I ) s y e h o l o g i c a l T e s t i n g

i . l i i s l o r y a n d C i l i ' r e . n l l r c i l l i . i

Bft ~l,tl~Vl~ I.,. Kai ' l .AX. M'iCIIAI~;I, I . l [ l i r r .,txi).tiiCllAiU~ ~1. l{un'lT.

T mc CtUUU~NT STATUS Of psychoh)gieal testing is l ici t mldersio~d in its h i ~ toricaI and cu l tu ra l perspecti~-c, This p( ' rspective is partic:ularly helpful

when informat ion i s ' be ing [ransmi[ ted across pro|esMons which do not shm'e i he same traditi6ns. Also, w h m ) t h e area ot: knowledge contains several su b- orimlta|ion:~, hisim*ical perspect ive reduces tim. risk of" lnis judghlg the r e l a t i v e impo/ ' lanco of develo l )mCnts and si tuational t rends wilhili Ill(.,. profession. AlioIltcr considdralion is l hat such rap id clmnge,~ are occurril lg in psychological knowi~'dge and al)l)liealion that perspt~cli~:*e, is ga ined ilu-ough an und~rstan(l- ing of the 1)roader context in which tiles6 changes haw:,, ocx:urred.

P.sychoh)gicai testing c(mstilutes tree ctt'm-t to apply scielllitic m~tho(ttHogy 1() lh0 understal idi])g of man. Its dc, vclolmmnt was inwllved with critical aSl)eClS oI: liirit;lec~ltt]l cc)ilury l)h.ilos0p|lical l | loug|it . The d(~veh.)l)menl (~f vari- oLis psycl~omelric t,-'chiiiqucs l)c/w(,cil 1850 ~lnd 1900 occurrt.>d witllin the I)hilosophical ] r amework o1 l )cscar tcs doct r ine of dualisn/. As tim material is t ic (lctcrmiliisni of plo'sics l)c(-am(, dominant in the l)i~)h>gical and physi tdogical so|eli tes, th0rc was all increased clKl(-,avor on llie llarl o | the dualisis 1o sairc- ,gamr(t t})(; scieiitiIic .~iI-allts o1 lhc mind. Tlmre was a lined to dtml()listralt' t h a t i)sy(du)h)gical im)(:t'sscs could 1)(" cxaniined wilili,i Ill~' same gt~ncral scieiilifk. t ran~(.w(~rk as that a(lvocatcd l)y pl,y.sics. Tile (levch~lliilenI o|: the Inath(-mtalic.s ot mclrtal .(]ynaliiics by |l(~r|)arI in 1850 nnd the l'~.%vchophynical measurement [)I'()('t.'(].t|I'tLN I ) y /"(.'(. '}tI|¢T i l l lS(J( ) lI*(~I'(" l l l l l o i l g |] i¢ ~ III~tliV al leml) lS along l])c,s(, general lines. "I']K' impetus tt)r l l lCl/ |al llt~;;.tSIlrt~ltlC'llI produced the ~il'st lahora- lory of 1)sychohigy, esla | ) l ishcd 1)y \~'und! in ( . ;ermany in 1876. in l'2nglan(l, ( ; i i i i l i l i adap led l i l t : r cccu i l y tToriilulat(xt p ro l )ab i l i t y l hco ry lo the iii¢'asur(m-it'lit l it l l ic i l l i l i d i111¢l [ l i r i l i c r i l tcrcas(.. 'd the resp i ' c t l i b i l i l y of tt~** l iew scicncl" (1| l l i l : l l l l i l I i l t 'HSU I ' i ' I l l t ' I i I [ , \ l ' i l i i i l i 1]1/~' Sal i / (~ i ) a ( ' k g l ' t l l l l i d o t duali.~li(: l ] leor) ' , Bilii.;l, i l l l"rallt:tt, dl~vehipcd lhe lh'st sh indard izod It;st ot i i i te l i igc l i ce for (i~|li|drcli. "]'h(" l l l /)Vt~li i l ' l l t lh tm spread lo : \ lnc r ica It)" way of \ ! l ;ul ldl 's siliclt.,lil~. " I ' i i t : l lcner ;ttli(1 Cal l i ' l l .

I l l lhc r ich soil ot Yai ikee pragl l ial i .s i l i , and e.~l)ccia!ly s l in l : lhmcd Ii b • Ill~. t~tii l l)sOlii iy of i isi'flll l/('SS i,SllOti,,ied | iy %\.'iiiiain J l i l l t l 'S i i i l ( i JOiili l )ewCy, llS).- choh~gical les l ing look f ir i i l r(l()l+ The Ics l ing lli(iVt~litClil h~si l i i l iC i i IlJ" |is l)liihJs~t- p! i ical [t?lv(ir i l l i d ada l l l cd i tself i l l l l l ' aC l i t ,a l rcal i l ics. {V i l l i lhi .s.f t icus O11 l i l t '

,\l..%tlViN l.,. ]<AI'I.,tIN, I ' l l . i ) . : l'r,~#'.~.',<,r a l t d 17it~'('t#,r, { ; l i l i i c a l 7"#al~lill~,, , ] .),*parltI l i .) l t l f i.,J t 'a ! /c / io log l / , A' l i l : i v r i.rnh',':r.~'i#l/, C i l i c i l l l i a l i , Oh io . ,~li~ 11.%i.I.L. f I I l i l , l q l . / ) . : ,--{~'.}<.4'l'o/f.' #'roll...~. .~tit e, /)("plLl ' l l / l />/ l l '3[ I ',~l/chologlt, #x'cll/ ,Stilt~; lb lhcr .~ / / l / , Kcll#, (.)[tilJ. l { l l ; l l . l l f l l ,'%1. [ l S l l ' l t ,

I i , I ' l l , I } , : A.~si.~t~lnl I rf #'.s<'~tu' (P.~!l¢'/llt[,,l~{/}, l )~*par lm, '~ l t ~,J # '~t / , ' l t iat t l / , l " l t i ( c l .~ i l t l o/ (TitU'i~t~i<,ti ( h,l l+' l f=" ,>1 Meflici i l f ' , ( - ; i l i f ' i l in<l / i , ()lli,,.

2~,t9

appl ivd: ttw test.,; ",verc. t u rned t ow a rd Ineasur ing units of o u t w a r d ~r observ- ablo t~ehavior: ratl~er ti tan t oward l~uropear~ menta l i s t ic concerns of seusatitn~, perception or conseioustmss. . .Fhc matchil~g of g r a d e level of ,work to seIiool elffldren's m e a s u r e d abi l i ty a n d the sereenil~g of A r m y inductees w e r e in-m~edi- a te appl iea t ionS.

