Qualitative MethodologiesQualitative Methodologies

Frank Houghton PhD, MA, MScFrank Houghton PhD, MA, MSc

Qualitative Qualitative -- QuantitativeQuantitative

ContestedContested

Highly politicisedHighly politicised

Real antipathyReal antipathy

Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research

EthnographyEthnographyVisual MediaVisual MediaNarrative AnalysisNarrative AnalysisInterviewingInterviewingFocus GroupsFocus Groups

Qualitative Research Qualitative Research

InterviewingInterviewing

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

Why use qualitative methods?Why use qualitative methods?

Why use qualitative methods?Why use qualitative methods?

Complex situationsComplex situationsDescribe & Describe & understandunderstandInsight into how Insight into how people make sense of people make sense of their experiencestheir experiencesDissemination of Dissemination of research findings research findings (stories)(stories)

Exploratory phaseExploratory phaseExplanation of the Explanation of the results of quantitative results of quantitative researchresearch

Recommended TextsRecommended Texts

Rice & Ezzy (1999)Rice & Ezzy (1999)Qualitative Research Methods,Qualitative Research Methods,Oxford University Press, Oxford.Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Denzin & Lincoln (eds) (1994) Denzin & Lincoln (eds) (1994) Handbook of Qualitative Research,Handbook of Qualitative Research,Sage, Thousand Oaks.Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Getting StartedGetting Started

Theoretical FrameworksTheoretical Frameworks

Positivism/ PostPositivism/ Post--positivismpositivismEthnographyEthnographyPhenomenologyPhenomenologySymbolic InteractionismSymbolic InteractionismFeminismFeminismPostmodernismPostmodernismHermeneuticsHermeneutics

QualityQuality

Ensuring RigourEnsuring Rigour

Theoretical RigourTheoretical RigourMethodological/ Procedural RigourMethodological/ Procedural RigourInterpretative RigourInterpretative Rigour

Rigour & TriangulationRigour & Triangulation

There are 4 distinct types of triangulation:There are 4 distinct types of triangulation:

Data Source TriangulationData Source TriangulationMethods TriangulationMethods TriangulationResearcher TriangulationResearcher TriangulationTheory TriangulationTheory Triangulation

Ensuring RigourEnsuring Rigour

Theoretical RigourTheoretical RigourMethodological/ Procedural RigourMethodological/ Procedural RigourInterpretative RigourInterpretative RigourEvaluative RigourEvaluative RigourRigorous ReflexivityRigorous Reflexivity

Sampling MethodsSampling Methods

Extreme/ deviant Extreme/ deviant case samplingcase samplingMaximum variation Maximum variation samplingsamplingHomogeneous group Homogeneous group samplingsamplingTypical case samplingTypical case samplingCritical case samplingCritical case samplingCriterion samplingCriterion sampling

Stratified purposive Stratified purposive samplingsamplingSnowball or chain Snowball or chain samplingsamplingOpportunistic samplingOpportunistic samplingConvenience samplingConvenience samplingVolunteer samplingVolunteer samplingTriangulated samplingTriangulated sampling

Sample SizeSample Size

Huge concernHuge concernSimple answer: when the researcher is Simple answer: when the researcher is satisfied that the data are rich enough and satisfied that the data are rich enough and cover enough of the dimensions they are cover enough of the dimensions they are interested in, then the sample is large interested in, then the sample is large enough.enough.Sampling to the point of redundancySampling to the point of redundancyTheoretical samplingTheoretical sampling

InIn--Depth InterviewsDepth Interviews

OpenOpen--endedendedProbingProbingAvoid questions testing knowledgeAvoid questions testing knowledgeFollow intervieweeFollow intervieweeA Theme list (1 page)A Theme list (1 page)Reflect back main themes & Reflect back main themes & interpretationsinterpretationsAnything elseAnything else

InIn--Depth InterviewsDepth Interviews

AdvantagesAdvantagesDiscovering subjective meaning & interpretationDiscovering subjective meaning & interpretationAllow aspects of social life to be studiedAllow aspects of social life to be studiedAllow new understandings and theories to be Allow new understandings and theories to be developeddevelopedPeople’s responses less influenced by the direct People’s responses less influenced by the direct presence of peerspresence of peersPeople generally find the experience rewardingPeople generally find the experience rewarding

InIn--Depth InterviewsDepth Interviews

LimitationsLimitations

Considerable investment in time and energyConsiderable investment in time and energyInIn--depth interviewing process & depth interviewing process & development takes timedevelopment takes timeDifficult to doDifficult to do

Recording InterviewsRecording InterviewsInitial resistance/ embarrassmentInitial resistance/ embarrassmentConfidentialityConfidentialityStrength & clarity of individual quotesStrength & clarity of individual quotesVolume of informationVolume of informationLack of shorthand!Lack of shorthand!

Analogue/ digital/ directional/ external Analogue/ digital/ directional/ external mike?mike?earphonesearphones

TranscriptionTranscription

Very importantVery importantVery timeVery time--consumingconsumingVery expensiveVery expensive

1:101:10Useful experienceUseful experienceUseful for learningUseful for learning

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

A focus group interview is a qualitative A focus group interview is a qualitative method ‘with the primary aim of describing method ‘with the primary aim of describing and understanding perceptions, and understanding perceptions, interpretations, and beliefs of a select interpretations, and beliefs of a select population to gain understanding of a population to gain understanding of a particular issue from the perspective of the particular issue from the perspective of the group’s participants’.group’s participants’.

