renaissance lecture and others

7/29/2019 Renaissance Lecture and others

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Renaissance

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th17th centuries. For the earlier European Renaissance,

seeRenaissance of the 12th century. For other uses, seeRenaissance (disambiguation).

David, byMichelangelo(The Accademia Gallery,Florence) is an example of high Renaissance art

The Renaissance(UK/rnesns/,US/rnsns/,Frenchpronunciation:n, fromFrench:Renaissance "re-

birth",Italian:Rinascimento, fromrinascere "to be reborn")[1]was acultural movementthat spanned the period roughly from

the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in theLate Middle Agesand later spreading to the rest of Europe. Though

availability of paper and the invention ofmetal movable typesped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the

changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe.

As a cultural movement, it encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th-

century resurgence of learning based onclassicalsources, which contemporaries credited toPetrarch, the development of

linearperspectiveand other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting, and gradual but

widespreadeducationalreform.

In politics, the Renaissance contributed the development of the conventions of diplomacy, and in science an increased reliance

on observation. Historians often argue this intellectual transformation was a bridge between the Middle Agesand theModern

era. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is

perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths asLeonardo da

VinciandMichelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".[2][3]

There is a consensus that the Renaissance began inFlorence, Italy, in the 14th century.[4]

Various theories have been proposed

to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of

Florence at the time; its political structure; the patronage of its dominant family, theMedici;[5][6]and the migration ofGreek

scholarsand texts to Italy following theConquest of Constantinopleat the hands of theOttoman Turks.[7][8][9]

The Renaissance has a long and complexhistoriography, and in line with general scepticism of discreteperiodizations, there has

been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th-century glorification of the "Renaissance" and individual culture

heroes as "Renaissance men", questioning the usefulness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation.[10]

The art

historian Erwin Panofsky observed of this resistance to the concept ofRenaissance

It is perhaps no accident that the factuality of theItalian Renaissancehas been most vigorously questioned by those who are

not obliged to take a professional interest in the aesthetic aspects of civilization historians of economic and social

developments, political and religious situations, and, most particularly, natural science but only exceptionally by students of

literature and hardly ever byhistorians of Art.[11]
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Some have called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance" from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a

period of pessimism andnostalgiafor theclassical age,[12]while social and economic historians of thelongue dureespecially

have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras,[13]

linked, as Panofsky himself observed, "by a thousand ties".[14]

The word Renaissance, whose literal translation from French into English is "Rebirth", was first used and defined[15]

by

FrenchhistorianJules Michelet(17981874), in his 1855 work, Histoire de France. The word Renaissance has also been

extended to other historical andcultural movements, such as theCarolingian Renaissanceand theRenaissance of the 12th

century.

Overview

Leonardo da Vinci'sVitruvian Manshows clearly the effect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers. Based on the

specifications inVitruvius'sDe architectura(1st century BC), Leonardo tried to draw the perfectly proportioned man.

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in theearly modern period.

Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt in literature, philosophy, art,

music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanistmethod

in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.[16]

Renaissance humanistssuch asPoggio Bracciolinisought out in Europe's monastic libraries the Latin literary, historical, and

oratorical texts ofAntiquity, while theFall of Constantinople(1453) generated a wave of migr Greek scholars bringing

precious manuscripts inancient Greek, many of which had fallen into obscurity in the West. It is in their new focus on literary

and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th

century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather than on

such cultural texts. In the revival ofneo-PlatonismRenaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many

of the Renaissance's greatest works were devoted to it, and the Church patronized many works of Renaissance art. However, a

subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural

life.[17]

In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were brought back from Byzantium to

Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first time since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek

Christian works, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the New Testament promoted by humanistsLorenzo

VallaandErasmus, would help pave the way for theProtestant Reformation.

Well after the first artistic return to classicism had been exemplified in the sculpture ofNicola Pisano, Florentine painters led

byMasacciostrove to portray the human form realistically, developing techniques to render perspectiveand light more

naturally.Political philosophers, most famouslyNiccol Machiavelli, sought to describe political life as it really was, that is to

understand it rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance humanismPico della Mirandolawrote the famous text"De

hominis dignitate"(Oration on the Dignity of Man, 1486), which consists of a series of theses on philosophy, natural thought,

faith and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek,
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Renaissance authors also began increasingly to usevernacularlanguages; combined with the introduction ofprinting, this

would allow many more people access to books, especially the Bible .[18]

In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secularand worldly, both

through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney

Stark,[19]play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of theItalian city statesin theHigh Middle Ages, which

married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This analysis argues that, whereas the great European

states (France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent city

republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented

commercial revolution which preceded and financed the Renaissance.