These ear ly mcu ta l testers, i n t e r e s t ed in m e a s u r i n g or 'err b e h a v i o r a l charac- teristics, [ocused p r imar i l y on cogni t ive proees.ses, i.e.. m e m o r y , probhsn~ solv- ing. etc. YVhile. \ V u n d t h a d - d i r e c t e d some a t t en t ion to tht-~ m e a s u r e m e n t of at teet , the new- testers found the classical efforts to e xa m i ne emot ion to be o[ little use in their work . Emotiori , used in the sense of visiMe react ion or sell- r epor t of one's feelings; w a s qu i t e d i f fe ren t f rom the concep ts of motivat iol l tlmt ,,,,'ere l a t e r to b e c o m e inco rpo ra t ed into the f r a m e w o r k of p syc hodynamics ,

Tes t ing in the a rea of " 'depth" or mot iva t iona l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the indi- vichml was in f lue lmed from an ent i re ly s e p a r a t e s t r eam of thinking. In v iew of the forces in seientifie p sycho logy up to the "I9fi0's and 30"s, it is not strange' to find that tes t ing ideas r e l a t ed to mot iva t ion en te red the field from foreign sources, that is, ou t s ide of Amerie~i and outs ide of ps.vehology. J tmg in tegra ted the deve lop ing - .dynamic or ien ta t ion of psychoana lys i s wi th scientific me thod-

o l o g y th rough the use of the w o r d assoc.iation t echn ique to s t u d y personal i ty . This '~method consis ted of m e a s u r i n g a subject ' s !ieaetion times in giving associa- tions to s t imulus w o r d s and us ing variati~ms in la tency to m a k e inferences al)out are, as of conflict, l /o r schach , a s t ude n t of J tmg: deve loped a m e t h o d of measur - ing pe rcep t ions i m p o s e d on a m b i g u o u s stimuli . This offspr ing of the .psycht~- analytic ' m e t h o d , the Horsc 'hach Tes t of responses to inkblots, remains a marl)," corners tone of the cl inician's b a t t e r y of tests.

l to r sehaeh ' s sys tem of psyehod iagnos i s was a crea t ive synthesis that prol)al)ly could not have develoi )ed in the "'scientific:" c l imate of p sycho logy in Amer ica at the; time. Ifoxveww, once fc~rmulated in terms of a " ' testing" f r a m e w o r k . w h e r e it was possil)le to a p p r o x i m a t e some cons tan t i n d e p e n d e n t var iables ( the blots, the slriet f o rma t of test adln in is l ra t ion ' ) , the pr t )eedure had appea l for psychologis ts w h o w e r e eager to p lunge into p i (meer ing work ()n. the "'pt'r- sonality. '" T h e app l i ed psyd~ologis t ' s a c c e p t a n c e of the l /o r sehach ( a n d at series of s u b s e q u e n t "projc'ctive'" tes ts) was p r o | m b l y the greate~st fac tor in l~is l)e- comil lg a "'elinieian'" in the senso of dea l ing with elillical p rob lems , l | o w e v c r , this prt>fessional g rowth st . rved-to aceeI f lua te a deve lop ing d ive rgence b e t w e e n a c a d e m i e a n d ' a p p l i e d work.

Anc~ther " 'Amer icaniza t ion" ~t: l~sycllology was occur r ing in the mJiversities, as the lmhavior is t ie rel~elti~nJ re jec ted any of the Fgurol)eali menta l i s t ic or ienta- ticnl that w e n t beyolJtl immed ia t e , obse rvab le data . Both the'. a c a d e m i c and the clinical devclol)ments can lm seen as c-ongruellt witll bas ic A m e r i c a n cul tura l values of p ragmat i sn l and empir ic ism. T h e d ive rgen t goals a~M the t 'nsuiilg dith'rizig or ienta t ions o! appl i t 'd tesit.rs al~d ;tc'ade~nic researchers i~roduet'd a c l eavage i~t the professio!t that Ires had pro,loused inq~l ica t i~s t~> the llrestq~t day.

Bci,avi(,ris~l i~l :\~nericp~ tmiversili(,s was marke(l l)v a s lmrp m'jt'cti(ui ()f the " 'mind" "~(1 (.x~'li ()t c(n~scio~s~ws,; ;ts ;tl~l)r()l)ri;dt . (~t}j(x'ts ()f l)syelu~l()gical

I 'SYC.IIOI. ,OI;[(: , -:~I . TI.~ST1NI;; I l I S T O ! I Y .4,NII "I'IU':NI)S 3 | ) ] .

study. In fact, in A~nt:rican tn~ivcrsitit:-s, tim associat ionism that developed was tha~ be tween stimu],c~; and response, a decidedly, different kind ot: focus [rom the t'2uropea~ concept of association of ideas . I av lovs work on condi t ioning was incorporated with "'S-1t7 associationism to }mild learning models, and this focus p redomina ted f r o m lg2{) to 1945.. In tlw hea ted a tmosphere of the new ol)jective posit ivism; there was littlc room tan- a purely appl ied cl inical testing movement to gn'ow. Dur ing the l.q20's and o0s: interest in clinical assessment of the "whole man" was treated with conlt.,mpt by the tradit ional a cademic psy'ehologists, whoso mechanis t ic and atomistic conceptual izat ion was focused o n S-B units.

As psychia t ry showed increas ing restlessness with organical ly and symp- tomatical ly oriented taxonomy, there ",',,as a growing d e n m n d for cl inical asess- men t within a d y n a m i c framework. Clinical psychologists were eager to fill this need, a l though unwi l l ing to divorce, themselves from their roots in psychology. In order to unders tand the later devclolmmnts in clinical testing in Americ~L it is necessary t o gain perspect ive on the theoretical conflicts tlmt deve loped lmtwecn clinical and acactcmic psychology, in the Amer ican tudvcrsities dur ing this period.

| ) I V E I I ( ; E N T P S Y C [ I ( ) I .OG l ES

~luclt of tlw controvc'rsy dur ing the period of abcnlt 1930-1950 celltered around tile clinician's and tile acadelnic ian 's ditficulty ii! separa t ing rosearch a n d clinical fimetions. Each ,group had difl'iculty apprec ia t ing 0w diflk'rences in premises, approaches, and methods tl,at might be involved when research rather than clinical goals wt.re involved. Tim series of "'controversies" whiel~ resul ted had historical impor tance and servcd to sharpen the issues ill the emerging testing movement .

The. "'ltomothelic-idio~raphic'" issue was an cxpressi~m of the concern for the most {~ppropriate "operations" .of l)sycl.!oh~gicai assessment, ldiograt)hic prot)lcms colJcern themselves with the knowledge of mt individiml 's tmittue in t raorganismic deve lopment and organization. The nomothet ic orientatitnl co~lccrns itself with the deve lopment of general i t ies and abstract ions d rawn from the comparisons of m a n y cases. A.s Sll(. ']l, this approach has more usetul- rmss for the objectives of scicuK-e in ptoducil~g genera l ized tu lders landing of personal i ty variablt,s.

Academic 1)sychology. preoccupied witl~ "scientilic,'" ac'ceptanct,~ and slaturc, emphas ized nomothet ic inxestigatio~ which descl-ilms lawful regulari t ies of I~> havior that app ly to the individual . Allport ~ was a leading critic ot- the lure,o- thello al)proach, lit , }relieved Ihat slwh stlidies tc~)dtrd to ovcrlo~,k sigllillcmfl leatures of an iIMividlml's 1,elmvior.

l"nml currtqlt pvrspcctixe, this was a l~St'udo issue. Asslm~io R the tm.lh- ~,dtd~,gieal col~tinuity of clhlicai arm z~onclil~ical sch,laisls, the two ~,plmmchcs dill t, r pr imar i ly i~l servilJg tliflermfl inlrp~st,s. "Flu, objectivv of gmmral ized ~M~'rstantti~g lmscd on "'grtmt)" lm?dictio~}.s ~:mcrg~,s f ro~ ~,~miothclic. l)r~.. ced~r~'s. "l'lu'st~ l~roccthm?s s~'rvc dilft,rc~l lmrimst,s ;u~d have ai~plicalions dil l l~,rp~fl t r ~ ll}t, more praclical cli~ical {~l~j~,ctix~, ~1 parlic~iarizetl ~nd~'rsl;md-

3 ( ~ K A P L A N ET AL.

ing l e a d i n g to ind iv idua l p red ic t ion . "Ilms, the n o m o t h e t i c vs. i d iog raph ic con t rove r sy b e c a m e a n o t h e r ins t ance of the two g~'oups a r g u i n g f rom di t fe ren t pe rspec t ives , c r e a t i n g a s t r a w man .

