Rationale

Definitions for Tutorial s 1, 2 and 3.

Term

Meaning

Example

Claim A claim is a type of proposition put forward by somebody as true.

There should be lots of stars in the Apollo pictures

Conclusion Often interchanged for the word contention.

Contention A contention is a claim supported by a reason (or evidence which can be for or against the claim). It is often referred to as a conclusion

Co-premises Two premises that are within a single reason or objective are called co-premises. Alternate names are helping premises or linked premises. According to the Golden Rule every simple argument has at least two co-premises

Counter-arguments

A counter argument is where for the same contention there is a reason and an objection. The counter-argument is BOTH the contention and the counterarguments.

The same contention exists for each simple argument amd these simple arguments overlap the same contention

Declarative sentence

A declarative sentence is one which states an idea which can be true or false.

Disputes A dispute is an argument where there are both multiple reasons and multiple objections bearing upon a single contention.

Golden Rule The Golden Rule is a rules that states every simple argument must have at least two co-premises. The co-premises support each other as part as the one reason to support another claim (the contention).

Claim

Reason

because

This claim is

known as a

contention

The Apollo astronauts

landed on the moon

Co-premise 1

supports the claim

Co-premise 2

supports the claim

Two co-

premises in

one reason

contention

The Lunar Roving Vehicle (LVR)

would not have left much room on

the Lunar Module for other things

The LRV was 3.1

metres by 2.3 metres

and 1.14 metres high

The LVR descent stage

was 4.3 metres in

diameter by 3.2m high

Example

Term

Meaning

Example

Hidden Premises

A hidden premise is a co-premise which is not stated when an argument is presented. It is then up to the reader to guess or extrapolate what is being inferred. Sometimes this is obvious but other times it is more difficult to infer. In the example opposite the hidden premise could be Artificial lighting is only available in a studio on earth. Alternate names are missing premises or assumptions.

Holding Hands Rule

The Holding Hands Rule says if something appears in a premise but not in a contention, it must appear in another premise. That is, premises need to hold hands with each other. The opposite of this rule is a stranded co-premise where co-premises of a single reason are put into separate reasons.

Holding Hands Test

The Holding Hands Test says:

that if there are any significant terms or concepts which appear there but not in the contention

the argument fails the test.

If this test fails then it gives you an indication what is goinmg to have to go in any additional co-premisaes required to make the argument properly structured.

Multi-Reason Arguments

Multi-Reason Arguments is where there is more than one reason for a particular contention.

There is a single claim (the contention) with at least TWO quite distinct pieces of evidence bearing upon it. As an objection is a special type of reason (i.e. a reason to think the objection is not true), we use the term multi-reason argument to cover arguments with multiple objections.

The Apollo pictures

were taken in a

studio on earth

Artificial lighting was

used when the Apollo

pictures were taken

Socrates is mortal

Socrates is human All humans are mortal

The moon rocks are

unlike any rocks on earth

The moons

rocks are

covered on zap

pits

The moon

rocks are

anhydrous

Term

Meaning

Example

No Danglers A Dangler is something that hangs loose or dangles. No danglers means that every significant word or phrase appearing in one claim (contention or premise) of a simple argument must also appear in another claim. The No Danglers Rule is a combination of the Rabbit Rule and the Holding Hands Rule. So apply the Rabbit Rule, then Holding Hands Rule No Danglers ensures all Hidden Premises have been made explicit

Objection An objection is a reason (or technically a set of claims), but is evidence against a claim (contention). Technically an objection is a set of claims working together to provide evidence that another claim is false. .

Premise A premise is a claim found inside or part of a reason or an objection. Where there are more than one premise (or claim) then it should be broken down into two or more premises. The least complicated of these premises is the most favoured. These are called co-premises.

Proposition A proposition is an idea which is either true or false.

