COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:MR. RAJEEV SHARMA MAMTA

B. ED.543683

L.C.E.R.T. COLLEGE OF EDUCATIONRECOGNISED BY

KURUKSHETRA UNIVERSITY, KURUKSHETRA

CHAPTER 1:INFORMATION

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Concept of ICT

Meaning & Definition:ICT is technology that supports activities involving information. Such

activities include gathering, processing, storing and presenting data. Increasingly these activities also involve collaboration and communication. Hence IT has become ICT: information and communication technology. Some underlying principles Technology does not exist in isolation ICT contributes at various points along a line of activity ICT is used in activities – the ICT use depends on the activities. The key outputs of educational activities are context are knowledge, experience and products. The output should be useful to the users (self and others).

What is a useful concept of ICT? It depends on the local culture and the particular ICT available and how it

is configured and managed. The understanding, management and configuration of the available technology might vary the concept of ICT from a collection of tools and devices used for particular tasks, eg, publishing, course delivery, transaction processing... an organised set of equipment (like a 'workshop') for working on information and communication components of integrated arrangements of devices, tools, services and practices that enable information to be collected, processed, stored and shared with others components in a comprehensive system of people, information and devices that enables learning, problem solving and higher order collaborative thinking, that is, ICT as key elements underpinning a (sharable)

Models of communication 

Models of communication  refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following thebasic concept, communication is the

process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).

Shannon and Weaver Model

The new model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.

In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:

An information source, which produces a message.A transmitter, which encodes the message into signalsA channel, to which signals are adapted for transmissionA receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.A destination, where the message arrives.

Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.

The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?

Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:[3]

It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.No allowance for differing purposes.No allowance for differing interpretations.No allowance for unequal power relations.

David Berlo

In 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver’s,Steven Munyao (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication.[4] The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.

Schramm

Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target /decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message.[5] Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).

Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:

1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),2. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and

3. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).

Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communicationvia diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.

Barnlund

In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication.[6] The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.

In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is

implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.

Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).

Constructionist Model

There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.

Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are

fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.

Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.

The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanhamand Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.

Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events.[weasel words] Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.

Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):

Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message. For example; physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you. physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted

at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough. psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them. semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables. Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message Decode; translates the sender's spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience. Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message. Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages) Feedback; the receiver's verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal). Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.

Linear Model[edit]

It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise.

Interactive Model

It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback,

indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.

The Interactive Model.

For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer.

Transactional Model

It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.

The Constitutive Metamodel

Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific

view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:

1. Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse. 2. Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs. 3. Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with

others. 4. Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information. 5. Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals. 6. Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the

social order. 7. Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be

challenged.

Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share") It is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, written, or behavior. It is the meaningful exchange of information between two or more living creatures.

One definition of communication is “any act by which one person gives to or receives from another person information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states. Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or non-linguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes.” 

Communication requires a sender, a message, and a recipient, although the receiver does not have to be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The

communication process is complete once the receiver understands the sender's message.

Communicating with others involves three primary steps:

Thought: First, information exists in the mind of the sender. This can be a concept, idea, information, or feeling.

Encoding: Next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or other symbols.

Decoding: Lastly, the receiver translates the words or symbols into a concept or information that a person can understand.

There are a variety of verbal and non-verbal forms of communication. These include body language, eye contact, sign language, haptic communication, and chronemics. Other examples are media content such as pictures, graphics, sound, and writing. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines the communication to include the display of text, Braille, tactile communication, large print, accessible multimedia, as well as written and plain language, human-reader, augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of communication, including accessible information and communication technology. Feedback is a critical component of effective communication.

Verbal communication

Human spoken and pictorial languages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages. Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. Languages seem to share certain properties although many of these include exceptions. There is no defined line between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.

Communication is the flow or exchange of information within people or a group of people.

Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Some forms of non verbal communication include chronemics, haptics,gesture, body language or posture, facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles, architecture, symbols, infographics, and tone of voice, as well as through an aggregate of the above. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage. This form of communication is the most known for interacting with people. These include voice lesson quality, emotion and speaking style as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Research has shown that up to 55% of human communication may occur through non verbal facial expressions, and a further 38% through paralanguage.[5] Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotional expressions in pictorial form.