M o r e specif ical ly r e l a t e d to the issue of methc~lological d i f ferences betaveen cl inical a n d a c a d e m i c psychologis t s has been the con t rove r sy b e t w e e n clinical and statistical prediction. Meehl ' s book, Clinical VeTZstts Actuarial Prediction, °- focused on' w h a t a p p e a r e d tb be the cons ide rab l e supe r io r i ty of the s ta t is t ical a p p r o a c h over cl inical j u d g m e n t in p r e d i c t i n g h u m a n behav io r . The issue p r e s u m a b l y a f f o r d e d a d i rec t con f ron ta t i on be taveen the two a p p r o a c h e s . In the s tat is t ical or ac tua r i a l me th od l d a t a a b o u t a p a t i e n t w e r e w e i g h t e d em- p i r ica l ly to p r o d u c e p r o b a b i l i t y s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t the pa t ien t ' s behav io r . Ar- r a y e d in oppos i t ion to this m e t h o d was t h e cl inician 's use of d a t a in a m o r e conf igura t iona l or " ' i n t u i t i v e " m e t h o d , Ho l t -s modif ied t he issue b y po i n t i ng out thai: the var iab les in given s i tua t ions p r e d i s p o s e d the supe r io r i ty of e i the r the cl inical or ac tua r i a l me thod . H e ident i f ied th ree m a j o r possibi l i t ies: the pure actuarial a p p r o a c h , w h e r e "'only objec t ive d a t a a re used to p r e d i c t a c lea r -cu t c r i te r ion b y m e a n s of s ta t is t ical processes" ; the na'i~e clinical a p p r o a c h , in wh ich bo th the d a t a a n d the d a t a analys is a re a lmos t en t i re ly qua l i t a t ive ; a n d the sophisticated clinical a p p r o a c h , wh ich no t only Contains qua l i t a t i ve a n d objec t ive d a t a b u t uti l izes w h a t e v e r r e f i n e m e n t s of e x p e r i m e n t a l des ign a n d s tat is t ical analys is tha t a re possible. I t o l t fel t tha t Meeh l o b t a i n e d his results by c o m p a r i n g the a c t u ~ a l a p p r o a c h only w i th the na ive clinical one.

More recent ly , Li13dzey' f u r t h e r d e l i n e a t e d specific a reas w h e r e a re la t ive ly p u r e cl inical m e t h o d is the p r o p e r choice : ( a ) open-endedness, w h e r e t h e na- tu re of w h a t is p r e d i c t e d is de r ived f rom the d a t a themselves ; ( b ) ulutnal!lzed stimulus equivalence, w h e r e the da t a c a u n o t b e cast in objec t ive ly s p e c i f a b l e terms; ( c ) empty cells, w h e r e po ten t i a l l y r e l evan t events h a v e not ye t b e e n empi r i ca l ly d e t e r m i n e d a n d a re t he r fo r e not yet ava i l ab le for empi r ica l pre- dict ion; ( d ) theory-mediation, w h e r e the d a t a a n d the i r impl ica t ions are re- la ted b y theory" r a t h e r than empi r ic i sm; ( e ) insufficient time, w h e r e i m m e d i a t e decis ions mus t be m a d e ; a n d ( f ) eases of nonlinear and confignrational rela- tionships b e ~ v e e n the p red ic to r s a n d the cr i ter ion.

I t will be n o t e d t h a t a cen t ra l d i f fe rence b e t w e e n the t w o a p p r o a c h e s is the permiss ib i l i ty of theore t i ca l cons t ruc t ions tha t go b e y o n d the i m m e d i a t e , ob- s e n ' a b l e data . This issue b e c a m e the focus of a n o t h e r p h a s e of con t rove r sy a n d was d e l i n e a t e d in M a c C o r q u o d a l e a n d Meehl ' s p a p e r , "'On a Dis t inc t ion b e t w e e n H y p o t h e t i c a l Cons t ruc t s a n d I n t e r v e n i n g Var iab les . ''a As used by M a c C o r q u o d a l e a n d Meehl , i n t e rven ing va r i ab les are p r i m a r i l y t r ans fo rma t ion var iables , w h e r e i n the var iab les h a v e been sys temat i ca l ly def ined in t e rms of their an t eceden t s . An in t e rven ing va r i ab le is d e p e n d e n t upon its a n t e c e d e n t s for its m e a n i n g and is de r ived empi r i ca l ly f rom its a n t e c e d e n t var iables . '' It is me re ly at s h o r t - h a n d s u m m a r i z a t i o n of S-li re la t ionships . On the o the r haud , h y p o t h e t i c a l construc' ts a re i n f e r r ed variabh?s. As such, they a rc not con t a ined in the i r an t eceden t s . The i r m e a n i n g , therefore , is not red t lc ib le to tha t of its an t eceden t s , and some er ror is introducxxl in m o v i n g from tl~e m~te- ceden t s to the in fe r red , . ar iable .

l~erlmps an i lhts trat i ,m ,fl" these two types of concep t s will be usefid. A con-

I : 'SYCIIOLO(:;ICAL I ' I{S ' I ' IN(; : l l lS ' l ' ( ) l l ' l ' ANI) TFII:~NI)S 3 0 3

cep t l ike l ib ido m a y be i n t r o d u c e d ini t ia l ly as t h o u g h it is to be all i n t e r v e n i n g var iable . As such, it is t r ea t ed as a c o n v e n t i o n a l de s igna t i on :for a class of ob- se rvable p roper t i e s or occurrences . \Vhen this s h o r t h a n d express ion becomes a n a m e for " 'something" wh ich has causal p roper t i e s (i.e., the e n e r ~ - of l ib ido has been conve r t ed to anxie ty or tends to regress to ear l i e r chamaels or makes its ene rgy ava i l ab le to the ego ) , it becomes a h y p o t h e t i c a l c o n s t n m t or in- f e r red ent i ty .

I t has b e e n sugges t ed ̀~ tha t "all scient if ic var iab les a re h y p o t h e t i c a l con- stnmt.,; or t ransfmTnat ions t he reo f . . . . "" F u r t h e r m o r e , hypot laet ica] cons t ruc ts n e e d no t re ly excessively upon lmver i f ied var iables , bu t can m a i n t a i n close con tac t w i th tes table r e a l i t y . I t is trim, however , t ha t the h y p o t h e t i c a l con- s t rue t con ta ins "'excess mean ing . " Since it is def ined i n d e p e n d e n t l y of the var iables f rom w h i e h it ix in fer red , t he h y p o t h e t i c a l cons t ruc t conta ins excess m e a n i n g a n d involves a ca l cu la t ed in fe ren t ia l r i sk . I t is p rec i se ly this fea ture , however , w h i c h gives it po t en t i a l for l e ad ing to n e w re la t ionships . Failurx~ to u n d e r s t a n d the d i s t i n e t i o ~ , b e t w e e n these two : types of l~,mdiation var iab les and the t e n d e n c y to formulat t~~aws of b e h a v i o r at a "who le pe r sona l i t y level have p r o b a b l y c o n t r i b u t e d excessively to the avers ion to h y p o t h e t i c a l cons t ruc ts by m a n y behavior is ts .

