws by Ivan Eland, director of defense policy

studies at the Cato Institute. (http:/ / www. cato. org/ pubs/ pas/ pa-459es. html) (an article comparingcontemporary defense policy with those of New Imperialism (1870–1914)

• The Martian Chronicles: History Behind the Chronicles New Imperialism 1870-1914 (http:/ / www. angelfire.com/ nb/ martian/ newimp. htm)

• 1- Coyne, Christopher J. and Steve Davies. "Empire: Public Goods and Bads" (Jan 2007). (http:/ / www.econjournalwatch. org/ pdf/ CoyneDaviesCommentJanuary2007. pdf)

• http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ mod/ modsbook34. html• http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ ~lt95/ altlect14. htm (a course syllabus)• The 19th Century: The New Imperialism (http:/ / www. gpc. edu/ ~proseman/ Imperialism. htm) Broken Link• 2- Coyne, Christopher J. and Steve Davies. "Empire: Public Goods and Bads" (Jan 2007). (http:/ / www.

econjournalwatch. org/ pdf/ CoyneDaviesCommentJanuary2007. pdf)

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Article Sources and Contributors 64

Article Sources and ContributorsColonialism  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=506538516  Contributors: 01011000, 0x6D667061, 172, 1984sikmd, 200.191.188.xxx, 23prootie, A-giau, A.M.962, ACSE,Aaker, Abhijith2ak, Abidjan, AbsolutDan, Achowat, Addshore, Adrigon, Aeminorhan, Aeporue, Aftaab007, After Midnight, Agent 86, Ahmed991, Ahoerstemeier, Ahschmith, Aichikawa,Airborne84, Alansohn, Alaphent, Alarichus, Aldux, Alinor, Allens, Alphachimp, Amanda.yogendran, Ambrosinus, Anakletos, AnakngAraw, Andreas Kaganov, Andrei nacu, Andrelvis, AndrewSteller, AniRaptor2001, Anilocra, Antandrus, Arab Hafez, Arcot, Aris Katsaris, Arunsingh16, Ashenax3, Asidemes, Astanto, Astrotrain, Atletiker, Atomicdor, Atoric, Auntof6, AxelBoldt,Añoranza, B4hand, Barticus88, Bdean1963, Behaafarid, Belligero, Bender235, Berean Hunter, Bevstarrunner, BiT, Bigbadbo2, Bigtimepeace, Bigturtle, Bjarki S, Bkonrad, Blenda Lovelace,BlueAmethyst, Bmsprint, Bobblehead, Bolivian Unicyclist, Bonniii3, Boothy443, BrendelSignature, Bridgecross, Bry9000, Budgie1988, Buki ben Yogli, Bunnyhop11, BurningPi, Byrgenwulf,CJK, CTF83!, CadillacDB23, Cafeirlandais, Caltas, Calvin 1998, Camerong, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carwil, Cayafas, Ceyockey, Chamal N, Chanakyathegreat, Charlesskywalker,Chaunce191, Chhoro, Chris 73, Christofurio, Chun-hian, Closedmouth, Coasterlover1994, Cody Banks H, Colonies Chris, Comrademaximus, Confuzion, Conversion script, Crackercorn,Crazymonkey1123, Cristiano Tomás, Cst17, Cupcake121, D-Rock, D0t, DBigXray, DITWIN GRIM, DMacks, Daarznieks, Daeron, Danny B-), DarkAudit, Dave souza, David