review of one dimensional forces, work and energy

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AP Physics 1

2 Dimensional Work and Energy

2015-12-02

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Table of Contents

· Review of One Dimensional Forces, Work and Energy

· Two Dimensional Forces and Work

· Gravitational Potential Energy

· Conservation of Energy Problem Solving

Click on the topic to go to that section

· GPE, Kinetic Energy and Elastic Potential Energy

· GPE and Escape Velocity· Power

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Review of One Dimensional Forces,

Work and Energy

Return to Tableof Contents

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Topics to Review

This chapter assumes that you have already studied Work and Energy in One Dimension - which introduced the concepts of a system, the environment and the forces acting between them - and the definitions of Energy and Work.

But, only the forces acting in one dimension were considered - and life is both more complicated and interesting than that.

We will start with a review of the basic concepts. If you require more than just a review, please refer to the Algebra Based Physics unit on Work and Energy.

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Topics to Review

· System and Environment

· Energy

· Work

· Conservation Principles

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System and Environment

The concept of a system was introduced in the Algebra Based Physics module, but it needs to be specified in more detail for this course.A system is a small segment of the universe that will be considered in solving a specific problem, and we will erect a boundary around it. Any force or object outside this boundary will not be considered.The environment is everything outside the system boundary. The system can be a particle, a group of particles, an object, an area of space, and its size and shape is totally determined by how you want to solve the problem.

Why are we defining a system and its environment?

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System and Environment

So we can make the problem solvable.

By defining an appropriate system, we can isolate the forces that are within the system from the forces that act on the system from the environment.

If the forces are internal to the system, then there is no change in the energy of the system (as long as we don't consider thermal energy - which we won't for now).

If the forces are external, then there will be a change in the energy of the system.

But.....what is energy?

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Energy

It turns out that energy is so fundamental, like space and time, that there is no good answer to this question. However, just like space and time, that doesn't stop us from doing very useful calculations with energy.

There are some things we can say about it:

· It is the ability to do work.· It can be stored.· It can be changed from one form to another (light to thermal energy, mechanical to thermal energy, gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy).

Did you notice a term in the bullet list above that hasn't been defined yet?

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1 Which of the following are characteristics of energy? Select two answers.

A Thermal energy can never be changed into another form.

B Energy can be changed from one form to another.

C It has the ability to do work.

D Energy cannot be stored; it must always be used.

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2 A system is defined as:

A All of the forces that are external to the boundary between it and the rest of the universe.

B A small segment of the universe that has no internal forces acting on it.

C A small segment of the universe that is chosen to facilitate the solution to a problem. Forces internal to the system can change its total energy.

D A small segment of the universe that is chosen to facilitate the solution to a problem. Forces internal to the system can not change its total energy.

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Work

The previous slide on Energy mentioned Work, which has the ability to change Energy.

What is Work?

It is not what is talked about in common language. It is unfortunate that sometimes Physics uses words that are used everyday - in a quite different fashion. For example - if you're holding up a heavy box, do you think you're doing work?

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Work

You're not!

Work, in physics terms, is defined as the exertion of a force over a displacement. And, to further complicate it, only the component of the force in the direction of the motion is counted.

If you're just holding a box, you are certainly exerting an upward force on the box (to keep gravity from pulling it to the ground), but it's not moving, so there is no displacement. Therefore, there is no work.

The equation for this is Work = Force x Displacementparallel or

W = Fdparallel

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Work

W = Fdparallel

Three comments about this definition:

· If the force acts in the same direction as the object's motion, then the work done is positive.· If the force acts in the opposite direction as the object's motion, then the work done is negative.· If the object does not move, then zero work is done.

The next slide illustrates these points.

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F

#x

v

F

#x

v

F

#x

v

Force and Work

W = Fdparallel = 0

W = Fdparallel = F#x

W = Fdparallel = -F#x

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3 In which of the following cases is positive work done by the applied force?

A A softball player catches a ball in her glove.

B A home owner is applying his force to move his lawnmower from rest.

C A driver applies the brakes to slow his car.

D A student holds his textbook in front of him and does not move.

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Work W = Fdparallel

You have to very specific about using Work.