Oral communication

Oral communication, while primarily referring to spoken verbal communication, can also employ visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the conveyance of meaning. Oral communication includes speeches, presentations, discussions, and aspects of interpersonal communication. As a type of face-to-face communication, body language and choice tonality play a significant role, and may have a greater impact upon the listener than informational content. This type of communication also garners immediate feedback.

Business communication

A business can flourish only when all objectives of the organization are achieved effectively. For efficiency in an organization, all the people of the organization must be able to convey their message properly.

Effective communication

Effective communication occurs when a desired effect is the result of intentional or unintentional information sharing, which is interpreted between multiple entities and acted on in a desired way. This effect also ensures that messages are not distorted during the communication process. Effective communication should generate the desired effect and maintain the effect, with the potential to increase the effect of the message. Therefore, effective communication serves the purpose for which it was planned or designed. Possible purposes might be to elicit change, generate action, create understanding, inform or communicate a certain idea or point of view. When the desired effect is not achieved, factors such as barriers to communication are explored, with the intention being to discover how the communication has been ineffective.

Telecommunication

Telecommunication is communication at a distance by technological means, particularly through electrical signals or electromagnetic waves. Due to the many different technologies involved, the word is often used in a plural form, as telecommunications.

A revolution in wireless telecommunications began in the 1900s with pioneering developments in radio communications by Guglielmo Marconi. Marconi won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for his efforts. Other highly notable pioneering inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications include Charles Wheatstone and Samuel Morse (telegraph), Alexander Graham Bell(telephone), Edwin Armstrong, and Lee de Forest (radio), as well as John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (television).

Satellite An artificial body placed in orbit round the earth or another planet in

order to collect information or for communication."a communications satellite"

Ex: space station, space capsule, spacecraft; More artificial satellite, communications satellite, weather satellite, television satellite; sputnik, COBE, IRAS; informalComsat OR A celestial body orbiting the earth or another planet.Ex: moon, secondary planet etc

The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth. Some satellites, notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial satellites originate from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations. A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Vesta, Eros, and the Sun.

Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.

About 6,600 satellites have been launched. The latest estimates are that 3,600 remain in orbit. Of those, about 1,000 are operational; the rest have lived out their useful lives and are part of the space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit, 50 are in medium-Earth orbit (at 20,000 km), the rest are in geostationary orbit (at 36,000 km).

Satellites are propelled by rockets to their orbits. Usually the launch vehicle itself is a rocket lifting off from a launch pad on land. In a minority of

cases satellites are launched at sea (from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform) or aboard a plane (see air launch to orbit).

Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control.

Launch-capable countries

This list includes countries with an independent capability of states to place satellites in orbit, including production of the necessary launch vehicle. Note: many more countries have the capability to design and build satellites but are unable to launch them, instead relying on foreign launch services. This list does not consider those numerous countries, but only lists those capable of launching satellites indigenously, and the date this capability was first demonstrated. The list include multi-national state organization ESA but does not include private consortiums.

First launch by country

Order CountryDate of first launch

Rocket Satellite

1 Soviet

Union4 Oct 1957 Sputnik-PS Sputnik 1

2 United

States1Feb 1958 Juno I Explorer 1

3  France 26 Nov 1965 Diamant-A Astérix

4  Japan 11 Feb 1970 Lambda-4S Ōsumi

5  China 24 Apr 1970 Long March 1Dong Fang Hong I

6 United

Kingdom28 Oct 1971 Black Arrow Prospero

7  India 18 Jul 1980 SLV Rohini D1

8  Israel 19 Sept 1988 Shavit Ofeq 1

First launch by country

Order CountryDate of first launch

Rocket Satellite

 Russia 21 Jan 1992 Soyuz-U Kosmos 2175

 Ukraine 13 Jul 1992 Tsyklon-3 Strela

9  Iran 2 Feb 2009 Safir-1 Omid

10 North

Korea12 Dec 2012 Unha-3

Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2

CHAPTER 2:COMPUTER

Computer

Introduction

A computer is a general purpose device that can be programmedto carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.

Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.

Digital and Analog Computers

A digital computer uses distinct values to represent the data internally. All information are represented using the digits 0s and 1s. The computers that we use at our homes and offices are digital computers.