Barba,DeadEyeArrow, Deguef, Delegator, Deor, Deselliers, Dlohcierekim, Dmacdaman, Dmoss, Dmsdeuces, DocWatson42, Doctor Boogaloo, Dolovis, Dr Christopher Heathcote, DrDems, Dragon2dj,Dreadstar, Drizzit12, E235, Eastlaw, Echo the Hedgehog, Eclecticology, EdGl, Edivorce, Edward, El C, Elenseel, Eliz81, EmanWilm, Emmisa, Epbr123, Est.r, Eu gene, Eu genes, Euglenophyta,Evercat, Everyking, FAMAS, Fabartus, Fentener van Vlissingen, Fluffernutter, Football3271, Formeruser-81, FreplySpang, Frici, From Selma to Stonewall, Fuckthewhat, Fuzheado, Fæ,G-star231, Gadfium, Gaius Cornelius, Gatoclass, GeoW, Geoffg, GeorgeMoney, Geostein, Giddylake, GoD, Gob Lofa, Gogo Dodo, Goldenrowley, Goldom, Graham87, GrahamColm, GreenOwl, Gregbard, Grenavitar, Gretchen, Greyhood, Ground Zero, Guppy, Gwguffey, H@r@ld, HJKeats, Hbronson, Headbomb, Hebrides, Hede2000, Herr Lennartz, HiDrNick, Hires an editor,Hmains, Holycharly, HorHez, Howcheng, Howrealisreal, Hu12, Huldra, Humansdorpie, HumphreyW, Hut 8.5, Hypathia, I love history and art, Icuc2, Igiffin, Igoldste, Ikip, Ilikepie2221,Iloveandrea, Imightnotbegay, Ingrid feeh, Ishvara7, Islanublar, J. 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Imperialism  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=503613878  Contributors: (jarbarf), 01011000, 172, 1exec1, 200.191.188.xxx, 2help, 3Jane, 5 albert square, 7HMR, ABF, AJWM, AVand, AbsolutDan, Ace of Spades, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Aim Here, Aitias, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alerante, Alex S, Alex756, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Alexsau1991, Allstarecho, Ambatlarge, Amritamj, Andipi, Andonic, Andres, Andy Marchbanks, AngBent, Angela, Angr, Angus Lepper, Antandrus, Antonio Lopez, Ao333, Aomarks, Aplex84, Apollomelos, Archanamiya, Arjuna909, Arnavchaudhary, Arsonal, Artrock101, Ash, Astronautics, Atif.t2, Atomicdor, Atrix20, Audiosmurf, Avenged Eightfold, Axezz, Ayla, B, BCtl, Badman730, Bambuway, Bcasterline, Beland, Bhadani, Bhawani Gautam, BiT, Big bouncing balls, BigDunc, Bigfloppydonkey567, Bigfloppydonkey789, Bigzombie62, Blackbattleknight, BlindEagle, Blue Mirage, Blue Tie, BlueAzure, Bluelemur, Bobblehead, Bobo192, Bobrayner, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Boothy443, Borgx, Bourbonist, Bradv, BraneJ, Brian the Editor, Brlawrencelc, Brperry, BryanG, BryanGross, Bsadowski1, Bullzeye, CTF83!, Cadsuane Melaidhrin, Calabe1992, Caldwen, Call of cthulhu, Callumnicolson, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Capitan Obvio, Capricorn42, Casey14, Casper2k3, Catgut, Cavie78, Cecropia, Cgingold, Chalkart, Chasingsol, Ched Davis, Cholmes75, Chris Roy, Cinik, Cj, Ckatz, Clark89, Click23, Cntras,