The system or environment that the work is acting on needs to be specified. For example:

"An applied force does 12 J of Work on a box."

"Gravity does -5 J of work on a box that is being raised up."

This is not a complete statement. What's missing?

"An external force does 6 J of work."The system or the environment that the work is acting on must be described.

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Net non-zero work can only be done to a system by an external force; a force from the environment outside the system.

So if our system is a box sitting on a table and I come along and push the box, I can increase the energy of the box - I am doing net non-zero work on the box.

Why are none of the internal forces (forces within the box, such as the box molecules moving about and colliding with each other) involved in increasing the energy of the system? The molecules are certainly exerting forces on each other, and they are causing each other to move.

Work

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Newton's Third Law!

Every time a molecule in the box strikes another molecule, it exerts a force on it, and moves it. However, the second molecule exerts an equal and opposite force on the first one.

Thus, assuming equal masses for the molecules, the work done internal to the system equals zero - it all cancels out. Thermal Energy complicates this picture, but as stated earlier, it will not be considered in this unit.

Work

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4 A 36.0 N force is applied to an object that moves 11.0 m in the same direction as the applied force on a frictionless surface. How much work is done on the object?

F

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5 A 36.0 N force is applied to an object that moves 11.0 m in the opposite direction of the applied force on a frictionless surface. How much work is done on the object?

F v

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F

6 A 36 N force is applied to an object that remains stationary. How much work is done on the object by the applied force?

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7 A 2 kg block slides 4.5 m to the right on a frictionless table with a constant velocity of 5 m/s. What is the net work on the block?

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8 Which law explains why internal forces to a system do not change its total mechanical energy?

A Newton's First Law

B Newton's Second Law

C Newton's Third Law

D Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

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9 A book is held at a height of 2.0 m for 20 s. How much work is done on the book?

A 400 J

B 200 J

C 40 J

D 20 J

E 0 J

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10 A book of mass, m, is lifted upwards at a constant velocity, a displacement, h, by an external force. How much work does the external force do on the book?

A mg

B -mg

C 0

D mgh

E -mgh

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11A book of mass, m, is lifted upwards at a constant velocity, a displacement, h, by an external force. How much work does the gravitational force do on the book?

A mg

B -mg

C 0

D mgh

E -mgh

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12 A book of mass, m, is lifted upwards at a constant velocity, a displacement, h, by an external force. How much net work is done on the book by the external force and the gravitational force?

A mg

B -mg

C 0

D mgh

E -mgh

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Putting it all together

Now, let's relate the four concepts of system, environment, work and energy, in terms of Conservation Principles.

The most powerful concepts in physics are called Conservation Principles. These principles allow us to solve problems without worrying too much about the details of a process.

We just have to take a snapshot of a system initially, and then after various forces have acted upon the system, we take another snapshot.

By comparing those two snapshots, we can learn a lot.

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A good example is a jar of candy.

First, define the system, the system boundary and the environment.

Conservation Principles

50 pieces

The system includes the candy pieces inside the jar. The jar is the system boundary and everything outside the jar is the environment.

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If you know that there are fifty pieces of candy at the beginning and that that no pieces have been taken out or added (crossed the system boundary), then you know that there must be 50 pieces at the end.

Now, you could change the way you arrange them or you could move them around, but you will still have 50 pieces.


50 pieces

still50

pieces

still 50 pieces

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In that case we would say that the number of pieces of candy is conserved.

That is, we should always get the same amount, regardless of how they are arranged as long as we take into account whether any have crossed the system boundary.


50 pieces

still50

pieces

still 50 pieces

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Energy is a conserved property of nature. It is not created or destroyed, so in a system where nothing crosses the system boundary, we will always have the same amount of energy. This is called a closed system.

The only way the energy of a system can change is if it is open to the environment - if energy has been added or taken away.

Because of this conservation principle, we can do very useful calculations with energy.

And, unlike force, energy is a scalar. It can be positive or negative, but we don't have to worry about vectors.

Conservation of Energy

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Define the amount of energy that we start with as Eo and the amount we end up with as Ef; then if no energy is added to or taken away from a system, we have the Law of the Conservation of Energy.