T h e na tu re of the " f u n d a m e n t a l d a t u m " of p sycho logy was the essence of a con t roversy l abe l ed tim m o l a r vs. m o l e c u l a r iss'tte. I m p l i e d in the search for a f u n d a m e n t a l d a t m n is an a tomis t i e philosophy, of sc ience and a red~mtionisfic v iew of the wor ld . O n e aspec t of this issue is cons ide red in Allport ' s paper , ' -The E m p h a s i s on Mola r Behavior , "'r in wh ich he cr i t ic ized w h a t he consid- e red a m a d f i n e mode l of personal i ty . As he examined var ious l andmarks in the d e v e l o p m e n t of Amer i can psycho logy , he f o u n d most of t hem m o d e l e d upon phys ica l science. T h e pos i t ion r e p r e s e n t e d by the f o u n d e r of lmhavior i sm, J. B. Wat son , is desc r ibed as one of t r igger- re lease meehan i sms , ignor ing any- thi~)g in the o rgan i sm re l a t ed to in ten t ion , goals or str ivings. Al lpor t desc r ibed the "expectancy'" model , i n t r o d u c e d by T o h n a n , '~ and modif ied by ] l i lgard , 'a as more pu rpos ive bu t still i gnor ing the effects of u n r e w a r d e d and un rea l i zed in ten t ions u p o n behav ior . T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c mode l s were cr i t ic ized for the i r excessive emphas i s upon in fan t i l e exper ience . Al lpor t wou ld r ep l ace such models wi th wha t he considers a more a p p r o p r i a t e subjec t ma t t e r for psy- c h o l o g y - n a m e l y ' , c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s in ten t ion , tie. was cons ide rab ly a h e a d of his l ime in p re sen t ing a posi t ion s imilar to that w h i c h a c a d e m i c p sycho logy wou ld la ter accep t ( see "~Vhite'" ).

A pos i t ion more typica l and more p o p u l a r in a c a d e m i c l )sychology d u r i n g the per iod 1930-1950 was Spcncc 's a r g u m e n t that p sycho logy should work on as basic a level as possible. ~' l i e a c k n o w l e d g e d tha t tim cho ice of level (h'- pends l ) r imari ly lqmn the in teres t and pm'l)OSt, of the st:i('ntist, t i le evi(h: 'ncr be ing inconc lus ive wi th regard to w h a t al)l)roacll m a y yi(.ld n lore signifleant result,';. By s ignif icant hc mean t th(, cxt( 'nt to whicla a ( 'olmept will t'(mtril)ut~, to tim fo rnmla t ion of l aws , ,whic l l he ofl'erod as th(' major (:ritt'rioli r:[ acc(,I)la- bi l i tv of any scientif ic term. Sl)cn(-e reasolmd that s ince Ill,, std)je(,t nmt tc r of p sycho logy is the' s ame as tha t of o ther sciences, the task of psyc l io logy ix to bri~lj4 (~rdor and mcanilmg am()ng evcnts p rov ided l~v i lntnedi ; t le ~,Xl)~,ri~qj(.~..

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\V l l i l ~ : l l i t t ~>lj i l l l i<' i~ ~,~f i i i t l i i } ' y(' l i i ' ,~' I l l i r l i t i ( ) i i lili.~'t:; i t l ) l t~t~>;il l '~'~)lv~.~l, .~ 'v~'r : t l ti('%l' ~ilt l; i ])¢l~>'<~l'l'llJ i i l lhl{, l i l ;~t~.~ l l i l v i , lllJ'f,~:,lf?tl l h ! ' ' . t i t ) l l l l l i ! l l l l l ) " ~il" .l-~:;),~::hllllt~i.~l~ i l l l h ~ l)i i.~f (](>('lil:t,.', '1'!t(" ~('+ti l~l ' i i l I'||'l~¢'t . l i l i .~ l . ) l t { ' l l t ( t l t l ' h l l ~ l i l t ' ~'lt'(~rl~ ~ll" I~y l ; t t~t lo .o ~i.~1~ l i f Y l l l ' l i i i i ~ ~l iv~,r l4~. i l t l l t l ' i l , l l t l l l i~ ) i l i~ 1~) l~'~l i ' l l i l <. ' t i l i l l t i l l l l l)i'~:ll~li,.~lt,~ i i l i ( l ~v i lh ' ) v i ' i ' h i l ) l ) i i l }~ ( l i l l N i l ~ I)t' l i l ) ] l r f i i t ( , ' J t ,

(,)11~' i t f II1¢~ J~') ' <l l .~v<,ht l l i i l l t l i t - .~ ]iti,~ l~t.~i:ii lh i . . t , l l l ( . l+~<, l l t , ! ~ {)t' i,{(i-i l~.~yt'lll~ht~-4y l i l i t | iI.~ i l iJ lut: ,n~;l , i l l l l r ov i~ l i i i ~ ( l i~ ) ' i ; , l l t~ i l l ~ i i l ) , l i t . t i t l ) , (tl ' i~,llt~,~! I)~),~'l l~:lt~t~i~l~ w i l h li "'(,!()li~,'~.'llll!iil | l r | ( l ~ l ' " I l l 1i11111%.' t)|' lJt(" ( . ' l ) t i ( ' t l l ' l ' ( ' l l t d i : v i , j t ! l l l t i l ' l l l ~ i l l ~ l l t i l~ i" tll't~tlo~i t ) f ] l ,~) ' ( ' l i i l l ! i~{ ) , . \V i l l i l h l , l . , i i l l ! t i l i ,~i ,~ ! l l i " i< l " ,~ t r i~ ' i i l t , l l i n l i l , r l l l i ' n l < ) i l l t i ' ! i l l , " , ~ t ' { ' l | i i l i ~ (~ l l l lJ lJ l ' l l l l "<' .~l l i<~c~l) l r l ' l ) J i i f t ( , i l t ) ) , f , l i t ) t . , i t l ' l l ~\<iti l ¢)J l l i l ' i l t ' l l ' i ' , ( l i ' j ' l ' l l~ ( '~ , i l l . i l l t ' l ( l t , ~ l i ' i l ( : l t i i ' ~ ' , t l i ( . i~ t , l t ' i i .~ l , ( i 'Ol i t l " r i i l i l ) ( ' l i i , ~ i l l i i .J ,~ I l i i ( ' l i l l i i t"~i" I h i , . i J ( ,v~ 'J ( ! l ! i l i i+ i i l ~. l t l l ( '~vi" l" l r ~ i i l l l i t , i ~ l l l i l . l l i l l ( t~}l~'~14il, ,~, " l ' i ' ~ , i i t l l l t ' i i l ! t - ( ; l i i l i~] i i~, .~ 1,~¢t,i,t, ~! i ,~ ' i~ l '~ '~ l w i i l i ( ' i i l t l J i l l~ i .~ i i ( t l i l i i J } " l ) i i i n l i i t r ( ] ) , l ! i i l l i i l , ,~ , l l i l l l iJ~l) ~li i IJ l l " ( , i l l ' i ' i? i i l i i t l l , i ' i i ( ~ l i i l i t I)(-,. l \ l ' l ,~ ' t l l l i f , l l l l f i t ~ l l i t i l i (J lli.~ ( ' l i V i l ' ( ) l l l l l l ' t i l , i~t l ( l l l • ,~l>~,l'ili~, !~ 1).~)'~']i~ih;Jl.(i('ilJ l ! ' ,~ i l i i t~ . i 'L( l t l~l" ~ I r l i t ' l l t l r l i J (- l i l i t ,L, l l t ~ "~,l i i t ' i '~(~tl l l~ t1~<.: ii('~.l" j'ft~'ii~, l i l i i t lJif'%" J l i l i l i l J I ' t ' l i (JV i i l i l ) l i t ' : i l i f } i i i i i l l ' { '~i l ir i~.+' i i l ~ ' t t i l i ~ /~li(,~l'~ , lJ i l , r~, .~,~,'ii.~ 11 l i i ~ : i l i i l l l l ~ l i l l ~, i l i ) l ' l I i ) r t ' J l l l t ' , ~ l~ '< ' i t i ~ ' t r t ' l i l i i i l ' l i l ~ l ( ! d i | t ~ ' r l ' i i l I l l i t l i~il~>14ii,.~, ' l ' l i i . xvil i ' t~ , i f l l l i i l : i l ) t l r l , '<' , i ' i ! , l l i - i l 'J i ' r ,"> ; i l l f t I l l l l l '~ l l l i v i , .~l ' l*vi ' ! i I t ) I t h i i r l lhi.~ i l l ) l l l ' t ) i i i : l l ., l iJ lJ i i l l l<~(i i I l t i ' r t + llit.~ i l l ' l ' l i t l t l ~ y ~ l t ' r l i i l t i ( ' i l l" ~l~ ' t i l i i l iv~, %Viii'i< f ' l i ( ' { l l i l i l l i ~ h i ~ t h i~ i l l ' i ' l l ,