ROOT EVILS OF AFRIKA'S DOWNFALL, Concepts in White World Terror Domination

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Coching, Colin4C, Cometstyles, ComradeRyan, Conversion script, Cretog8, Crystal whacker, Cst17, Cureden, Czj, D, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DJ Clayworth, DTMGO, DVdm, Daleman1994,Damirgraffiti, DanMS, Dance With The Devil, Daniel Case, Daniel5127, Daniel5Ko, DanielCD, Danski14, Dapimpdaddy4600, Dark Lord of the Sith, Darth Panda, Darth Sidious, David Barba,Davidhechen, Dbtfz, DeLarge, DeadEyeArrow, Delighted eyes, Denisarona, Dentren, Derek Ross, Desertwasp61, Dfrg.msc, Diego Grez, DiprotiumOxide, Dirigible Plum, Disavian,Discospinster, Dittaeva, Dizzyspork, Dlohcierekim, Dmsdjing, DocSigma, Doctor Boogaloo, Doerayme31, Doh286, Dougweller, Doulos Christos, Download, Drmies, Dullfig, Dwe3b, DylanLake, Dysprosia, E Wing, EJF, ESkog, EWS23, EdGl, Edivorce, Eduen, Edward321, EdwinHJ, Egosumcignus, El Cid, ElationAviation, Elcobbola, Elvenscout742, Endlessmike 888, Eon102,Epbr123, Eric-Wester, EscapingLife, Esiweb Berlin, Esperant, Everyking, Evil saltine, Ezeu, FFMG, FJPB, Fabartus, Favonian, Fifelfoo, Fish-Face, Flangeku, Frankenpuppy, Frankman,Frecklefoot, FreplySpang, Frungi, Fuzheado, Fvw, Fæ, GCarty, GPdB, GSlicer, Gabbe, Gabrieltn, Gaialuz, Gail, Gamer007, Gary King, Geeoharee, George2001hi, Getdave, Gfoley4, Ghilie,Ghostofnemo, Giggitygiggity111, Gilead, Gilgamesh he, Gillean666, Gilliam, Gioto, Giovanni33, Gjd001, Glane23, Globaleducator, Gnt2006, Gob Lofa, GoetheFromm, Gogo Dodo, Goplat,Gracenotes, GraemeL, Grafen, Grayshi, Greatpalestine, Gregbard, Ground Zero, Guidedbyalan, Gunnernett, Gurbir1994, Gwernol, Hackwrench, Hadal, HaeB, Haemo, Hahaimreal, Hai uncg,Halaqah, Harry Potter, Hatake ayumi, Hdt83, Herostratus, Herr Lennartz, Herrick, Hersfold, HiEv, Hojimachong, HowardSelsam, Hu12, Huntington, Hurrywanting, Husond, Hydrogen Iodide, Iknow who my sister is., II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IRP, ISTB351, Ibagli, Icasite, Id447, Igoldste, Ikip, Immunize, Imnotminkus, Inbloom2, IncognitoErgoSum, Infrogmation, Instinct,InverseHypercube, Iridescent, Irishguy, Islanublar, Ixfd64, Izalithium, J.delanoy, JCDenton2052, JForget, JIMENEZ45, JK the unwise, JLaTondre, JYolkowski, Ja 62, JaGa, Jac16888, Jacko79,Jake Wartenberg, Jakohn, JamesBWatson, Jamesooders, Jan eissfeldt, Jarble, Jarusafes, Jauerback, JayJasper, Jayson Virissimo, JeR, Jeff G., Jeff3000, Jersyko, Jfurr1981, Jhg812, Jj137,Jman420, Jmelissa1, Jmlk17, Jmundo, Jnlitchy94, Johan1298, John Reid, John254, JohnCD, Jon33, Jonesy, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joy, Joyous!, Jrockley, Jujutacular, Juliancolton, Jurriaan,Jusdafax, Jwissick, Jwray, Jzcool, K1eyboard, Kansan, Karenjc, Kcordina, Keegscee, Keilana, Keneke45, Kerrow, Kevin Myers, Kevlar67, Khoikhoi, Khvalamde, Kinaro, Kingpin13, Kingturtle,Kissoffire, Klilidiplomus, Klumpped, Kmhkmh, KnightLago, KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, Kongr43gpen, Korybryan, KoshVorlon, Kozuch, Krukouski, Kubigula, Kuru, Kwamikagami, Kyle1278,Kyuss-Apollo, Känsterle, L Kensington, LOL, La la ooh, Labelesprit, Lamro, Lapaz, Lapsed