Origins

Florence, the center of Renaissance

Main article:Italian Renaissance

Many argue that the ideas that characterized the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th century Florence, in particular with

the writings ofDante Alighieri(12651321) andFrancesco Petrarca(13041374), as well as the painting ofGiotto di

Bondone(12671337).[20]Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the

rival geniusesLorenzo GhibertiandFilippo Brunelleschicompeted for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery

of theFlorence Cathedral(Ghiberti won).[21]Others see more general competition between artists and polymaths such as

Brunelleschi, Ghiberti,Donatello, andMasacciofor artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it

remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have

been put forward to explain its origins.

During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand. Artists depended totally on patrons while the patrons needed

money to sustain geniuses. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia and

Europe. Silver mining inTyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during

theCrusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa and Venice.[22]

Jules Micheletdefined the 16th-century Renaissance in France as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break

from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world.[23]

Latin and Greek phases of Renaissance humanism

Coluccio Salutati

In stark contrast to theHigh Middle Ages, when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of

natural science, philosophy and mathematics,[24]

Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin

and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when

Renaissance scholars such asPetrarch, Coluccio Salutati(13311406), Niccol de' Niccoli(13641437) andPoggio
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_Geographic_Society-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusadeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Tyrolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacciohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donatellohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Cathedralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo_Ghibertihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giotto_di_Bondonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giotto_di_Bondonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Petrarcahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighierihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_city_stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Starkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Starkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moveable_typehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular


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Bracciolini(13801459 AD) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors

asCicero,LivyandSeneca.[25]By the early 15th century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of

Renaissance humanism was now under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary,

historical, oratorical and theological texts.[26]

Unlike the case of those Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of

ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had

been studied since theHigh Middle Agesin Western Europe and in the medieval Islamic world (normally in translation), but

Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as Homer, the Greek dramatists,DemosthenesandThucydidesand so

forth), were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied

by Byzantine scholars. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural

works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity. This movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek

literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts back into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to Coluccio

Salutati's invitation to the Byzantine diplomat and scholarManuel Chrysoloras(c.13551415) to Florence to teach Greek.[27]

Social and political structures in Italy

A political map of the ItalianPeninsulacirca 1494

The unique political structures of lateMiddle AgesItalyhave led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the

emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist as apolitical entityin the early modern period. Instead, it was

divided into smallercity statesand territories: theKingdom of Naplescontrolled the south, theRepublic of Florenceand

thePapal Statesat the center, theMilaneseand theGenoeseto the north and west respectively, and theVenetiansto the east.

Fifteenth-century Italy was one of the mosturbanisedareas in Europe.[28]

Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient

Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's

heartland.[29]

Historian and political philosopherQuentin Skinnerpoints out thatOtto of Freising(c. 11141158), a German bishop visiting

north Italy during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new form of political and social organization, observing that Italy

appeared to have exited from Feudalism so that its society was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti-

monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Government in Siena

byAmbrogio Lorenzetti(painted 13381340) whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and

good administration. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner

reports that there were many defences of liberty such asMatteo Palmieri's (14061475) celebration of Florentine genius not

only in art, sculpture and architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred

in Florence at the same time".[30]

Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as theRepublic of Florenceat this time, were also notable for their

merchantRepublics, especially theRepublic of Venice. Although in practice these wereoligarchical, and bore little resemblance
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wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_Stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Florencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Napleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_city-stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation-statehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsulahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-27https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Chrysolorashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coluccio_Salutatihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coluccio_Salutatihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydideshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demostheneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seneca_the_Youngerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicerohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poggio_Bracciolini


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to a moderndemocracy, they did have democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in

governance and belief in liberty.[31][32][33]The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic

advancement.[34]

Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual

crossroads.Merchantsbrought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularlythe Levant. Venice was Europe's

gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of textiles. The wealth such business

brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time

for study.[34]

Black Death/Plague

Plague 1497-1499

One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation caused by the Black DeathinFlorence, which hitEuropebetween

1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague,

and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather

than onspiritualityand theafterlife.[35]

It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested

in thesponsorshipof religious works of art.[36]However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in

Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The

Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.[10]

The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper

sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the bubonic plague. Florence's

population was nearly halved in the year 1347. As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class

increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of

the most favorable position economically.[37]

The demographic decline due to the plague had some economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values

declined by 30 to 40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400.[38]

Landholders faced a great loss but for ordinary men

and women, it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also found

that lands were more abundant, and that most of them inherited property from their dead relatives.