7% ~ t t l l l l '%v l i t i l l l l i r l l l l l t l ( i~ . ,v l , l~ l l ] l i l t ,n ! w i l l l i l i i l ( ' i i l J l , l i i i t ~ ] l~) - ( ,J i l tJ( i~) , i i lY l i JYt , (J t i l t . ( ) l i l i l i j ~ : i l l ~, in l~hl l .~ i~ t l ' l l l i i i l ~ t , l i l ' t , h () i i ( j l l t '~ t i~) l i> ; lit" l)li,~ii( ' ( l r i~- i ,~ t i i l (J l)n~i~" I l l ' i l l -- I~i l l l l ' .~ ~1£ h ,= i r l l i i i t ~ I iJ l l i i i i i l l , l ' l , ~ t i l i Ih~_, i l l ( l l ' l , < . . l t l l i l i ' i i l l ) , r ~ ,h . v i l i i l l i i l .~ i l i~ l l ) , ~vh i~ .h k l l l twl( , iJ .141, i~. l i~ , ,~ l i l i l , ! , l i i i l l t t . " ( i r i l ( t J i l i v i~ ) r i.~ ( . l i l i i i l41, ( l . ' ' ' , i~ , t~°~ "l 'hi .~ <,Jii i i i l41, t . l i i l i i . i l l i f i l i t J l y / v i i % , (tt" I l i i~ < | l . . v (~ | l l l l l t l ( , l i l I l l l '(,,~(,l lr<:l i l i l c , I l l t ) ( i ~ l ( l l 4 ) : t l i f i l ~t i(~w~,~l l ) r l l l l t ,- i,,ii: ( i t ~ , i l i l i i , l l t .~ i l l~ l l l !~ c, l i i i t ,¢~l) l~ ~l|" l l lX)i~,~.i i~,~ l l ' ~ t i l i l ~ i i i l { [ .1). ' i ) ' l~l i l i l ( ! tZ. i( ' i i i l , ' ~ l i~ i~ i l t I~ t ' l i l ' l ' i i J . ~ h l l l ' l l ) , l iJl l>l" lJ i ! ~. $1.,{-i)ti(J \ V i i I - I { i \~t ' l i l ' , i i l i l l l ~ ' l , l i i i , l l l t ' i l l h : ! i lil~? "'+;.~l'tV . l . , l i t tk '" h i l > l . r t : t , l l l i l l i i (~ i t i ) l l l r t , {J I}I<" i i l l l ' l i l i i t l i l i t, l ' l i l i i c ' i i j i!~ l~'( ' lJ l l~ ( l l h~ , r l )~) ".- t'll~tl~tl4i,~t.~. ' l ' h i ~ l l i i ) V ( , l l i l , l i l ~ ( ) i i ~ l i ! i ' < , l l l l i ~ l i i ~ l l i l ~ I ) l ' lw~-~. , l i ( I ) ' l i l i l t i i l , i l~ l t t ' l : ' l .~ i i l l l l ( , r ,~ l ) l i l i J i l ) " l l i i l l l l t{ t i ' l~ i l i i i i i l ' < l i l i l ( , t i i" (;~J/_~.t'i'vilJJ|l, l t i , l i i l~ , ' i t l r l i J ( ' t t i i ( , ! t l i l i l l i l i | ~ i . A ,~t><'~lil l ~ l l , l i i i i v ~ l h - t , i I I i i ~ i , i l i l ) i l ' i t , l i l < l l ' l l , r i t i i l i i t l i t > i i t)t' i l i l l t~ l , l ' l . , l l i ! i l ) l i ,~iJ i i t l~ l>t v l i r i t t l t , , i l i+l) l ,c,t.~ t i l ] l t . ] l i i v i i i r (t'.,14+, t i l i d i l l ~ i ' t ~J l i l i l t l i ~ i i i l )~ li(.~l%~,'t+t+li ,~1)'!~',~ <.~# (lt, '- t'(+ii+~+ i i i t t i .~t>' l~ , ( i t + l t l , r i , t , l > t i ~ l i i ) , i l l , .~<.i ir(,Ji i i i l ' l i i l i l h t l t t ~ ) , l l t l , l i I ' ( t t , i t ,~t, l l (,ill I l l ( ' i l i l ( ' r r t ' J l i l i ! J i i . ~ l i i l ) ti j" l t ( ' l i l i t ' i l i i " t r l ' l i l l t X" i i l ' i l ) l l~ i l i+(' i l~ ,~lit+Ji +l,'i t ' ~ l ~ l i i t i ( l i i , l l l ' i+ t ' l+ i t l i~ l l i , i i i l ( l (h' l ' l ' i i~XiVl+ i>l" t : l i l> i i l l~ +l) ' l i ' .~. l l i t r t l Y ( l t ' r i ~¢ t ' ( J , l ' r l i l i i ill<+ ~ ' i i r i l i l i l t , ~ ,~() l l l4hl i i i ] ) r ( l j t ! t , . ' l iv t " t+' t 'J l l l i i l l l t '~i , . , l i l t , Iii'%%'i'!' l+ l '~ i t ' l l r i ' l l J i ( 'T i i l l , t.(~ t ] i~ l : ( ' l ' l i It l i r~ t i t ( l ( , r I+.lillii(tl i l l l l l + l ' t : l+ i l l i i l i l i i i i ( i t ,h l l l '+ i t , l l , r l t l i t t t , l ' i l ,~ i t ' i l lh . ' ( I t ' l t l4 i l i l i x+ l • +,il),l~..~, l i i i ' v i l l i h l ) ' , lhi.~ rl+,- • " i t ' l i r t ' | i h -~ l i i '~ i l i l i i l l l + n l l l ! ~ i ~ l x+l l l i l+ l l i l l , l l l l , ~ i , i ' l , l l i t i t l i i ~ t l i p , , i I t l I h t + ( l i + t ! t t v l , l ) + i l l i i ~ ,w x'li i ' i l iJlJ+,,~.