Analog computer is another kind of a computer that represents data as variable across a continuous range of values. The earliest computers were analog computers. Analog computers are used for measuring of parameters that vary continuously in real time, such as temperature, pressure and voltage. Analog computers may be more flexible but generally less precise than digital computers. Slide rule is an example of an analog computer.

Characteristics of Computer

Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key characteristics of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics are—

Speed The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and

days to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer. For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of employees of an organization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various places, etc. Accuracy Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places. Diligence When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the start till the end. Storage Capability Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently. Versatility Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the next moment you may play music or print a document.

Components of Computer Hardware

The computer system hardware comprises of three main components —

1. Input/output (I/O) Unit,2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and3. Memory Unit.

The I/O unit consists of the input unit and the output unit. CPU performs calculations and processing on the input data, to generate the output. The memory unit is used to store the data, the instructions and the output information. Figure illustrates the typical interaction among the different components of the computer.

The computer system interaction

In put/O utput: Unit

The user interacts with the computer

via the I/O unit. The Input unit accepts data from the user and the Output unit provides the processed data i.e. the information to the user. The Input unit converts the data that it accepts from the user, into a form that is understandable by the computer. Similarly, the Output unit provides the output in a form that is understandable by the user. The input is provided to the computer using input devices like keyboard, trackball and mouse. Some of the commonly used output devices are monitor and printer. Central Processing Unit: A central processing unit (CPU) (formerly also referred to as a central processor unit) is the hardware within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s.[2] The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains much the same.

A computer can have more than one CPU; this is called multiprocessing. All modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning contained on a single chip. Some integrated circuits (ICs) can contain multiple CPUs on a single chip; those ICs are called multi-core processors. An IC containing a CPU can also contain peripheral devices, and other components of a computer system; this is called a system on a chip(SoC).

Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations, and the control unit(CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

Not all computational systems rely on a central processing unit. An array processor or vector processor has multiple parallel computing elements, with no one unit considered the "center". In the distributed computing model, problems are solved by a distributed interconnected set of processors.

Memory Unit: Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output, temporarily, during the processing of data. This memory is also called the main memory or primary memory of the computer. The input data that is to be processed is brought into the main memory before processing. The instructions required for processing of data and any intermediate results are also stored in the main memory. The output is stored in memory before being transferred to the output device. CPU can work with the information stored in the main memory. Another kind of storage unit is also referred to as the secondary memory of the computer. The data, the programs and the output are stored permanently in the storage unit of the computer. Magnetic disks, optical disks and magnetic tapes are examples of secondary memory.

Application of Computers

Computers have proliferated into various areas of our lives. For a user, computer is a tool that provides the desired information, whenever needed. You may use computer to get information about the reservation of tickets (railways, airplanes and cinema halls), books in a library, medical history of a person, a place in a map, or the dictionary meaning of a word. The information may be presented to you in the form of text, images, video clips, etc.

Figure (Application of Compueter) shows some of the applications of computer. Some of the application areas of the computer are listed below—

Education Computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid, for imparting education. Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lectures. Computers are used to develop computer-based training packages, to provide distance education using the e-learning software, and to conduct online examinations. Researchers use computers to get easy access to conference and journal details and to get global access to the research material. Entertainment Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. The user can download and view movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls, use multimedia for making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using computers, etc. The users can also listen to music, download and share music, create music using computers, etc. Sports A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play games (like chess, etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of training players. Advertising Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be displayed on different websites, electronic-mails can be sent and reviews of a product by different customers can be posted. Computers are also used to create an advertisement using the visual and the sound effects. For the advertisers, computer is a medium via which the advertisements can be viewed globally. Web advertising has become a significant factor in the marketing plans of almost all companies. In fact, the business model of Google is mainly dependent on web advertising for generating revenues.