The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. Epidemics ravaged cities, particularly children.

Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation. Children were hit the hardest

because many diseases such as typhus and syphilis target the immune system and left young children without a fighting chance.Children in city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy .[39]

The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant

number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period.

Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in
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the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of

government.[40]

Cultural conditions in Florence

Lorenzo de' Medici, ruler ofFlorenceand patron of arts

It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted

several features unique to Florentine cultural life which may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized

the role played by theMedici, abanking familyand laterducal ruling house, in patronizing and stimulating the arts.Lorenzo de'

Medici(14491492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission

works from Florence's leading artists, includingLeonardo da Vinci,Sandro Botticelli, andMichelangelo Buonarroti.[5]Works

byNeri di Bicci, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci andFilippino Lippihad been commissioned additionally by the convent di

San Donato agli Scopeti of theAugustiniansorder in Florence.[41]The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo came

to power; indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society. Some historians have postulated

that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e. because "Great Men" were born there by

chance.[42]Da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born inTuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other

historians have contended that these "Great Men" were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural

conditions at the time.[43]

Characteristics

Humanism

Main article:Renaissance humanism

In some waysHumanismwas not a philosophy but a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholasticmode, which

focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original, and appraise them

through a combination of reasoning andempirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the programme of 'Studia

Humanitatis', that being the study of five humanities: poetry,grammar, history,moral philosophyandrhetoric. Although

historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of the road definition... the

movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and

Rome".[44]

Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man ... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind."[45]

Portrait of Sir Thomas More, 1527

Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccol

MachiavelliandThomas Morerevived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers, and applied them in critiques of contemporary

government.Pico della Mirandolawrote what is often considered the manifesto of the Renaissance, a vibrant defence of

thinking, theOration on the Dignity of Man.Matteo Palmieri(14061475), another humanist, is most known for his work Della

vita civile ("On Civic Life"; printed 1528) which advocatedcivic humanism, and his influence in refining theTuscan vernacularto
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the same level as Latin. Palmieri's written works drawn on Roman philosophers and theorists, especially Cicero, who, like

Palmieri, lived an active public life as a citizen and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and alsoQuintilian. Perhaps the

most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La citt di vita, but an earlier work Della vita

civile (On Civic Life) is more wide-ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside

outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include ideas

about how children develop mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can

ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is pragmatically useful and that

which is honest.

The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body. This transcending belief

can be done with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose person combined intellectual and

physical excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any situation.[46]This ideology was referred to as

theuomo universale, an ancient Greco-Roman ideal. The education during Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient

literature and history. It was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of human

behavior.

Art

Main articles:Renaissance art,Renaissance painting, Renaissance painting, andRenaissance architecture

TheCreation of AdambyMichelangelo

The Renaissance marks the period of European history at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise of the Modern world. It

represents a cultural rebirth from the 14th through the middle of the 17th centuries. Early Renaissance, mostly in Italy, bridges

the art period during the fifteenth century, between the Middle Ages and the High Renaissance in Italy. It is generally known

that Renaissance matured in Northern Europe later, in 16th century .[47]

One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art

was its development of highly realistic linear perspective.Giotto di Bondone(12671337) is credited with first treating a

painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of architectFilippo Brunelleschi(13771446) and the

subsequent writings ofLeon Battista Alberti(14041472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique.[48]

The

development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts.[49]To that end, painters also developed other

techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case ofLeonardo da Vinci,human anatomy. Underlying these changes

in artistic method, was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature, and to unravel the axioms ofaesthetics, with the works

of Leonardo,MichelangeloandRaphaelrepresenting artistic pinnacles that were to be much imitated by other artists.[50]Other

notable artists includeSandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in Florence,Donatelloanother Florentine andTitianin Venice,

among others.

Concurrently, in theNetherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed, the work ofHugo van der GoesandJan van

Eyckhaving particular influence on the development of painting in Italy, both technically with the introduction ofoil paintand
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_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_paintinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_paintinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-46https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintilianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero


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canvas, and stylistically in terms of naturalism in representation. (seeRenaissance in the Netherlands). Later, the work ofPieter

Brueghel the Elderwould inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life.[51]

Leonardo da VinciSelf-portrait, hisMona Lisa,The Last SupperandVitruvian Manare examples of Renaissance art

In architecture,Filippo Brunelleschiwas foremost in studying the remains of ancient classical buildings, and with rediscovered

knowledge from the 1st-century writerVitruviusand the flourishing discipline ofmathematics, formulated the Renaissance

style which emulated and improved on classical forms. Brunelleschi's major feat of engineering was the building of the dome

ofFlorence Cathedral.[52]The first building to demonstrate this is claimed to be the church of St. Andrew built by Alberti

inMantua. The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding ofSt. Peter's Basilica, combining the

skills ofBramante,Michelangelo,Raphael,SangalloandMaderno.