Pacifist, Laualoha, Lcarsdata, Ledenierhomme, LeilaniLad, Lewvalton, Lfstevens, LibLord, LibrarianBrent, Liface, Lighthead, Lights, Linkboy, Little Mountain 5, Llull, Logologist, LongLegOfTheLaw, Loonymonkey, Looper5920, Loremaster, Lowellian, Ludvikus, Luigifan1985, Lumbercutter,Luna Santin, Lycurgus, MER-C, MRKLEMSTER, MaGioZal, Macukali, Macy, Madhava 1947, Madhero88, Malcolmxl5, Malinaccier, Man vyi, Mani1, Marcuse, Mark91, Marshallsumter,Martinp23, MassiveLoop, Master of Puppets, Materialscientist, Mattamo, Matthew Fennell, Maurice Carbonaro, Mazca, Mboverload, McSly, Mdw0, Mel Etitis, Mentifisto, Mephistophelian,Mhsstar93, Michael Hardy, Michaelcullinane, Michaeldsuarez, Michaelm, MickWest, Mike Rosoft, Minghong, Mirv, Missyboy, Mmoneypenny, Modulatum, Moink, MonoAV, Monty Cantsin,Morgan Hauser, Moriori, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mr. Alex. 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Cultural imperialism  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=501574453  Contributors: 200.191.188.xxx, 200.255.83.xxx, 458fan, Aaronshavit, Aeusoes1, Alansohn, AlexD, AnSiarach, Andre Engels, Andycjp, AngChenrui, Anna Lincoln, AnnaFrance, Aponar Kestrel, Aristotle, Arthena, Aymatth2, Banana04131, Basser g, Bek the Conqueror, BigFatBuddha,BobKawanaka, Bobblewik, Borbrav, Bryan Derksen, Bstone2009, Casito, Caster23, CatherineMunro, Celuici, Clintville, Colonies Chris, Conversion script, Cyanoa Crylate, Cynical, DARTHSIDIOUS 2, DKalkin, Damian Yerrick, Danny, Daveofthenewcity, Deeceevoice, Delajoker, Derek Ross, Doctortrenchbean, Driftwoodzebulin, Dsevans93, Dynesepp, ESkog, Ed Poor,Emeraldcityserendipity, Erianna, Esperant, Evertype, Everyking, Eyu100, Ezeu, Flarkins, Flockmeal, Fokion, Fumitol, Futurebird, Fvw, Gaius Cornelius, Garymickle, Gilgongo, Gobonobo,Greudin, Hamtechperson, Hdt83, Heng Da, Hirsutism, HistoryBA, Hj1006, Icuc2, ImmortalKnight, InverseHypercube, Iridescent, Iss246, J04n, Jbmurray, Jeff3000, Jeronimo, Jesusmonkey,Jevergreen, Jkcory, JohnI, Jonel, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jpbowen, Jrleighton, Jyril, K4zem, KI, Kate, Keilana, Kf4bdy, Khoikhoi, Kitfox.it, Klemen Kocjancic, Koavf, Kpjas, Kusunose,Lagrange613, Lapsed Pacifist, Laualoha, Loremaster, Lowellian, Macbuff81, Magioladitis, Malkinann, Mandarax, MarkkuP, Marskell, Martarius, Maunus, Maurici, Maurreen, Maws, Maziotis,Mentifisto, Mic, Michaeldsuarez, Miguel Montenegro, Mr. Stradivarius, NYArtsnWords, Nick Number, NickelShoe, Noodle boy, Noroton, Olivier, Oxygen you can believe in., PBS, Pare Mo,Pascal.Tesson, Peter morrell, Petercoulton, Phatius McBluff, PhilKnight, PhilipO, PhnomPencil, Phuzion, PierreAbbat, Pigman, Piotrus, Pipelinefine, Project2501a, Quadell, Racconish,Radagast83, Raggaga, RatherfordSkills, Rdsmith4, Reedy, Reign of Toads, Research Method, Robofish, Ruhrjung, Sadharan, Salvor Hardin, Sam Hocevar, SandyDancer, Sc147, SchreiberBike,SimonP, Singularity, Siuyinh, Smacksaw, SobaNoodleForYou, Sorchab, Stalik, StaticGull, Steele Campbell, Stefanomione, Stevertigo, Taco325i, Tannin, Tec15, Thedemonhog, ThierryVignaud,Tim Starling, Tkynerd, Tmchk, Tobias Hoevekamp, Trilobitealive, Trusilver, Ulric1313, VAcharon, Verbal, Vrenator, Wereon, Will Beback, Woohookitty, Work permit, Xme, Xufanc, Yoninah,258 anonymous edits