Eo = Ef

It turns out that there are only three ways to change the energy of a system. One is with heat, which won't be dealt with here; the other is with work.

What is the third one?


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As shown by Einstein's mass energy equivalence formula, Energy can be changed into mass and vice versa; E = mc 2.

This is evidenced in nuclear reactions (both controlled nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons), and at the quantum level, where particles may "pop" in and out of existence as long as they don't violate the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

But, this is Classical Physics - and we won't consider those cases now.


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If energy is added to or taken away from a system by work, then we have the "Work-Energy" equation.

Eo + W = Ef

If positive work is done on a system, then the energy of the system increases. If negative work is done on a system, then the energy of the system decreases.

This equation also shows that the units of work and energy are the same.


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Motion problems can certainly be solved through the application of Newton's Laws to free body diagrams.

However - for non constant forces or objects moving in two dimensions, the calculations can be complex.

By using the Conservation of Energy, wherever possible, it doesn't matter what the forces are doing, or how the objects are moving - you just need to consider the original and final states.

This, along with the fact that Energy is a scalar, makes the solutions much easier.


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13 How much force must be applied to an object such that it gains 100.0 J over a displacement of 20.0 m?

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14 Over what displacement must a 400.0 N force be applied to an object such that it gains 1600 J of energy?

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15 A vacuum cleaner is moved from the ground floor to the second floor of an apartment building. In which of the following cases is the most work done by the person moving the vacuum?

A The vacuum cleaner is pushed up an incline set over the stairs.

B The person carries the cleaner up the stairs in his arms.

C The cleaner brings the cleaner to the third floor, by mistake, then back to the second floor.

D The work is the same in each case.

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16 When using the Conservation of Energy to solve a system problem, what needs to be considered? Select two answers.

A The initial energy of the system.

B The final energy of the system.

C The direction of the internal applied forces.

D The magnitude of the internal applied forces.

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W = Fdparallel

If the object that is experiencing the force does not move (if dparallel = 0) then no work is done: W = 0. The energy of the system is unchanged.

If the object moves in the direction opposite the direction of the force (for instance if F is positive and dparallel is negative) then the work is negative: W < 0. The energy of the system is reduced.

If the object moves in the same direction as the direction of the force (for instance if F is positive and dparallel is also positive) then the work is positive: W > 0. The energy of the system is increased.

Work Related to Energy Change

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W = Fdparallel

This equation gives us the units of work. Since force is measured in Newtons (N) and distance is measured in meters (m) the unit of work is the Newton-meter (N-m).

And since N = kg-m/s2; a N-m also equals a kg-m2/s2.

In honor of James Joule, who made critical contributions in developing the idea of energy, the unit of work and energy is also known as the Joule (J).

1 Joule = 1 Newton-meter = 1 kilogram-meter2/second2

1 J = 1 N-m = 1 kg-m2/s2

Units of Work and Energy

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Joule was instrumental in showing that different forms of energy can be converted into other forms - most notably mechanical to thermal energy.

Before Joule, it was commonly accepted that thermal energy is conserved. This was disproved by Joule's extremely accurate and precise measurements showing how thermal energy is just another form of energy.

This was made possible by his experience as a brewer which relied on very accurate measurements of temperature, time and volume!

James Prescott Joule

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17 Which are valid units for Work? Select two answers.

A Joule

B Watt

C Newton

D Newton-meter

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18 An athlete is holding a football. He then throws it to a teammate who catches it. Describe the work done on the football by both players starting from when the football is at rest before it is thrown and after it is caught.

Students type their answers here

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Two Dimensional Forces

and Work


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In the previous section, we learned that the amount of work done to a system, and therefore the amount of energy increase that the system experiences, is given by:

Work = Force x Displacementparallel

or

W = Fdparallel

This is still valid, but we have to bring a new interpretation to that equation based on what we know about vector components.

Two Dimensional Forces and Work

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v

FAPP

#xHow would we interpret:

W = Fdparallel

for this case?


Instead of pulling the objecthorizontally, what if it is pulled at an angle to the horizontal?