Figure Applications of computer

Medicine Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information about the advances in medical research or to take opinion of doctors globally. The medical history of patients is stored in the computers. Computers are also an integral part of various kinds of sophisticated medical equipments like ultrasound machine, CAT scan machine, MRI scan machine, etc. Computers also provide assistance to the medical surgeons during critical surgery operations like laparoscopic operations, etc. Science and Engineering Scientists and engineers use computers for performing complex scientific calculations, for designing and making drawings (CAD/CAM applications) and also for simulating and testing the designs. Computers are used for storing the complex data, performing complex calculations and for visualizing 3-dimensional objects. Complex scientific applications like the launch of the rockets, space exploration, etc., are not possible without the computers. Government The government uses computers to manage its own operations and also for e-governance. The websites of the different government departments provide information to the users. Computers are used for the filing of income tax return, paying taxes, online submission of water and electricity bills, for the access of land record details, etc. The police

department uses computers to search for criminals using fingerprint matching, etc. Home Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home, people use computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating with friends and relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc. Microprocessors are embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food processors, home theatres, security devices, etc.

LAN, MAN & WAN:One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs

is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. Common examples of area network types are: LAN - Local Area Network WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network WAN - Wide Area Network MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks, while the others have gradually emerged over many years of technology evolution.

LAN - Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IPnetworking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernetand Token Ring.

WAN - Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

LAN, WAN and Home Networking

Residences typically employ one LAN and connect to the Internet WAN via an Internet Service Provider (ISP) using a broadband modem. The ISP provides a WAN IP address to the modem, and all of the computers on the home network use LAN (so-called private) IP addresses. All computers on the home LAN can communicate directly with each other but must go through a central gateway, typically a broadband router, to reach the ISP.

E-learning 

E-learning  (or eLearning) is the use of electronic media and information and communication technologies (ICT) in education. E-learning is broadly inclusive of all forms ofeducational technology in learning and teaching. E-learning is inclusive of, and is broadly synonymous with multimedia learning, technology-enhanced learning (TEL),computer-based instruction (CBI), computer managed instruction, computer-based training (CBT), computer-assisted instruction or computer-aided instruction (CAI), internet-based training (IBT), web-based training (WBT), online education, virtual education, virtual learning environments (VLE) (which are also called learning platforms), m-learning, and

digital educational collaboration. These alternative names emphasize a particular aspect, component or delivery method.

E-learning includes numerous types of media that deliver text, audio, images, animation, and streaming video, and includes technology applications and processes such as audio or video tape, satellite TV, CD-ROM, and computer-based learning, as well as local intranet/extranet and web-based learning. Information and communication systems, whether free-standing or based on either local networks or the Internet in networked learning, underly many e-learning processes.[2]

E-learning can occur in or out of the classroom. It can be self-paced, asynchronous learning or may be instructor-led, synchronous learning. E-learning is suited to distance learning and flexible learning, but it can also be used in conjunction with face-to-face teaching, in which case the term blended learning is commonly used.

Advantages and disadvantages

Motivation

There are several advantages and disadvantages with regards to motivation in e-learning.For many students, e-learning is the most convenient way to pursue a degree in higher education. A lot of these students are attracted to a flexible, self-paced method of education to attain their degree. It is important to note that many of these students could be working their way through college, supporting themselves or battling with serious illness. To these students, it would be extremely difficult to find time to fit college in their schedule. Thus, these students are more likely and more motivated to enroll in an e-learning class. Moreover, in asynchronous e-learning classes, students are free to log on and complete work any time they wish. They can work on and complete their assignments at the times when they think most cogently, whether it be early in the morning or late at night.

However, many teachers have a harder time keeping their students engaged in an e-learning class. A disengaged student is usually an unmotivated student, and an engaged student is a motivated student. One reason why students are more likely to be disengaged is that the lack of face-

to-face contact makes it difficult for teachers to read their students' nonverbal cues, including confusion, boredom or frustration. These cues are helpful to a teacher in deciding whether to speed up, introduce new material, slow down or explain a concept in a different way. If a student is confused, bored or frustrated, he or she is unlikely to be motivated to succeed in that class.

Features of Multimedia

Multimedia presentations may be viewed in person on stage, projected, transmitted, or played locally with a media player. A broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be either analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed. Streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand.

Multimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, or simulator.

Enhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content But depending on what multimedia content you have it may vary Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time. Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-efficient, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia "experience" to be altered without reprogramming.

Applications of MultimediaMultimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not

limited to, advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering,

medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research and spatial, temporal applications.