New Imperialism  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=506674434  Contributors: (jarbarf), 172, 28bytes, 52 Pickup, ATZ, Abrech, AbsolutDan, Adam Bishop, AdamRetchless,Adashiel, Ahoerstemeier, Al1encas1no, Alansohn, Aldis90, AlexanderKaras, Alphachimp, Andrea105, Angela, Animum, Anthony, Anturiaethwr, ArglebargleIV, Ariasne, Ashea3, Astronautics,BCoates, BD2412, Bbarkley, Bbarkley2, Beornas, Bernstein2291, Blathnaid, Bobblewik, Bobianite, Bobrayner, Bookreader086, Booksrrrl, Branden, Brumak, Bryan Derksen, CIreland,CN31808, Calvin 1998, Camembert, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Candent shlimazel, Canrocks, Captain-tucker, Carolmooredc, CasualObserver'48, Cgs, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry,ChicagoEagle8, Chiton magnificus, Chris the speller, Chwech, Chzz, Ciroa, Civil Engineer III, Cjrother, Closedmouth, Covertzed, Cyp, DanielLC, Declangraham, Deeceevoice, Denisarona,Dennis Bratland, Derek Ross, Dittaeva, DivineIntervention777, Dubbleup99, E2eamon, Eam92651, EarthPerson, Eastlaw, Edward, Eloquence, Emurph, Erik Zachte, EronMain, Erzengel, EscapeOrbit, Evercat, Evilandi, FJPB, Favonian, Fenrisulfr, Floul1, Fredrik, FreplySpang, Funnyhat, Gaius Cornelius, Gob Lofa, Goodmanj, Graculus, Grafen, GreatWhiteNortherner, Gryffindor,Gugilymugily, Gwernol, Hadal, Hall Monitor, Hallmark, Happydemic, Happysailor, Hazel77, Hektor, Hello32020, Helvetius, Hephaestos, Heron, Hmains, Hottottie29651, Hu, Hut 8.5, Icairns,Ikh, Infrogmation, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JDCMAN, JDDJS, JForget, Jake Nelson, Jamesooders, Jarble, Jasynnash2, Jborme, Jh51681, Jiang, Jmundo, Johan Magnus, John, John254, John4343,JohnOwens, Jon186, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jossi, Joy, Jtdirl, Jweiss11, Jwrosenzweig, KARL RAN, KGasso, KRS, KamiofLunacy, Karl 334, Kateshortforbob, Keithh, Kelisi, Ken Gallager,Kevin Myers, Kglavin, Kjk2.1, KnightRider, Kralizec!, Kross, Kukini, Lapaz, Laurinavicius, Leandrod, LenBudney, Levineps, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lir, LittleDan, LlywelynII, Luk,Luqmancharsobis, MER-C, Madalibi, Madhero88, Madmagic, Magister Mathematicae, Mantri7, Marek69, Mark, MartinHarper, MassiveLoop, Maury Markowitz, Mav, Maxamegalon2000,Maximum Nuts, McSly, Meeples, Megaman en m, Mentifisto, Mephistophelian, Merbabu, Microtony, Midas, MiguelFC, Mikko Paananen, Mild Bill Hiccup, Minimac's Clone, Mithent, Mk*,Mogism, Movementarian, Mrampion, Mrwojo, Muchness, Mufka, Muskeato, N2e, Najamyusuf, Narayansg, Nbarth, Nelsondecker, Nommonomanac, Ohconfucius, Olivier, Olly150, Ortolan88,Oxfordwang, Oxymoron83, PGWG, Pakaran, Pedro, Perspicacite, Petri Krohn, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Phinaliumz, Phinnaeus, Pizza Puzzle, Poldy Bloom, Qrsdogg, Rafi Neal, Rangoon11,Raul654, Reaper Eternal, Reboot, RedWolf, Reddi, Regibox, RickK, Rmashhadi, Robofish, Roke, Ronhjones, Rory096, Ruhrjung, Sakura no Akuma, Salamurai, Sammy1339, Sceptre, SchreyP,Science4sail, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Settembrini, Shanman7, ShelfSkewed, Shugggie, Sillytilly, SimonP, Slrubenstein, Sm8900, Smalljim, Smelialichu, Snoyes, Soutrik.93,Stevertigo, Storm Rider, Subsurd, Sverdrup, Swid, T L Miles, Tannin, Tarquin, Tascha96, Tbhotch, Tdowling, Template namespace initialisation script, Thatstheway, The Rambling Man, TheThing That Should Not Be, Themightyquill, Tide rolls, Tim Starling, TimBentley, Timclare, Tom Morris, TomTheHand, Tpk5010, Trevor MacInnis, Tucu Mann, TutterMouse, Tyrannus Mundi,UnQuébécois, Urpunkt, Vaniac, VasilievVV, Vera Cruz, Versus22, Viajero, Victoria fallgren, Viperphantom, Vivio Testarossa, Vsmith, Wapcaplet, Warofdreams, Wenteng, Weregerbil, Wereon,Wik, WikHead, Woohookitty, YES, Zachng, Zaparojdik, Zav, Zazaban, Zoe, 679 anonymous edits