Rabbit Rule The Rabbit Rule says that any significant term or concept appearing in the contention must also appear in one of the premises. A fully articulated simple argument MUST obey the Rabbit Rule. A Rabbit Rule will force Hidden Premises out into the open

Rabbit Test A simple test to determine whether you have a properly structured argument. To apply the Rabbit Test:

1. Examine the contention to see if there are any significant terms that appear there but not in any premise.

2. If there are, the argument fails the Rabbit Test

There should be lots of

stars in the Apollo

pictures

If we go out on a clear

night and look up, we

see many stars

because

This claim is a

premise

Socrates is mortal

Socrates is

human

All human

are mortal

There should be lots of

stars in the Apollo pictures

If we go out on a

clear night and

lookup, we see lots

of stars

The Apollo pictures

should show what

we see when we go

out on a clear night

and look up

Contention

Objection

but

Apollo astronauts

landed on the moon

There are no stars

in the background

Rabbit Rule satisfied

as everything

appearing in

contention appears

in the one premise

Holding Hands Rule

satisfied as everything

appearing in one of

premises spears in another

premise / contention

Two Co-premises

work together as

part of a single

reason or objection.

No Hidden

Premises as all co-

premises have been

identified.

Term

Meaning

Example

Reason A reason is a piece of evidence in support of a claim. Technically a reason consists of a set of claims presenting evidence that another claim is true.

(Because) if we go out on a clear evening and look up we see many stars. Ensure only the reason is provided and do not provide a justification within the reason.

Simple Argument

A simple argument can be either:

a contention with a single reason for it

a contention with a single objection against it

That is, a simple argument only has one contention and one piece of evidence.

NOTE: when argument mapping you must ensure USE full, grammatically, declarative sentences are used. That is:

do not pose questions or reasons in a claim.

Write complete simple sentences.

Stranded Co-premises

Stranded Co-premises occur when you place co-premises of a simple reason into separate reasons. If this occurs then the co-premises are stranded from each other. This is the opposite to Strange Bedfellows

Strange Bedfellows

Sometimes it is difficult to determine for a multi-reason argument whether you have one reason or two. That is should the two claims relate to the one reason or should there be two distinct reasons? This is the opposite of Stranded Co-premises.

Note A multi-reason argument has now been created and you will note co-premises have been created to satisfy the Rabbit and Holding Hand rules

To map a reason

Put the reason and claim in boxes. The reason is shown in a green box. A claim supported by a reason is called a contention.

Claim

Reason

because

Socrates is mortal

Socrates is

human

All human

are mortal

Socrates is mortal

Socrates is

human

All human

are mortal

Correct

Wrong

The moon rocks are

unlike any rocks on earth

The moons

rocks are

covered in zap

pits

The moon

rocks are

anhydrous Wrong

The moon rocks are

unlike any rocks on earth

The moons

rocks are

covered in

zap pits

No earth

rocks are

covered in

zap pits

No earth

rocks are

anhydrous

The moon

rocks are

anhydrous

Correct

Rationale continues

Definitions for Tutorials 4.

Term

Meaning

Example

Argument Webs An Argument Web is where two multi-layer arguments join together to form a complex web. The connection is where a contention from one joins a reason or objection in another one. That is the contention and the reason or objection are the same wording.

Chain of Reasoning

A Chain of Reasoning is where there are many layers to the argument. Typically, where for two multi-layer arguments, the main contention in one argument is the bottom layer premise in another argument. There is no limit to the number of layers of an argument although they are normally between 6 10 layers.

Common mistakes

Support versus Co-premise 1

A common mistake is mapping a supporting reason as it were a co-premise.

Common mistakes

Support versus Co-premise 2

Opposite to above mapping a co-premise as if it were a supporting reason. Refer to tutorial for an example.

Main contention

The main contention of a multi-layer argument is the one at the top level. The primary reason is a premise of the main contention and itself is a contention for the lower argument

Main contention

Primary reason

Secondary reason

The Main Contention

is the only contention

which is not also a

premise in another

reason or objection.

The Apollo pictures

were taken in a

studio on earth

Artificial lighting was used

when the Apollo pictures

were taken

Main contention

Main contention

Reason Reason

Objection

Objection

Main contention 1

Main contention 2

Reason 1 Reason 2

Objection 2

Objection 1

Main contention

Reason 1

Objection 1

Reason 2

Objection 2

Same wording in Objection 1

and the Main contention 2

An argument web is an argument

that is both multi-reason and multi-

layer.