A few application areas of multimedia are listed below:

Creative industriesCreative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging

from fine arts, to entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and software services provided for any of the industries listed below. An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum throughout their career. Request for their skills range from technical, to analytical and to creative.

CommercialMuch of the electronic old and new media utilized by commercial artists

is multimedia. Exciting presentations are used to grab and keep attention in advertising. Industrial, business to business, and interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven-up training. Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services and nonprofit services applications as well.

Entertainment and Fine ArtsIn addition, multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment

industry, especially to develop special effects in movies and animations. Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs or online. Some video games also use multimedia features.

Multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information are called Interactive Multimedia.

Education

In Education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopaedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats. Edutainment is an informal term used to describe combining education with entertainment, especially multimedia entertainment.

EngineeringSoftware engineers may use multimedia in Computer Simulations for

anything from entertainment to training such as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers.

CHAPTER 3:MODELS OF TEACHING

MODELS OF TEACHING

Introduction: Development of models of teaching is the recent innovation in

teaching.  An important purpose of discussing models of teaching is to assist the teacher to have a wide range of approaches for creating a proper interactive environment for learning.  An intelligent use of these approaches enables the teacher to adopt him to the learning needs of the students.A number of educationist and psychologists have proposed model approach to teaching. Flender (1970) put his interaction analysis as a model of teaching and for this approaches he categorized the statements of the students and teachers into ten categories. In India, the first National project on models of teaching was planned, designed and executed during 1985-86

DEFINITION OF MODELS OF TEACHINGALLEN AND RYAN (1969); Modeling is an individual demonstrating

particular pattern which the trainee through imitation.B.K.PASSI L.C.SINGH AND D.N.SANSANWAL (1991); A model of

teaching consist of guidelines for designing educational activities and environments.  Model of teaching is a plan that can also be utilized to shape courses of studies, to design instructional material and to guide instruction.

JOYCE AND WEIL (1972) ; Teaching of model is a pattern or plan, which can be a curriculum or courses to select instructional materials and to guide a teachers actions.

Educators and psychologist have design several types of teaching models which provides suitable guidelines to the teachers for modifying the behaviour of the learners.

As a matter of facts some sorts of models of teaching have been existence since times immemorial. In simple language a models of teaching may be defined as a blueprint designed in advance for providing necessary structure and direction to the teacher for realizing the stipulated objectives.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHING MODEL1.      Specification of learning outcomes; A models of teaching specify what

the students should perform after completing an instructional sequence.2.      Specification on environment; A models of teaching specifies in definite

terms the environmental condition under which a student’s response should be observed.

3.      Specification of criterion of performance; A models of teaching specifies the criterion for performance which is expected from the students.

4.      Specification of operation;  A  models of teaching specifies the mechanism that provides for the reaction of students and interaction with the environment

5.      Scientific procedure; A models of teaching is based on a systematic procedure to modify the behavior of the learner. It is not a haphazard combination of facts.

FUNCTION OF TEACHING MODELS1.      They help in guiding the teacher to select appropriate teaching

techniques, strategies and methods for the effective utilization of the teaching situation and material for realizing the objectives

2.      They help in bringing about desirable changes in the behaviour of the learners.

3.      They help in finding out ways and means of creating favorable environmental situation for carrying out teaching process.

4.      They help in achieving desirable teacher-pupil interaction during teaching.

5.      They help in the construction of a curriculum or contents of a course.6.      They help in the proper selection of instruction material for teaching the

prepared course or the curriculum.7.      They help in designing appropriate educational activities.8.      They assist procedure of material to create interesting and effective

materials and learning sources.9.      They stimulate the development of new educational innovations.10.  They help in the formation of theory of teaching.11.  They help to establish teaching end learning relationship empirically.

EFFECTS OF TEACHING BY MODELLING            Bandura and Walters mention three kinds of effects in teaching by modeling1. A modeling effect2. A inhibitory and dishibitory effects3. An eliciting effects1. A modeling effect: A modeling effects can be seen when a teacher demonstrate to a students to hold a pencil or write capital A etc…. and thus shows a new behaviour.  Here student learner new kinds of responses pattern.2. A inhibitory and dishibitory effects:  An inhibitory or dishibitory effects takes place when through modeling we let the students know that it is not possible to look at picture of nudes, in an art book.3. An eliciting effects: The eliciting effect takes place when a teacher through modeling tries to teach students to rise when a lady enters the room and thus provides a cue eliciting a response neither new nor inhibited.FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF A TEACHING MODEL

A teaching model has six fundamental modls:I. FocusII. SyntaxIII. Principles of reactionsIV. The social systemV. The supportive systemVI. Application contenxt

FOCUS; Focus is the central aspects of a teaching model.  Objectives of teaching and aspects of environment generally constitute the focus of the model.