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Fparallel

v Fperpendicular

#x

#

After breaking FAPP into components that are parallel and perpendicular to the direction of motion, we can see that no work is done by the perpendicular component; work is only done by the parallel component.


Using trigonometry, we find that Fparallel = FAPPcosθ

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Fparallel

v Fperpendicular

#x

#

In words, the work done on an object by a force is the product of the magnitude of the force and the magnitude of the displacement times the cosine of the angle between them.


W = Fparalleld becomes:

W = (FAPPcosθ)Δx = FAPPΔxcosθ

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This is really no more difficult a case. We just have to find the component of force that is parallel to the object's displacement.


Instead of pulling the objectat an angle to the horizontal,what if it is pushed?

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The interpretation is the same, just determine the angle between the force and displacement and use:

W = FAPPΔxcosθ

Fparallel

Fperpendicular

#FAPP

#x


Even though Fperpendicular is in the negative direction (it was positive when the object was pulled), it does not affect the work - as only the parallel component contributes to the work.

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19 A 40.0 N force pulls an object at an angle of θ = 37.00 to its direction of motion. Its displacement is Δx = 8.00 m. How much work is done by the force on the object?

v

#x

#

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20 An object is pushed with an applied force of 36.0 N at an angle of θ = 60.00 to the horizontal and it moves Δx = 3.40 m. What work does the force do on the object?

#FAPP

#x

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21 A ball is swung around on a string, trveling a displacement of 2.0 m in 5.0 s. What is the work done on the ball by the string?A 0 J

B 2.5 J

C 5.0 J

D 10 J

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22 Assume the earth moves around the sun in a perfect circular orbit (a good approximation). Use the direction of the gravitational force between the two celestial objects and describe the work done by the sun on the earth and how that impacts the earth's orbital speed. Remember to consider the direction of the gravitational force and the direction that the earth is moving.

How does your answer change if you don't make the circular orbit assumption?


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Gravitational Potential Energy


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We'll start with a quick review of Gravitational Potential Energy as presented in the Algebra Based Physics course. Then, the impact of motion in two dimensions will be analyzed.


Fapp

mg

A book of mass, m, is lifted vertically upwards a displacement, h, by an external force (a person) at a constant velocity. How much work does the external force do on the book?

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Fapp

mg

a = 0Apply Newtons' Second Law to the FBD:

ΣFy = Fapp - mg = may = 0 (since v = const)

Fapp = mg

Use the definition of work: W = FΔxparallel

W = (mg)Δxparallel = mgΔx (since Fapp is parallel to Δx)

W = mgh (since Δx = h)

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Apply the Work-Energy equation, Eo + W = Ef. If the book started and finished at rest (KE0 = KEf = 0), then Eo = 0. The equation becomes:

W = Ef

But we just showed that the external force did W = mgh to lift the book... so

mgh = Ef or Ef = mgh

We conclude that the energy of a mass is increased by an amount mgh when it is raised by a displacement, h.

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The name for this form of energy is Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE).

GPE = mgh

One important thing to note is that changes in gravitational potential energy are important, but their absolute value is not. This is because h represents Δx, or the change in height.

You can define any point to be zero meters in height when it represents the original position of an object. This would give you zero for GPE at that point. But no matter what height you choose to call zero, changes in heights will still result in changes of GPE.

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One more thing.

The potential energy of a system is conventionally defined as the negative of the work done by the field of the system (gravitational or electric).

How is this related to the derivation just performed to show that GPE = mgh?

Our calculation used the work done by an external force (a person). The conventional definition uses the work done by the force exerted by the gravitational field, Fgrav. Fgrav does negative work on a rising book as its force is opposite the motion. By taking the negative of this work, you get the same result - a positive GPE.

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Gravitational Potential EnergyThe book is moving up at a constant velocity and travels a displacement h. Note that the force exerted by gravity is in the opposite direction of its motion (anti-parallel).

So, Wgrav = FgravΔxparallel

Wgrav = -(mg)(Δx) = -mgh

GPE = -Wgrav = mgh

Which, of course, gives us the same result for GPE.