The shadows of the astronauts

and their equipment in the

Apollo pictures seem to point

in different directions

Wrong

The Apollo pictures were

taken in a studio on earth

Artificial lighting was used when

the Apollo pictures were taken

The shadows of the astronauts and

their equipment in the Apollo pictures

seem to point in different directions

Artificial lighting was used

when the Apollo pictures

were taken

Correct

Term

Meaning

Example

Missing Layers A missing layer is where there is a whole layer is missing between the evidence and the contention. Typically in these cases the Rabbit Rule wont work and therefore should be easy to identify.

Multi-layer arguments

A multi-layer argument is one where a reason within an argument has another reason or objections supporting it. That is, you have reasons backing up reasons, or objections to reasons etc.

Reasons for Reasons

(Multi-layer argument)

A reason supports another reason

Reasons for Objections

(Multi-layer argument)

The contention of one simple argument, is a premise in the objection. In this case a reason supports the objection can be shown to support the objection.

The two simple arguments opposite are combined into a multi-layer argument. In this example the objection is shown to be supported by another reason.

Rebuttal A rebutal is an objection to an objection. A rebutal basically is saying that the objection provided is not a good objection. The second objection is only an objection to that objection, not to the top level contention.

Artificial lighting was

used when taking the

Apollo pictures

The shadows of the

astronauts and their

equipment in the

Apollo pictures seems

to point in different

directions

The Apollo pictures

were taken in a studio

on earth

Artificial lighting was

used when taking the

Apollo pictures

The shadows of the astronauts

and their equipment in the

Apollo pictures seems to point

in different directions

Correct

The Apollo

astronauts landed

on the moon

Artificial lighting was

used when taking the

Apollo pictures

Artificial lighting was

used when taking the

Apollo pictures

Artificial lighting was

used when taking the

Apollo pictures

The claim

is the

premise of

the first

argument

The Apollo pictures

were taken in a studio

on earth

The Apollo

astronauts landed

on the moon

Artificial lighting

was used when the

Apollo pictures

were taken

Artificial lighting was used when taking the

Apollo pictures

Artificial lighting was

used when taking the

Apollo pictures

The Apollo

astronauts landed

on the moon

The

contention

is the

premise of

the first

argument

NASA cannot produce pictures from

the Hubble Space Telescope of the

equipment that the astronauts left

behind

Objection

Rebuttal

Correct

Contention

NASA has provided many

Hubble photographs

showing objects in the

landing zone.

The Apollo astronauts

landed on the Moon

Artificial lighting was

used when taking the

Apollo pictures

Seems to be a huge

gap in reasoning

between contention

and objection.

Term

Meaning

Example

Rejoinder A Rejoinder is the actual objection to a reason. A rejoiner is basically implying that the reason, because there is an objection to it, is a poor reason. Typically the end result would be that the premise should be rejected.

Artificial lighting was

used when the Apollo

pictures were taken

The astronauts seem well-

lit when times they should

have been in shadow.

Reflected light from the lunar

surface would easily provide

enough light to illuminate an

astronaut in a white spacesuit.

Rationale continues ..

Definitions for Tutorials 5 Inference Objections.

Term

Meaning

Example

Complex Arguments

Fundament principle: Every arguments, no matter how complex is built up of simple arguments and every reason or objection muat be aimed at a specific claim.

Inference Objection

An Inference Objection is an Objection to another Simple Argument, providing evidence not against any particular premise BUT against the relationship between the stated premises and their contention.

The inference objection is basically saying the contention is wrong even though the premise (reason) may be true. To map inference objections: 1. Take the reason and articulate all its co-

premises. Follow the Rabbit and Holding Hands Rules to achieve this.

2. The inference objection will now provide evidence that one of the co-premises is false. Identify that co-premise and attacg the objection to it.