" i ' l i t , i l i l l , i '~ ,+ l i l l l l l~ ' i+~lh , i l l ' ~i>-li.~ii+ , t ' l i r i i i l l l t ' , ~ i i i i l ~ , l i l ' ~ l t ' t '~ i l i . l~ i l l i l J ~lr t4 i l l i i ;~- i l i ~ i l l t ' l i v i r ( i l i l l i l ' l l l l i J t h i l l i Jlli+,i J l t ' t . l+ l i l l , i i j l l i r l (lJ' i i I J l ' i l l l i i l l i t , l n t i v t , l i l i . i l l i i l IJit+ ~ ( r l l w l l i i t l ' I l i t , l i r ) , i i i l i l r l .+~, l l i ' l . l i i i i t - i i l ~ l l i l i v~ . < i t , x , t . J l l l l l i i l , i t l , ' l ' ] i i , i ~ l i l + , i I - l . l i i l , . d I l l l l l i .~ l i l+t ' i l i i l i v t " l i t ' i ' l l r l ' l i l l i r l~ l lJ lJ%" II l .- i , ( i l i l i l r i i l l l ' ~ i l ( ' ,~+ i t~ l i i l J t ' ~ i l i l l i ( I , i i t ' i i l ' l " , v i i i t ' l i l i it,~ i i l i l i J i l ' l i l i l . l i i ~ J l l r t ' l i l l i t ' i i t l l~,) ' t ' i t l l l~ l~% ,, I l l ' l ) l l , i l l l rh t~ ,~ , I I . i i l l , i i l i t l l> i ; i l ( i ' l i l l ) l t i ' + l l I<t l i t ' i t , l , i i i l+lil i lr+~,+ l l l i l '1 r i t l i i l l l ), i l i t ' l ' ( ' i i .~ i l i t~ l i l i l l l J l l , ! + (iJr l l+, , ) , t . l l ( lh i +

gista,,~+re fo lh)wing i1:~ thei r patl-~s and it is diff icul t to ca tegor ize them as repre- sm~ling .,;ttbse+lmols of psychology. W h i l e l e a r n i n g theoris ts w h o focus on ani- mal behavim" are involve(l , so a re c l in ical chi ld psychologis ts , psychologis t s i~ tc res tcd in ch i ld d e v e l o p m e n t , .educat ional psychologis t s a n d social p s y c h o b ogisls, This l~road :representat ion is an i nd i ca t ion tha t the area of co~~i t ive d e v e l o p m e n t has t a p p e d a e o m m o n and u n i f y i n g thread .

()tie of tht:~ key issues i/n t he recent work ol~ Cognitive g rowth has b e e n the l , ~ * I I rmtnre of the iml)aCt o[ .the c 'nv i ronment upon eogni t ix+ poten t ia l . As t ] tmt , ':+

has po in t ed out, this issue has sh i f ted {r~m'l one of e n v i r o n m e n t a l in f luences to • that of in te rac t ion b e t w e e n the. en 'v i ronmtmt a n d the i nd iv id tnd ' s resources . This l ine ot: inves t iga t ion hm+ been ex t ended t o the in f luenee of ea r ly in terac- tion (e.g,, t l a r low ' s work w i t h p r i m a t e s ) a n d - t o ex tens ive work b a s e d on Piaget ' s ideas of the d l i l d ' s sequerf l ia l a t t a i n m e n t of concepts t h r o u g h oxI]eri- enet:s wi th the phys ica l a n d social wor ld . T h e work in this area i s no t ab l e not on ly for its e m b r a c e b y psyci lologis ts o f val3, ing ]mekgn-ounds a n d "schools,'" l)ttt also for the ae(+,epted legi t ima(:y of its app l i ca t i on t<) t)rol:)lems outsi¢h:' a c a d e m i c wails .

C o n c u r r e n t wi th the g rowth of in teres t in cog))itiv'e d e v e l o p m e n t , th(-re has been a c c e p t a n c e (>f d i rec t a t tacks ot) p r o b l e m s of concern to society, such as t h o s e + l a v e | r e d in the m e n t a l hea l th and the an t i -pover ty prod/rams. Ear l i e r governme+r~t suppor t t)f psyeho log iea l reseat 'eli had been w i d e l y a c c e p t e d b a t had, in most ins tances , dea l t wi th 1)roMems w h i c h were. e a s i l y amenal)h_>+ to r igorous c:xperimc+ntal des ign (e.g., h u m a n factors eng inee r ing , b r a in phys i - o logy) . Cur ren t ly , psycholog ica l research in educa t i ona l me thods , in t eaeh(+r t ra ining, mid in modes of reha l ) i l i t a t ion of d i s t u r b e d or (l¢~li~+cttzent ch i ld r en art" , ; l t rprisingly a(+-cel)ted ~ cons ide r ing the attitude+,+ p r eva l en t a d e c a d e ago.

()n(~ n :ason for this ° g rea te r ac'ceplanc.e, appea r s to i)e that this g rea te r i n v o l v e m e n t in a p p l i e d work is more d i s t inc t ly u n d e r th(" control of un ivers i t i es a n d psychologis ts . Fo rmer ly . a p p l i e d resea rch was almost: exc lus ive ly in the (tomai~l of m e d i c i n e or educa t i on or ins t i tu t iona l set t ings w!iere the work p r o c e e d e d ~mder the aegis of nonpsyeho log i s t s or u n d e r the control <ff psy- chologis ts l ade ' penden t of un ive r s i ty control . F e d e r a l g ran ts in pa r t i euh l r h a v e o p e n e d poss ib i l i t ies of un ivers i ty psychologists" i n s t iga t ing demonstrati<n~ projects a n d resc+-areh pr t )grams that h a v e b e e n w e l c o m e d by host ins t i tu t ions . Such p rog rams have develope+d u n d e r eo~di t ions of co l labora t ion that are more a c c e p t a b l e to a c a d e m i c psychoh)gis ts .

A fu r the r reason for the co l lve rgence is the b r o a d e n i n g of social p sychoh)gy througla the ( l eve lopmen t of r e sea rch (lesiglls eapa l ) le of m o v i n g b e y o n d con- di t ions of strict l abora to ry control. At tile s a m e t ime, t h e ' i n c r e a s i n g t,nH)hagis <m c 'ommuni ty m e n t a l hc-altll a n d t he w i d e n i n g rmigc of act iv i t ies of var ious men ta l hea l th specia l is ts p l a c e d pre.ssurr (m Clinicians to t)ro:tden the i r own r()l es.

Tll(" c+'i~a~ges i~ ( n l t h ~ k that har t . ln'e~+ desc r i lwd g ive s<)m(, indication..+ ot ,,vl~t.re l->syc'iuH.t+gy seems to l~t" m o v i n g +t~cl how its re la t ions to o ther l)r(~le.s- sit:m.+ m a y be modif ie t l i~ thr c't)t~rst- of tb, esr t 'vents. ( )no si~ift al rea( ly ~t)ticc- al)hr in a ~mmiJer of t ra in ing 1)rograms is a rt'int~'+/¢,rali~m t>f c l in ical tr;ti~i~g and a<'~.~th.mi(', work. witt~ lh<' ~+~versity l)sychoh)~y dt. t)arl tncnt b e i n g n,)rt.