Fapp

mg

a = 0

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23 What is the change of GPE for a 5.0 kg object which is raised from an initial height of 1.0 m above the floor to a final height of 8.0 m above the floor?

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24 What is the change of GPE for an 8.0 kg object which is lowered from an initial height of 2.1 m above the floor to a final height of 1.5 m above the floor?

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25 What is the change in height of a 2.0 kg object which gained 16 J of GPE?

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26 A librarian takes a book off of a high shelf and refiles it on a lower shelf. Which of the following explain the work done on the book by the librarian and the earth's gravitational field as its GPE is lowered? Select two answers.

A The librarian does positive work on the book.

B The librarian does negative work on the book.

C The gravitational field does positive work on the book.

D The gravitational field does negative work on the book.

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GPE on an Incline

h d

#

Let's put together the concepts of two dimensional motion and forces with GPE.

We'll use a box being pushed up an incline.

It all depends on what we can measure. Assume it's easier to measure the displacement (d) the box travels.

How do we find its change in GPE?

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GPE on an Incline

h d

#

The box starts with no velocity, and after it is pushed up a displacement d, the block slides up, and it momentarily stops before sliding back down.

Does ΔGPE = mgd?

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GPE on an Incline

h d

#

No! The formula for ΔGPE was calculated from the work formula, and it assumed the gravitational force (or the force that opposed it to lift the object) was in the same direction of the object's motion.

The gravitational force points down. Since work only includes the distance and force components that are in parallel, ΔGPE involves h and not d in the picture.

How is h calculated from d?

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GPE on an Incline

h d

#

ΔGPE = mgh

When motion is along an incline, the change in height can be related to the distance traveled using trigonometry.

sinθ = h/d

h = dsin#

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27 A 5.0 kg block is at the top of a 6.0 m long frictionless ramp, which is at an angle of 370. What is the height of the ramp?

37o

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28 The 5.0 kg block slides to the bottom of the 6.0 m long frictionless ramp, which is at an angle of 37o. What is the change in its GPE?

37o

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GPE, Kinetic Energy and

Elastic Potential Energy


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KE and EPE In the Algebra Based Physics course, we used the third kinematics equation, along with the definition of GPE to derive an expression for Kinetic Energy - the energy of an object in motion.

Also, another type of potential energy was derived based on Robert Hooke's Law about the relationship between the force necessary to compress a spring and how much it was compressed. It is called Elastic Potential Energy (EPE).

And since KE and EPE are forms of energy, they are both expressed in Joules.

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GPE, KE and EPE

We can now solve problems with GPE, KE and EPE in two dimensions using what has been covered so far in this chapter.

The key is understanding how these different forms of energy depend on their components along the x and y axis.

Let's look at GPE first. If an object is moving along an incline, does its potential energy depend on the displacement traveled along the incline?

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GPE, KE and EPE

No, it does not!

ΔGPE = mgh, where h is the vertical displacement (purely along the y axis) that the object has moved.

The incline displacement is not important - only the vertical displacement.

What about KE?

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GPE, KE and EPE

As with all energy, KE is a scalar. However, it relates directly to the velocity, and velocity is a vector.

When we perform calculations of velocity from KE and GPE, we need to be careful to relate the change in GPE only to the change in KE in the y direction - thus it only affects the velocity in the y direction.

Now, what about EPE?

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GPE, KE and EPE

In the case of EPE, the amount that the spring is compressed is the important variable - no trigonometry is required.

Kinetic Energy will either use the vertical displacement an object covers (for its relationship to GPE) or the actual displacement of the object from the spring's force (for its relationship to EPE).

Let's work a couple of problems by using the Conservation of Energy to make this more clear.

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29 A projectile is fired at an angle of 450. Which factors are important in calculating the maximum height the projectile reaches by using the Conservation of Energy?

A The total initial velocity of the projectile.

B The x component of the velocity of the projectile.

C The y component of the velocity of the projectile.

D The horizontal distance traveled by the projectile.

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30 A spring launcher fires a marble at an angle of 520. In calculating the energy available for transformation into GPE and KE, what value of x is used in EPE = 1/2 kx2?

A The horizontal displacement of the spring.

B The vertical displacement of the spring.