Refer to your tutorial exercises for an example of this.

Inference Rebuttal

Inference rebuttal is also an objection to another objection which provides evidence against the inference from the stated premise of that other objection to the falsity of its contention

Premise Objections

A Premise Objection is an objection to a stated premise of another simple argument. By definition an Objection to a Main Contention is not a Premise Objection rather it is a simple Objection

The Apollo astronauts

cannot have been to the

Moon

The Apollo astronauts

could not have survived

the journey through the

Van Allen Belt

The astronauts would not

experience any immediate

health problems that would

prevent the journey

This is called a

Premise Objection to

the above Premise

When you have a Premise

Objection there is a Simple

Argument made up of the

one of the already stated

premises and the objection

Contention

Reason

Objection Inference

Objection

This inference objection

targets the connection

between the premise

(reason) and its contention

Main Contention

Reason 1 Reason 2

Reason 3 Reason 4 Objection 1 Objection 1

This complex argument is made up of THREE simple arguments.

The contention is one simple argument is a premise is a premise

in another (except for the main contentions

Term

Meaning

Example

Premise Rebuttal

Premise rebuttal an objection to an objection which targets whereby it provides evidence that one of the stated premises of that objection is false.

Rebuttals A rebuttal is is an objection to an objection.

There are two types:

1. Premise rebutal an objection to an objection which targets whereby it provides evidence that one of the stated premises of that objection is false.

2. Inference rebuttal is also an objection to another objection which provides evidence against the inference from the stated premise of that other objection to the falsity of its contention.

Contention

Objection 1

Objection 1 Objection 1

The kind of rebuttal; that

targets the connection

between the objection and

the main contention is

called a premise rebuttal

A kind of rebuttal; that targets the

connection between the objection and

the main contention is called an

inference rebuttal.

Rationale continues ..

Definitions for Tutorials 6 - Macrostructure.

Term

Meaning

Example

Debates A debate is a multi-level dispute. It includes the reasons and objectons to a single claim AND where the rreasons / objections are disputed.

Groups A group is simply all reasons and objections bearing directly upon the main contention of any other reasons or objection.

Mutually Exclusive,

Collectively Exhaustive

(MECE)

Basically the MECE states that for any group of reasons or objections there should be no overlaps and no gaps.

MECE Collectively Exhaustive

Within any group, the reasons and objections should cover all the arguments relevant to the point. That is each group should cover the relevant points (no gaps).

MECE - Mutually Exclusive

The reasons or the objections should be genuinely distinct from each other.

Example the following objections are basically saying the same thing? There will be some overlap as the Rabbit Rule must still apply with a group so the reality is that they can not be genuinely distinct.

MECE

Rule

Considerations in any

given group should be

Mutually Exclusive

(no overlap)

Considerations in any

given group should be

Collectively Exclusive

(no gaps)

A second group A third group

First group

These must be

genuinely distinct

from one another

So must these The official

evidence of the

Apollo landing is

fabricated

NASA faked the

evidence

The first layer reasons and

objections make the argument

structure a dispute

This second layer

reasons and

objections make the

debate structure a

genuine debate

Term

Meaning

Example

Pyramid Rule - Structure

An argument map according to the Pyramid Rule should end up looking like a pyramid

Pyramid Rule 1

More general or abstract considerations should appear higher in the argument tree

Pyramid Rule 2

Reasons or objections at a given level in the tree should be roughly the same level of generality or abstraction

The Apollo astronauts

cannot have been to

the Moon

The official evidence

of the Apollo landing

was fabricated

The Apollo astronauts

cannot have been on

the Moon

There are no

stars in the

background

of the Apollo

pictures

The American

flag scenes

were filmed

on Earth

The

astronauts

could not

have survived

Van Allen belt.

The LRV

could not

have been

transported

to the Moon

Pyramid

Rule

Considerations at the

same level should be

roughly the same level of

abstraction

The higher the argument

tree the more general or

abstract the consideration

Main Contention

This claim is quite general

or abstract higher in the

tree

This reason is more concrete or

particular information backing

up the reason