Focus GroupsFocus GroupsTypically, focus group interviews involve a Typically, focus group interviews involve a group of people (about 6group of people (about 6--10) who come 10) who come from similar social and cultural from similar social and cultural backgrounds or who have similar backgrounds or who have similar experiences or concerns. They gather to experiences or concerns. They gather to discuss a specific issue with the help of a discuss a specific issue with the help of a moderator in a particular setting where moderator in a particular setting where participants feel comfortable enough to participants feel comfortable enough to engage in a dynamic discussion for at engage in a dynamic discussion for at least one to two hours.least one to two hours.

Focus Groups Focus Groups

Key FeaturesKey FeaturesEnables inEnables in--depth discussions; small depth discussions; small numbersnumbersFocused on a particular topic; detailFocused on a particular topic; detailInteraction between participantsInteraction between participantsModerator introduces the topic & assists Moderator introduces the topic & assists participants to discuss itparticipants to discuss itParticipants usually share social/ cultural Participants usually share social/ cultural experiencesexperiences

Why Use Focus Groups?Why Use Focus Groups?

FlexibleFlexibleWhen researcher knows little about When researcher knows little about participantsparticipantsExplore people’s knowledge & experiencesExplore people’s knowledge & experiencesSensitive issues/ sensitive populationsSensitive issues/ sensitive populationsGive a voice to marginalised groupsGive a voice to marginalised groups

Focus Groups in the Health ArenaFocus Groups in the Health Arena

Exploratory studies in health issuesExploratory studies in health issues

Testing ideas about and acceptances of Testing ideas about and acceptances of new programsnew programs

Solving specific problemsSolving specific problems

Evaluating health programsEvaluating health programs

Focus Group IssuesFocus Group Issues

Language issuesLanguage issuesHomogeneous/ HeterogeneousHomogeneous/ HeterogeneousShared experiences?Shared experiences?Familiar faces/ strangersFamiliar faces/ strangers

How manyHow many-- rule of thumb 3rule of thumb 3--5 per variable; 5 per variable; saturation theorysaturation theory

Focus Group PersonnelFocus Group Personnel

The ModeratorThe ModeratorLeaderLeaderCharacteristics: sensitive to the needs of Characteristics: sensitive to the needs of participants; nonparticipants; non--judgmental; respect judgmental; respect participants; openparticipants; open--minded; adequate minded; adequate knowledge about the project; good knowledge about the project; good listening skills; good leadership skills; listening skills; good leadership skills; good observation skills; patience & good observation skills; patience & flexibility flexibility

Focus Group PersonnelFocus Group Personnel

The NoteThe Note--takertakerEssentialEssentialTakes notes of key issues, nonTakes notes of key issues, non--verbal verbal responsesresponsesTape recorderTape recorderInterruptionsInterruptions

Post Focus Group WritePost Focus Group Write--upup

Successful Focus GroupsSuccessful Focus GroupsRangeRangeSpecificitySpecificityDepthDepthPersonal contextPersonal contextClarity of purposeClarity of purposeAppropriate environmentAppropriate environmentSufficient resourcesSufficient resourcesAppropriate participantsAppropriate participantsSkilful moderatorSkilful moderator

Effective Effective questionsquestionsHonouring Honouring the the participantparticipant

Focus Groups Focus Groups -- AdvantagesAdvantages

InIn--depthdepthBut cheaper than interviewsBut cheaper than interviewsFlexibleFlexible-- hidden/ unexpectedhidden/ unexpectedInteractionInteractionMore relaxedMore relaxed-- similar experiencessimilar experiencesCan help shy participantsCan help shy participantsMarginalised groups (illiterate)Marginalised groups (illiterate)Can be funCan be fun

Focus GroupsFocus Groups-- LimitationsLimitations

Can only represent the perspective of groupCan only represent the perspective of groupQuality not quantityQuality not quantity-- not statisticalnot statisticalCannot deliver inCannot deliver in--depth info on any one persondepth info on any one personCannot investigate actual behavioursCannot investigate actual behavioursParticipants may simply ‘conform’Participants may simply ‘conform’Researcher ‘driven’ and may be biasedResearcher ‘driven’ and may be biasedInfluence of the moderatorInfluence of the moderatorQuantity of data/ time consumingQuantity of data/ time consuming

Computers & Qualitative ResearchComputers & Qualitative Research

NUD*ISTNUD*ISTNVIVONVIVO

These are not like SPSS, EPIThese are not like SPSS, EPI--INFO, JMPINFO, JMP

Feel free to disagree with meFeel free to disagree with me(I like a good argument)(I like a good argument)

Computers & Qualitative ResearchComputers & Qualitative Research

Organising dataOrganising data

A rather more complicated version of a A rather more complicated version of a pack of highlighter penspack of highlighter pens

Rather more expensive …Rather more expensive …

Rather harder to learn …Rather harder to learn …

(Perhaps my expectations were too high)(Perhaps my expectations were too high)

The EndThe End