C The straight line displacement of the spring, independent of the x and y axes.

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Energy Problem Solving

What is the final velocity of a box of mass 5.0 kg that slides 6.0 m down a frictionless incline at an angle of 42 0 to the horizontal?

vo = 0

v = ?

The system will be the block. Since there is no friction, there are no external forces and we can use the Conservation of Energy (the gravitational force is taken care of by GPE). What types of energy are involved here?

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Only three types of energy have been discussed so far. And in this case, there is only GPE and KE:

vo = 0

d=6.0m

θ=420

m = 5.0 kg

v = ?

(KE + EPE +GPE)0 = (KE + EPE + GPE)

becomes:

(KE + GPE)0 = (KE +GPE)

to save subscripts, we'll assume that no subscript implies a final quantity (KE = KEf)

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vo = 0

d=6.0m

θ=420

m = 5.0 kg

v = ?

h0=4.0m

The velocity at the bottom of the incline is 8.9 m/s.

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.

Consider the inclined plane problem that was just worked, but add a spring at the bottom of the incline.

The spring will be compressed a distance Δx and then released. Find the velocity of the box when it rises back to where it was first compressed - a height of Δh.

What energies do we have to consider?

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.

Once compressed, the box has EPE, GPE and zero KE.

When it loses touch with the spring at Δh above its fully compressed point, it will have KE, GPE and zero EPE.

(KE + EPE + GPE) 0 = (KPE + EPE + GPE)

becomes:

(EPE + GPE)0 = (KE + GPE)

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.

Before we proceed further with the solution, think how hard this problem would be to solve without using Conservation of Energy.

Once the object is released and the spring starts moving away from its compressed state, the force is no longer constant - it will require mathematical integration (calculus) to solve. Free body diagrams are not the best way to find the velocity of the object.

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.

Let's put in the equations and rearrange them to solve for v.

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.

We now have the equation for the velocity when the block rises a vertical displacement of Δh.

But if we're only given Δx, how do we find Δh?

Use trigonometry and recognize that Δh = Δxsinθ.

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31 A box on an inclined plane is in contact with a spring. The box is released, compressing the spring. For every increment Δx, the box moves down the incline, how much does its height, Δh, change?

A Δx2

B Δxcosθ

C Δxsinθ

D

E Δxtanθ

## x

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32 A box is held on top of a spring on an inclined plane of angle θ = 310. The box is released, compressing the spring. If the spring moves 7.0 m down the plane, how much does its height, Δh, change?

A 7.0 m

B 6.5 m

C 6.0 m

D 3.6 m

E 3.0 m

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33 A box of mass m is on an inclined plane that makes an angle of θ with the horizontal and is in contact with a spring of spring constant k. The box is released, and it compresses the spring an amount Δx before rebounding. In terms of m, g, k and θ, what is the value of Δx?

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34 A spring (k = 150 N/m) on an incline of θ = 540 is compressed a distance of Δx = .060 m along the incline by a mass of 0.042 kg and then released. What is its velocity when it passes the point where it was first compressed and loses touch with the spring?

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35 A marble launcher shoots a marble vertically and then shoots a marble in the horizontal direction. Describe why the exit velocity of the marble in the two cases is different. Which exit velocity is greater?


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Conservation of Energy Problem Solving


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Falling Objects - the Energy way

.

An object, at rest, falls from a height, h0, to the ground, and you want to find out what its velocity is right before it hits the ground (assume no air friction).

Before you learned the Conservation of Energy, you would draw a free body diagram and then use a Kinematics equation to find the velocity. Review this with your group and then remove the screen below to check:

mg

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Falling Objects - the Energy way

Now, let's use the Conservation of Energy to solve this problem. Define the system as the object and GPE at the ground as zero. Since there is no friction, the work on the system will be zero.

In this case, both methods take about the same amount of effort. But, in cases where the motion, or the forces acting on the object are more complex or are changing, the Energy approach is easier.

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36 A ball of mass 0.45 kg falls from a building of height = 21 m. What is the ball's speed right before it hits the ground?