SYNTAX; Syntax includes the sequences of steps involved in the organization of the complete programmed of teaching.

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING: This element is concerned with the way a teacher should regard and aspects respond to the activities of the students.  These responses should be appropriate and selective. THE SOCIAL SYSTEM:  It is related to the description of the following ;1.       Interactive roles and relationship between the teacher and the students.2.       The kinds of norms that are observed and student behavior which is

rewarded

THE SUPPORTIVE SYSTEM: The supportive system relates to the additional requirements other than

the usual human skills or capacities of the teacher and the facilities usually available in the ordinary classroom. Teacher requirements refer to special skills, special knowledge of the teacher and special audio-visual material like films, elf-instructional material, visit to special place etc…APPILICATION CONTEXT:  Several types of teaching modes are available. Each model attempts to desirable the feasibility of its use in varying contexts-goal achievements-cognitive, conactive-effective.

TYPES OF MODERN TEACHING MODELS;1.      Information processing models2.      Social interaction models3.      Personal models4.      Behaviour modification models

Information processing modelsInformation processing models refer to the way people handle stimuli

from the environment, organize data, sense problem, generate concepts and solution to problems and use verbal and nonverbal symbols.

Social interaction modelsSocial interaction models stress the relationship of the individual to other

person and to society.

Personal modelsPersonal development models assist the individual in the development of

selfhood, they focus on the emotional life an individual,.

Behaviour modification modelsBehaviour modification models stress changing the external behaviour of

the learners and describe them in them of visible behaviour rather than underlying behaviour.

MERITS OF MODELES IN TEACHING;1.      It is a natural way of teaching and learning.2.      It is helpful in developing the power of imagination of the students.3.      It helps in the developments of reasoning power of the students.4.      It helps the students to analyse things systematically.5.      It keeps students actively engaged in the classroom activity.6.      It helps in making the students good observers.7.      It keeps the students busy in the classroom work.

LIMITATIONSI. It makes high demands on the students as well as teachers.II. All the students of the class may not be able to participate in the

teaching-learning process.III. Some students, on account of their shyness, fail to derive the requisite

advantage of this model.

Robert Glaser’s Teaching Model:Robert Glaser (1962)  has developed a stripped-down teaching model

which, with modifications, is the basic teaching model. The basic teaching model divides the teaching process into four components or parts. It will be useful in several ways. It helps to organize the great body of facts, concepts and principles which makes  up

The above diagram is a diagram of basic teaching model. The four parts  of the model  represent the basic divisions. Box A denotes Instructional objectives, Box B  includes Entering behavior, Box C deals with instructional procedure, and finally Box D relates to performance assessment. The diagram referred above applies to the four components of the basic teaching model, with its connecting arrows shows only the major sequence of events in the instructional process, it is possible to add many more connecting lines. Lines with connect components later in the sequence with earlier ones are called FEEDBACK LOOPS .The three feedback loops as shown in the diagram shown below for example, connect performance assessment with each of the earlier components of the model.

Instructional objectivesInstructional objectives are those the student should attain upon

completion of a segment of instruction. In theory, objectives can vary in scope and character. Instructional procedures ,describe the teaching process; most decisions a teacher makes are on these procedures. Proper management of this component results in those changes I student behavior which we call learning or achievement. Procedures must vary with the instructional objectives.

One way to define instructional objectives is to identify the end product of instruction in terms of observable performance. The way to determine whether or not a student has learned something is to observe the outcome of his behavior. The outcome has been conventionally referred to as behavioral objectives. It is more precise to refer to these end products  of instruction as terminal performances. In most schools these are verbal performances or motor skills.