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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Musee-de-lArmee-IMG 0976.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Musee-de-lArmee-IMG_0976.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Rama.File:Fundacion de Santiago.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fundacion_de_Santiago.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ADGE, B1mbo, El Comandante,Kilom691, Origamiemensch, Soulreaper, Str4nd, WeHaKa, 5 anonymous editsFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Rijsttafel TMnr 60053682.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Rijsttafel_TMnr_60053682.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Docu, HumboldtFile:Colonisation 1800.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonisation_1800.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: JluisrsFile:World 1914 empires colonies territory.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution3.0  Contributors: Andrew0921File:Colonialism in 1945 updated legend.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonialism_in_1945_updated_legend.png  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: AniRaptor2001 (talk). Original uploader was AniRaptor2001 at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Tallicfan20 at en.wikipedia.File:Seychelles Governor inspection 1972.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seychelles_Governor_inspection_1972.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Photography by Dino Sassi - Marcel Fayon, Photo Eden LTDFile:Défense de Rorke's Drift.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Défense_de_Rorke's_Drift.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alphonse-Marie-Adolphe deNeuvilleFile:Expeditionconstantine.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Expeditionconstantine.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alexandrin, MasenFile:Hocquard and Tonkinese.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hocquard_and_Tonkinese.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dr Charles-Édouard HocquardFile:Victoria (Cameroon).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Victoria_(Cameroon).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: LSDSLFile:1600gora.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1600gora.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anne97432, Haabet, Roland zh, Thib Phil, 1 anonymous editsFile:Emigrants Leave Ireland by Henry Doyle 1868.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: 84user, Guliolopez, Lalupa, Martin H., Scooter, Xn4File:Expo 1931 Affiche2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Expo_1931_Affiche2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jean Victor DesmeuresFile:DeGaulle in Chad.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DeGaulle_in_Chad.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: United States Office of War Information.Overseas Picture Division. Washington Division; 1944File:Brisbaneishome-460Squadron.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brisbaneishome-460Squadron.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:Original uploader was Swedish fusilier at en.wikipediaFile:Nieuws uit Indonesië, het werk van de Nederlandse dienst voor Volksgezondheid Weeknummer 46-21 - Open Beelden - 16742.ogv  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nieuws_uit_Indonesië,_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Pa3ems, WhisperToMeFile:Slave memorial Zanzibar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slave_memorial_Zanzibar.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: MatthiasZirngibl from GermanyFile:Marchands d'esclaves de Gorée-Jacques Grasset de Saint-Sauveur mg 8526.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marchands_d'esclaves_de_Gorée-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: RamaFile:Gandhi and Mountbatten drink tea.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_and_Mountbatten_drink_tea.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Docu,Roland zh, YannFile:Notting Hill Carnival 2002 large.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Notting_Hill_Carnival_2002_large.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: en:User:ChrisCroomeFile:Florentinoviruela.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Florentinoviruela.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: JaontiverosFile:William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - The Motherland (1883).jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_(1825-1905)_-_The_Motherland_(1883).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Olivier2, Red devil 666,Thebrid, Wst, 2 anonymous editsFile:World 1898 empires colonies territory.