A 14 m/s

B 20 m/s

C 210 m/s

D 410 m/s

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37 Two objects, one with a mass of 0.43 kg, and the other with a mass of 42.5 kg, fall from a height of 31.1 m. Which object has the greater velocity right before it hits the ground? (assume no friction)

A Both have the same velocity.

B The 0.43 kg object

C The 42.5 kg object

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The Spring and the Roller Coaster

Look at the below diagram. A block of mass m, is ejected by a compressed spring and spins around a couple of loops before exiting to the right. What is the velocity of the block just as it leaves the spring and at points A and B (assume no friction)? Could you use free body diagrams and Newton's Laws?

A

rA

B

rB

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The Spring and the Roller CoasterThat would be very complicated! How would Conservation of Energy work? The system is the spring, the block and the loops. Assume no friction, hence there is no work done on this system:

E0 = E1 = EA = EB

E0 is defined as the energy of the compressed spring right before it is released, E1 is the energy of the block right after it leaves the spring, and EA and EB are the energies at points A and B.

A

rA

B

rB10

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The Spring and the Roller Coaster

A

rA

B

rB10

Intuitively, why is the velocity at point B less than point A?

The block has a greater GPE at point B - so since Energy is conserved, it has a smaller KE - hence, a smaller velocity. Note how we don't care how it got there - an elliptical loop would give the same velocity.

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38 A spring gun, aimed in the horizontal direction with k = 250 N/m is compressed 0.05 m and released. How fast will a 0.025 kg dart go when it exits the gun?

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39 A student uses a spring, with k = 180 N/m, to launch a marble vertically into the air. The mass of the marble is 0.0040 kg and the spring is compressed 0.030 m. How high will the marble go above its initially compressed position?

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40 A student uses a spring gun (k = 120 N/m) to launch a marble at an angle of 520 to the horizontal (m = .0020 kg, Δx = 0.041 m). What is the maximum height that the marble will reach above its initially compressed position?

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41 A roller coaster car is pulled up to a height (A) of 50 m, where it then goes down the other side of the track. It traverses two other loops, one at a height of 40 m (B), and the second at a height of 30 m (C). Rank the velocities of the car at the three heights from greatest to least.A A > B > C

B A > C > B

C B > A > C

D C > B > A

E C > B > A

F C > A > B

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42 Four objects are thrown with identical speeds in different directions from the top of a building. Which will be moving fastest when it strikes the ground?

AB

C

D

h

E All will have the same speed.

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43 Four objects are thrown with identical speeds in different directions from the top of a building. Which will hit the ground first? A

B

C

D

h

E All will hit at the same time.

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44 Four objects are thrown with identical speeds in different directions from the top of a building. Which will go the highest? A

B

C

D

h

E All will reach the same height.

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45 Four objects are thrown with identical speeds in different directions from the top of a building. Which will land furthest from the base of the building?

AB

C

D

h

E All will land at the same place.

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46 Four objects are thrown with identical speeds in different directions from the top of a building. Which will have the greatest horizontal component of its velocity at its maximum height? A

B

C

D

h

E All will be the same.

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47 Three objects are thrown with identical speeds in different directions from the top of a building. Which will have the greatest kinetic energy at its maximum height?

ABC

h

D All will have the same.

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GPE and Escape Velocity


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GPE - expanded

The expression GPE = mgh only works near the surface of and is specific to the planet. Recall that:

As an object's height above the surface of the planet increases, its distance from the center of the planet is not just the radius of the planet. Thus, a more general expression is needed based on Newton's Universal Gravitational Force equation:

Rplanet = radius of planetMplanet = mass of planet

rplanet-object = distance from center of the planet to the object

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GPE - expandedDeriving a more general formula for the potential energy of an object that moves further away from the earth requires calculus, because the gravitational force is not constant - it must be "integrated (calculus)" over the distance the object moves.

We'll just present the result, and use a more common physics term for gravitational potential energy, UG.

What do you think the negative sign in this expression means?

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GPE - expanded

In solving the integral, an assumption was made that the gravitational potential energy between two objects an infinite distance apart is zero.

Add this assumption to the fact that the gravitational force is always an attractive force, and the negative sign pops up.