Mona LisabyLeonardo da Vinciis a masterpiece of Renaissance and world art

The Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. These can either be structural,

supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form ofpilasters. During the Renaissance,

architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, andentablaturesas an integrated system. One of the first buildings to use pilasters

as an integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (14211440) by Filippo Brunelleschi.[53]

Arches, semi-circular or (in theManneriststyle) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with

capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to

use the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan,

unlike theGothicvault which is frequently rectangular.

The Renaissance artists were not pagans although they admired antiquity and they also kept some ideas and symbols of the

medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220c. 1278) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from the Bible. The Annunciation

by Nicola Pisano, from the Baptistry at Pisa, demonstrates that classical models influenced Italian art before the Renaissance

took root as a literary movement[54]

Science

Main articles:History of science in the RenaissanceandRenaissance technology

1543'Vesalius' studies inspired interest inhuman anatomy.

Galileo Galilei. Portrait incrayonby Renaissance sculptorLeone Leoni

The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention ofprintingdemocratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of ideas.

In the first period ofItalian Renaissance, humanists favoured the study ofhumanitiesovernatural philosophyorapplied

mathematics. And their reverence for classical sources further enshrined theAristotelianandPtolemaicviews of the universe.

Even though, around 1450, the writings ofNicholas Cusanuswere anticipatingCopernicus'heliocentricworld-view, it was made

in a philosophical fashion. Science and art were very much intermingled in the early Renaissance, with polymathartists such
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kipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone_Leonihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_anatomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesaliushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_technologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-54https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannerismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entablatureshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilastershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vincihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona_Lisahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Madernohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_da_Sangallo_the_Youngerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphaelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bramantehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantuahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duomo_of_Florencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruviushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvian_Manhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Supperhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona_Lisahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-portraithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vincihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Elderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Elderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Netherlands


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asLeonardo da Vincimaking observational drawings of anatomy and nature. He set up controlled experiments in water flow,

medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics; he devised principles of research method that led to

Fritjof Capra classifying him as "father of modern science".[55]

In 1492 the "discovery" of the "New World" byChristopher Columbuschallenged the classical world-view, as the works

ofPtolemy(geography) andGalen(medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations: a suitable environment

was created to question scientific doctrine. As theProtestant ReformationandCounter-Reformationclashed, theNorthern

Renaissanceshowed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences

(botany, anatomy, and medicine).[56]The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in

a period of major scientific advancements.

Some have seen this as a "scientific revolution", heralding the beginning of the modern age.[57]Others as an acceleration of a

continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day.[58]

Regardless, there is general agreement that the

Renaissance saw significant changes in the way the universe was viewed and the methods sought to explain natural

phenomena.[59]Traditionally held to have begun in 1543, when were first printed the books De humani corporis fabrica(On the

Workings of the Human Body) byAndreas Vesalius, which gave a new confidence to the role ofdissection, observation,

andmechanisticview of anatomy,[59]and alsoDe Revolutionibus, byNicolaus Copernicus. The famous thesis of Copernicus's

book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. Significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo

Galilei,Tycho BraheandJohannes Kepler.[60]

One important development was not any specific discovery, but rather the further development of the process for discovery,

thescientific method.[59]It focused onempirical evidence, the importance ofmathematics, and discarded Aristotelian science.

Early and influential proponents of these ideas includedCopernicusandGalileoandFrancis Bacon.[61][62]

The new scientific

method led to great contributions in the fields ofastronomy,physics,biology, andanatomy.[63][64]

Religion

Main articles:Protestant ReformationandCounter-Reformation

Alexander VI, aBorgiaPope infamous for his corruption

Adoration of the MagiandSolomonadored by theQueen of Shebafrom theFarnese HoursbyGiulio Cloviomarksthe end of the

Italian Renaissanceofilluminated manuscripttogether with theIndex Librorum Prohibitorum.

The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against aChristianbackdrop, especially intheNorthern Renaissance. Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.

[17]However,

the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship

between man and God.[17]

Many of the period's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method,

includingErasmus,Zwingli,Thomas More,Martin Luther, andJohn Calvin.
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