}~S'I 'CHOI.O(gl( . :AI. , "I 'I~STIN{: 1 l l l q q ( . ) l l Y 2-XNI) 'tiIIq.%DN ,'3(1~'

" ' invested" a n d h a v i n g g rea t e r i n f luence over the t r a i n i n g expe r i ences of i~s c l in ica l s tuden ts . Th i s is m a d e i m s s i b l e b y t h e g r ea t e r i n v o l v e m e n t o f un ive r - s i ty f a c u l t y in 0 i e kinds" of ac t iv i t ies f o r w h i c h the s t u d e n t s a r e plxq~aring, T lm m o d e l of p ro fes s iona l i d e n t i t y thus a p p e a r s to b e s h i f t i n g . T h e c l i n i c i a n io- ves ted in p s y e h o d i a g n o s t i c a n d d i rec t t h e r a p e u t i c work w i t h pa t i en t s is b e i n g replaes-d b y t i m b e h a v i o r a l sc ient is t w h o e o n l r i b u t e s skil ls in r e sea rch a n d " p r o M e r n Solving." In this m o d e l , psyehologi ' ea l re.sting h a s an a m b i g u o u s p|ne,?. P r e p a r a t i o r £or t es t ing is sti l l a b a s i c ro:l t i iren~ent i l l the t r a i n i n g of c l in ica l psycho log i s t s , b u t i t is no l onge r a c e n t r a l p a r t of the m o d e l ; it is now c o n s i d e r e d s i m p l y as one of a n u m b e r of bas i c skills. Psyelaologic~d t~:sting does, howeve r , s h o w p r q m i s e o f d e v e l o p i n g g r ea t e r soph i s t i ca t ion in the h a n d s of those psycho log i s t s w h o still choose i t-as a cen t ra l pa r t o f t he i r p ro fess iona l role,

I~lcPA(71" O F 1 ] I{CI ' :NT C I I A N ( . F ; S O N ¢['Ii;S'I[INC

V¢hile there, is c o n s i d e r a b l e lag ill tire adop t ion of n e w eonceq)ts of test usage, it m a y b e h e l p f u l lo t race the po ten t i a l i m p a c t of s o m e of these.*

A: The Adaptic..c Orientution. Corresporading . to t i le ehang.e f rom an "'id"- o r i e n t e d to an " 'ego"-oriented f r amework , i s the e m p h a s i s on d e f e n s i v e and a d a p t i v e po ten t ia l . Th i s o r i en ta t ion is m o r e eoneeramd w i t h the p a t i e n t ' s cur- ren t ad jus t i ve e q u i l i b r i u m a n d his resources for c o p i n g w i t h stress. A psy,-c-holo- gist i n f l u e n c e d 1Lv this f r a m e w o r k is less l ikely to b e Concerned w i t h g e n e t i c or u n c o n s c i o u s forees in a p a t i e n t or to en-q3hasize, e a r l y i n f a n t i l e f ixat ions or cu r ren t confl icts r e l a t ed to sexua l or aggn-essive drives, l l e is m o r e l ike ly to find d a t a in the les t respfmses whid~ a re re levan t !o the p a t i e n t ' s abil i[ T to in t eg ra t e thought a n d affect, to d e l a y a n d etn~trt~l express ion , a n d lo r e l a t e these to the, d e m a n d s c u r r e n t l y m a d e upon t h e - p a t i e n t b y his e .nvironment . Sehaefe r ' s book. l~sychoanaitt!ic Interpretation in Rolwchach Test ingY' d e l i n e a t e d this modcq in t e rms of the neu ro t i c r a n g e of pa t ien ts . In this posi t ion, the e m p h a s i s was on b e h a v i o r a l mal i i fc ' s ta t ions of d e f e n s e m e e h a n i s m s m ~ d ttmir effeetiw~ness in m a i n t a h 6 n g adapt ive- equi t ib r iuna . E go psychoh~gy has also i n f l u e n c e d the theore t i ca l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the: psychoses . ~"''-'' K a p ] a n '-~'-' has d e s c r i b e d this a p p r o a c h i n t e rms of the i n t e q ) l a y b e t w e e n a d a p l i v e res~mroes a n d egt, im- pa i rmen t in schizophrenic ' s .

B. C'o~nilit;e Styles. "lI~e work on cogn i t ive s tyles has h a d m u l t i p l e ef tee ls on <rlinieal a.." ss--" t ssment.~ O n e effect has been the f iner d i s e r i m i n a t i o n of re la i ion- sh ips b e t w e e n reac t ions {o etwiro~maotllal s t imu l i a n d modes of coping . Th i s is in e o n t r a d i s t i n e t i t m to | ' o rmula t ions that prt~viously were- c o u c h e d in te rms of s y m b o l i s m al ,d m~eonseious mot iva t ion . S y m b o l i c in le rpr , ; t a t ion c losely re- la ted 1o "id" psycho logy , res ted "heavily on "cookbook" fo rnmlas of u n d e r l y i n g d r ives a n d r e q u i r e d an e x t e n d e d ser ies of i l l f l , r t?l i( ' t ' s ill o r d ~ ' r tO l l love ( ro l l l t~rst responses to p red i c t i ons of l )ehavior , In a more d i rec t m a n n e r the a1~alysis of coKnit ive s tyles roe'uses on t im ways in w h i c h the c'/<~) l)ereeiv~.s, orgamzt ,s , a n d re la les all 'eel, a n d idea t ion to the envirosm~ent.

.'\ s e c o n d inltut 'netr of l he cogn i t ive a p p r o a c h or~ lt'slil~g has been an mn-

*i:',;r ]2[-i,iiiffr tli4~;,,~;i~;i; ,~t r l,:sti,,g i);.i~.,/(]i,r,.~. ; , .~ l l i r t a~i,ci Kapl~mi(.

K A I : ' t . , . \ N 1'71" . \1. . .

l)hasis o n t |i(~ . interr(dati(mshil)s of var ious aspec t s of func t ioning , The work ()f Klein ~:~ a~ld t ha t of \Vitkin :-'~ h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d tha t tests m e re l y t~:lp immedi - a te face ts of b r o a d o rgan i z ing forces . P e r c e p t u a l styles, kinds of f a m a s y , use of m e m o r y , lmt~lre of t h o u g h t associa t ion , a n d in fegra t ion of affect a n d t h o u g h t or any o the r a s p e c t o f m e n t a l life a re a!l a s s m n e d to o p e r a t e w i t h i n a frarne- work ot: p a t t e r n e d organ iza t ion . By the s a m e token, a spec t s of f u n c t i o n i n g w h i c h had ea r l i e r b e e n d e a l t w i th as t h o u g h t h e y ,were i n d e p e n d e n t traits arc n o w e n c o m p a s s e d wi th in a m o r e u n i t a r y f r a m e w o r k , An o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e of this c h a n g e is the concep t of intellige]K~e. I}l tel l igence has b e e n c o n s i d e r e d as a d i sc re te func t ion , bu t in te l l igence i s b e t t e r c o n s i d e r e d as the a r e a of. f unc t ion ing w h e r e the ego's resources in pe rcep t ion , mem(nT, a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d b r o u g h t to b e a r on cer ta in types of p rob l e m -so l v i ng s i tuat ions . Thus in- te l l igence is an a r e a of app l i ca t i on of bas ic pe r sona l i t y resources .