How can we reconcile this negative sign with the fact that we normally think of Gravitational Potential Energy as a positive number? Think of what GPE really means....

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GPE - expanded

UG

GPE measured for objects near the surface of the earth is really mg(h-h0), and h0 is normally set to zero.

So, it's the change in height above the earth's surface that is important - GPE is not an absolute number.

On the graph above, notice as r (the distance from the center of the earth) increases (the object moves above the surface of the earth), UG becomes less negative. The difference between the final UG and the initial UG will be positive! So, mgh will still be a positive number.

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48 Why can't the expression GPE = mgh be used to determine the GPE between the earth and a weather satellite in geosynchronous orbit above the earth (35.8 km)? Select two answers.

A The satellite's orbital period is twice that of the earth's rotational period.

B The satellite is moving at a great speed.

C The value of g is different at the earth's surface and at the satellite.

D The distances between the surface of the earth and the satellite from the center of the earth are mathematically significant.

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49 Describe how the negative sign in the generalized potential energy equation was determined.


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Escape Velocity

Let's apply this new definition of GPE between two masses to the problem of escape velocity.

Escape velocity is the minimum velocity an object (such as a spaceship) needs to attain to "escape" the earth's gravitational pull. Actually, since the force of gravity has an infinite range, this is never really possible, but the force will be extremely tiny at great distances.

We're going to use conservation of energy, and our system is going to be the earth-spaceship system. If we're looking for the minimum velocity, what will the magnitude of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the spaceship when it is an infinite distance from the earth?

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Escape Velocity

Since we're looking for the minimum required velocity to escape the earth, we want it to get to infinity with zero kinetic energy. Potential energy was already defined to be zero at infinity. Using the Conservation of Energy:

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Escape Velocity

Note that escape velocity is independent of the mass of the escaping object. It only depends on the mass and radius of the object being escaped from.

Using this fact, can you explain why despite the fact that Hydrogen and Helium are the most abundant elements in the universe, there are only trace amounts of each element in our atmosphere?

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Escape Velocity

When the earth was first formed, the atmosphere contained significant amounts of both elements.

However - Hydrogen and Helium are the lightest elements, so for a given atmospheric temperature, they would move faster than the heavier elements.

Over time, their average speeds exceeded the escape velocity of earth, thus they left the planet.

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50 A rocket of mass 5,000 kg will have ____________ escape velocity than a rocket with mass 10,000 kg.

A a largerB a smaller C an equal

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51 What is the escape velocity on the planet Earth? (Mearth = 5.97x1024 kg, re = 6.38x106 m, G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2)

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Power


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PowerIt is often important to know not only if there is enough energy available to perform a task but also how much time will be required.

Power is defined as the rate that work is done:

P = W/Δt

Since work is measured in Joules (J) and time is measured in seconds (s) the unit of power is Joules per second (J/s).

In honor of James Watt, who made critical contributions in developing efficient steam engines, the unit of power is knownas a Watt (W).

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Let's derive another expression for Power:

P = W/Δt Since W = Fd parallel P = (Fd parallel ) /Δt Regrouping, this becomesP = F(d parallel /Δt) Since v = d/ΔtP = Fv parallel

Power can be defined as the product of the force applied and the velocity of the object parallel to that force.

Power

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A third useful expression for power can be derived from our original statement of the conservation of energy principle.

P = W/Δt Since W = Ef - E0

P = (Ef - E0)/Δt

The power absorbed by a system can be thought of as the rate at which the energy in the system is changing.

Power

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52 A steam engine does 52 J of work in 12 s. What is the power supplied by the engine?

A 3.4 W

B 3.9 W

C 4.3 W

D 4.9 W

E 5.7 W

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53 How long must a 350.0 W engine run in order to produce 720.0 kJ of work?

A 1987 s

B 2057 s

C 2146 s

D 2305 s

E 2861 s

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54 A 12.0 kW motor runs a vehicle at a speed of 8.00 m/s. What is the force supplied by the motor (assume all of the power is delivered in the direction of the vehicle's motion).

A 1000 N

B 1250N

C 1400 N

D 1450 N

E 1500 N

review of one dimensional forces, work and energy

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