Entering behavior

Entering behavior describes the student level before the instruction begins. It refers to what the student has previously learned, his intellectual ability and development, his motivational state, and certain social and cultural determinants of his learning ability. Entering behavior is a more precise term than its usual alternatives—human ability, individual differences, and readiness. This precision may come at the price of seeing the student as less complex, less able, and less experienced than he may in fact be. Schools tend to define entering behavior in terms of the traditions curriculum rather than in terms of student ability, experience, and interest. A student with the more abstractive ability and interest of the mathematician, therefore, may be viewed as having a higher level entering behavior than that of a student whose major interest and ability are in creating the visual, geometric forms of modern painting and sculpture. Although the model gives priority to the selection of instrumental objectives over the assessment of entering behavior, in practices these two components must interact. Depending on the requirement of the instructional situations, particularly on the entering behavior of the student, the classroom of the future will provide for more or less personal contact than the conventional classroom does now. Accordingly, the model implies a greater emphasis on teacher competence than on personal charisma without, of course, objecting to a useful combination of the two.

More simply, entering behavior describes the present status of the student’s knowledge and skill in reference to a future status the teacher wants him to attain. Entering behavior, therefore, is where the instruction must always begin.Terminal behavior is where the instruction concludes.. This way the teaching can be described as getting the student from where he is to where we would like him to be- as moving from entering to terminal behavior. Together descriptions of entering and terminal behavior define the limits of instructional responsibility for each degree of teaching.

Instructional Procedures

Instructional procedures describe the teaching process; most decisions a teacher makes are on these procedures. Proper management of this component results in those changes in student behavior which we call learning or achievement. Procedures must vary with the instructional objectives. Generally instructional procedures describe procedures for teaching skills, language, concepts, principles, and problem solving.

 

Performance assessment

CHAPTER 4:EDUCATION

TECHNOLOGY

Educational technology

Educational technology, sometimes termed EdTech, is the study and ethical practice of facilitating e-learning, which is the learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology is "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning," according to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee, educational technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational technology includes, but is not limited to, software, hardware, as well as Internet applications, such as wikis and blogs, and activities. But there is still debate on what these terms mean.

Technology in education is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning and may be measured on how and why individuals behave. Educational Technology relies on a broad definition of the word "technology." Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as smartphones and games (both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential. Media psychology is the field of study that applies theories of human behavior to educational technology.

A classic example of an Educational Psychology text is Bloom's 1956 book, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Bloom's Taxonomy is helpful when designing learning activities to keep in mind what is expected of—and what are the learning goals for—learners. However, Bloom's work does not explicitly deal with educational technology per

Behaviorism

This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F. Skinner and many others. Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment that is parallel to human learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many educators.

Cognitivism

Cognitive science has changed the way educators view learning. Since the very early beginning of the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning.

Constructivism

Constructivism is a learning theory of educational philosophy that many educators began to consider in the 1990s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different perspectives.

Constructivist learning environments require students to use their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing technology when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment.

Benefits

Educational technology is intended to improve education for the 21st century learner. Students today are considered "Digital Natives" who were born and raised in a digital environment and inherently think different because of this exposure to technology. Some of the claimed benefits of incorporating technology into the classroom are listed below:

Easy-to-access course materials. Instructors can post their course material or important information on a course website, which means students can study at a time and location they prefer and can obtain the study material very quickly.

Student motivation. According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes. Teachers must be aware of their students' motivators in order to successfully implement technology into the classroom. Students are more motivated to learn when they are interested in the subject matter, which can be enhanced by using technologies in the classroom and targeting the need for screens and digital material that they have been stimulated by outside of the classroom.

More opportunities for extended learning. According to study completed in 2010, 70.3% of American family households have access to the internet. According to Canadian Radio Television and Telecommunications Commission Canada, 79% of homes have access to the internet. This allows students to access course material at home and engage with the numerous online resources available to them. Students can use their home computers and internet to conduct research, participate in social media, email, play educational games and stream videos.

Wide participation. Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are accessible to a wider audience.[21]

Improved student writing. It is convenient for students to edit their written work on word processors, which can, in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know.[16]

Computer in the classroom: Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material, illustrate how to use new programs, and show new websites.