T h e w o r k on cogni t iv e s tyles /}as also b r o a d e n e d the r a n g e a n d d e p t h of concep t s usef ld in u n d e r s t a n d i n g test da ta . F o r example , the c o n c e p t o f " t o l -

e r a n c e for a m b i g u i t y " has e n r i c h e d the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of bo rde r l ine or a c u t e s ta tes of ego d i so rgan iza t ion . Similar ly , the concep t of "'field d e p e n d e n c e " can be, t r ans l a t ed d i rec t ly into t )ehavioral t e rms t h a t g ive a d d e d m e a n i n g to ana lyses of persona l i ty . By t rac ing the visciss i tudes of cogni t ive f tmet ioni~g , the diagnostic:ira} is in a re la t ive ly be t t e r posff ion to de l inea te d m pa t ien t ' s in te rac t ions w i t h his e n v i r o n m e n t .

C. t le lat ionship to Theral)eutic Variabh:s. T h e r e has beer} a shift in per- spec t ive in the use of psycho log ica l tests, w i th the focus n o w u p o n the use of tests to assess b e h a v i o r a l t endenc ies w h i c h a re directly' r e l evan t to thera- peu t i c in te rvent ion . T h e r a n g e of ava i l ab l e the rape t , tic in te rven t ions ix n o w m u c h b r o a d e r t h a a the mode l of a t t e m p t i n g t() resolve in t rapsychi ( , con- flicts by t r a n s [ o r m i n g them into conscious mater ia l . A cons ide rab l e r a n g e o f per sona l i ty d i s t u r b a n c e s a re c l l r rent ly seen as r emdt ing f rom ego defec t s o r

i n t e r a c t i o n a | c o m b / n a t i o n s o f ego difRculties a n d in t r apsyeh ie coMtiet. T rea t - meri t m e t h o d s are ava i l ab le tirol izivolve specific e n v i r o n m e n t a l condi t ions w h i c h a re desigmed to in te rac t wi th ego resourcc\s. CJertainly, the v iew of p a t h o l o g y as a ( tys fune t ion of the a d a p t i v e a p p a r a t u s , rath~,r than solely as i n t r apsych i c conflict, has provi ( led a ra t iona le for the n e w e r s()ci{)psychoh)gieal t r e a t m e n t or ien ta t ions .

T h e psychologis t , i~l this context , sl~itts a w a y f rom the var iab les tha t h a d l)revi()usly been his sole c o l m e r l i - t h a t is, symbol i c i n t e rp re t a t ion of col l tent a n d styl ist ic var iab les r e l a t ed to ear ly infant i le inlpulses a n d gene t ic mater ia l , l-[e is n o w more co1~cerned wi th pa t i en t va r i a t ) l c s tha t e m e r g e f rom examina t io~ of the test d a t a as samples of c o n t e m p o r a r y func t ion ing a n d hc is more con- c e rned wi th the m e a n i n g f u l n e s s of his i n fo rma t ion for therape~lt ic change . ThuS, the psychologis t is m o r e concen~ed wi th u n d e r s t a n d i n g d a t a w h i c h bea r s t m the pa t ien t ' s t o l e rance fin" anxie ty , his c a p a c i t y t() expr(:'ss affect , a n d his ab i l i ty to charm(,! b e h a v i o r ill a d a p t i v e direct i(ms.

!~ I;;1" 1,." I11;] N ( " I,;.~

1, : \ [ l t ) ( ) r t " (',. \ V . : P~ ' r . - i {mal i ty : .-'~ P~,yclJ()- I%;],'7. h)L~Jc,|] | l l | l ' l | ) l ~ ' [ i l t i o l l , ~('~,~." Yl) I-k, } i ( ) } t , ;.~, ,~|t ' { ' } l ] . IL; ( ; l i n i c . l \ ' e r ~ Stati,qicM

I ~ 5 Y ( . ; t I ( / I A ) t ; t C A I , " t I , ; S T I N ( ; : I I I S T ( ) I C ~ 7 X N D "I-I I I :~XDS • '~ ( '

, ~0,)

Predic'titm..Xlin,mapolis, University of X li~ H ueso ta Press, t 984.

3. Holt, R.: Clinical and statislicat predic- tion- A reformation and some r, ew data. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psyehol. 06:1:~, 1958.

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5..MacCorqucidale, K., and Xleehl, P. E.: On a distinction between hylpothetical emistrnets a n d intervening variables, Psychot. Rev. 55:95-102, 1.948.

6. Rozel)oom, W. \V.: Mediation variables in scientific theoD', Psyehol. Rex,. 63: 249-2t34, 1956.

7, Allport. (;. W.: The emphasis on molar behavior. Psych<ft. Rev. 54:182-1,92, 19,t ~.

8, Tohnan, E. C . A stimulus expectancy" need-cathexis psychology. ~eienee 10t : 160-166, 1945.

9, Hil~ard, E. l . , and .Marquis, D. (;.: Conditoning and Learning. New York, Apple.ton-Cen tt~ D'. 1940.

I0. \Vhite, R. IAL: Motivation reconsidered: The enneept of cmnpetence, Psyehol, llev, (i6:297-333, 1959.

l t. Spence, K.: The methods aim postulates - f "'behaviorism." Ps.vetmt. Rev. 55 67-78, 1948.

12.. Dollar(l, J., and Miller, N. E.: Personal- it 3" and Psychother;tpy. New York, .Xlc'- (;raw-Hill, 1950.

13. Sere's, R. R., Macoby, E., and Levin, H.: Patterns uf Child Bearing. Evanston, Ill., t/~w, Peter~tm & Company, 1957.

1.t. ttunt, J. McV.: Traditional personality theory in the light of ret,mt evidence.

-, ( , ( - , - Amer. Sci, 53:80-,)~, 13be.

15. Rapaport, I)., (';ill M., and Schaefer, R.: l)ktgnostie Psychological 'l'estillg. Vet. l-ll. Cl~mago, Year Bonk, 1945.

S, i . . . . . Psychoanalytic lnterpreta- t6- , .c la( fcJ , R.: , trim i3~ Rorschach Testing, New York, ( . : l ' l l l l e ~ Stratton, 195-1.

17. Holt, R. : (.~auging I)rimalT and second- ary processes in Rorschach responses, J. Project, I cchn, :20: 14-'-'-0, 1956,

18, Hunt, J. MeV.: Evolutio)~ of current coneepls of intellectual development, Read at d,e meeting ot:" tim Society for Research in Child DevelopmenL New York, March 31: 1967.

t9. Hirt, ~[. L., and Kaplan, .M, L.: Psycho- lo~ieal testi:~g: II. Currmt practice,

C!m~pr. Psyehiat. 8, 5, 1967. 20. Freeman, T., Cameron, J., and Me(;hie,

N (;: gV -\." Chronic Schizophrenia. York, International Universities Press. 1982.

21. Arlow, J., and Brenner, C.: Psycho- a hi logical Conc~,pt. and the Structural

T!leow. New York, International Uni- versititrs Press, 1964.

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:2:3. Klein, G. S.: The personal w~rld through perception. In: Perception: An Approach t,J Personality (R. R. Blake. and C. V. ltmnsey, Eds.). New York, l/olmtd Press, 1'-)51, pp. 328-3.55.

2-t. \Vitkin, H. A., Lewis, t~{. B., t |ertzman, Y,l., Machover, K., Mei~sner, P. B., and \Vapner, S.: Personality-through Per- eeption: An Ext)erimental arm Clinical Study. New YOrk, Harper& Row, 1954.