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_1898_empires_colonies_territory.png  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Albam, Bjankuloski06en, Editor at Large, Giuliano56, Herbythyme, Jafeluv, Jodo, Krinkle, Lew XXI, Liftarn, Masterdeis, Nagy, Neo-Jay,Nightstallion, Pinnygold, Roke, Shield35, Trijnstel, Túrelio, Wouterhagens, 163 anonymous editsFile:1989 CPA 6101.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1989_CPA_6101.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Scanned and processed by MarilunaImage:GuerrilleroHeroico.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GuerrilleroHeroico.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -Image:kwame.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kwame.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Javaman2000File:Mossadegh US21.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mossadegh_US21.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ugo14File:Obasanjo Carter 2.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Obasanjo_Carter_2.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andy Dingley, Auntof6, Collard,Infrogmation, Jpatokal, Makthorpe, Martin H., POY, Quartermaster76, Rama, Siebrand, Túrelio, 3 anonymous editsFile:Worldbank protest jakarta.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Worldbank_protest_jakarta.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: JonathanMcIntoshImage:ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Shen Du, Ming dynastyFile:362BCThebanHegemony.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:362BCThebanHegemony.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MegistiasFile:Map Macedonia 336 BC-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Map_Macedonia_336_BC-es.svg: Marsyas (French original); Kordas (Spanish translation) derivative work: MinisterForBadTimes (talk)File:Soviet empire 1960.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soviet_empire_1960.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:MaGioZalImage:Gramsci.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gramsci.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ANGELUS, Arianna, G.dallorto, Japs 88, Masae, R-41,Rhadamante, 2 anonymous editsImage:Punch Rhodes Colossus.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Edward Linley Sambourne(1844–1910)File:The British Empire.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_British_Empire.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: The Red Hat of Pat FerrickFile:Colonial Africa 1913 map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Eric Gaba (Sting - fr:Sting)Image:McKinley Destroys Imperialism Straw Man.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:McKinley_Destroys_Imperialism_Straw_Man.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: William Allen Rogers; scanned by Bob BurkhardtFile:CongressVienna.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CongressVienna.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anne-Sophie Ofrim, FocalPoint, Gryffindor,Jarry1250, Man vyi, NickK, TT1, 4 anonymous editsImage:old disraeli.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_disraeli.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kürschner, Madmedea, Nicke L, Waterborough, 1anonymous editsFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Op Timor zijn de posthouder (lokaal ambtenaar) van Pariti dhr. J. Rozet en een groep opstandige bestuurdshoofden van Roti bijeen gekomenom te onderhandelen TMnr 10001652.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Op_Timor_zijn_de_posthouder_(lokaal_ambtenaar)_van_Pariti_dhr._J._Rozet_en_een_groep_opstandige_bestuurdshoofden_van_Roti_bijeen_gekomen_om_te_onderhandelen_TMnr_10001652.jpg License: unknown  Contributors: Docu, J. Patrick Fischer, 1 anonymous edits

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Image:China imperialism cartoon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beria, Conscious, Dahn,Ephraim33, Gryffindor, Infrogmation, J 1982, JJ Georges, JMCC1, Janis-Fred, Jean-Frédéric, KTo288, Lobo, Man vyi, Mgmax, Mindmatrix, OhanaUnited, Origamiemensch, Pmx, Popolon,Sammyday, Shakko, Shizhao, Thib Phil, Tony Wills, WhisperToMe, Wolfmann, Xhienne, 16 anonymous editsFile:TahitiDupetitThouars.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TahitiDupetitThouars.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KAVEBEAR, Kilom691, Mu,Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, World ImagingFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Professoren der Rechts Hogeschool in Batavia TMnr 60012567.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Professoren_der_Rechts_Hogeschool_in_Batavia_TMnr_60012567.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:Alexpl, Docu, Humboldt

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License 68

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

ROOT EVILS OF AFRIKA'S DOWNFALL, Concepts in White World Terror Domination