Class website: An easy way to display your student's work is to create a web page designed for your class. Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much more. In today's society, children should know how to use the computer to navigate their way through a website, so why not give them one where they can be a published author? Just be careful, as most districts maintain strong policies to manage official websites for a school or classroom. Also, most school districts provide teacher webpages that can easily be viewed through the school district's website.

Class blogs and wikis: There are a variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being implemented in the classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue. They work a tool for maintaining a journal of thoughts, ideas, and assignments, as well as encourage student comment and reflection. Wikis are more group focused to allow multiple members of the group to edit a single document and create a truly collaborative and carefully edited finished product.

Blogs allow the student to express their knowledge of the information learned in a way that they like. Blogging is something that students do for fun sometimes, so when they are assigned an assignment to do a blog they are eager to do it! If you are a teacher and need to find a way to get your students eager to learn, create, and inspire assign them a blog. They will love it.

Wireless classroom microphones: Noisy classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with the help of microphones, students are able to hear their teachers more clearly. Children learn better when they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no longer lose their voices at the end of the day.

Mobile devices: Mobile devices such as clickers or smartphone can be used to enhance the experience in the classroom by providing the possibility for professors to get feedback.

Mobile learning is how an individual learns using personal interactive technologies, such as a computer.A branch of mobile learning where students relate personal experiences to their learning is called performance support. More specifically, performance support is when a person relies on their personal technology for everyday tasks, such as using your cell phone to check the time or setting reminders in your phone. Students would also agree that technology, in this case computers, allow for more control over their learning. The reasons that make mobile learning appealing is how versatile computers can be. These devices can be available anytime and anywhere and can also enable access to the Internet and puts a surplus of information at the user’s fingertips. Some of the special characteristics that mobile learning presents to its users are portability, connectivity, speed, and accessibility. With benefits like these, mobile learning has the ability to offer more to education than has been available before. With easy access to the Internet, classrooms are more flexible to adapt to surrounding students who have different needs.

Interactive Whiteboards: An interactive whiteboard that provides touch control of computer applications. These enhance the experience in the classroom by showing anything that can be on a computer screen. This not only aids in visual learning, but it is interactive so the students can draw, write, or manipulate images on the interactive whiteboard.

Digital video-on-demand: Replacement of hard copy videos (DVD, VHS) with digital video accessed from a central server (e.g. SAFARI Montage). Digital video eliminates the need for in-classroom hardware (players) and

allows teachers and students to access video clips immediately by not utilizing the public Internet.

Online media: Streamed video websites can be used to enhance a classroom lesson (e.g. United Streaming, Teacher Tube, etc.)

Online study tools: Tools that motivate studying by making studying more fun or individualized for the student (e.g. Study Cocoa)

Digital Games: The field of educational games and serious games has been growing significantly over the last few years. The digital games are being provided as tools for the classroom and have a lot of positive feedback including higher motivation for students.[59]

There are many other tools being used depending on the local school board and funds available. These may include: digital cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, document cameras, or LCD projectors.

CHAPTER 5:INSTRUCTIONAL

SYSTEM

INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Instruction

Instruction is helping people learn and develop in a structured manner. The kinds of learning and development may include cognitive, emotional, social, physical, and spiritual. Learning can certainly occur without instruction. We are continuously encountering and interpreting our environment and the events in it. Learning is a natural process that leads to changes in what we know, what we can do, and how we behave. However, one function of an educational system is to facilitate intentional learning, in order to accomplish many goals that would take much longer without instruction. Educational institutions teach knowledge and skills that the community feels are desirable, even if they are not of immediate personal interest to the student, and even if they would not be encountered naturally in non-school environments. The government and commercial industries provide both skills and training and continuing refresher training to help employees acquire the skills and learning needed to succeed in a changing workplace (Gagne et. al. 2005).

Is teaching different from instruction? Teaching is only one part of instruction. The word “teach” infers that a person is lecturing or demonstrating something to the learner. However, the teacher or trainer’s role includes many different tasks, such as selecting materials, gauging student readiness to learn, managing class time, monitoring instructional activities, and finally serving as a content resource and a learning facilitator. “Instruction” puts emphasis on a whole range of activities the teacher uses to engage the students. An instructor who has knowledge of the principles of instruction design has a broader vision of what it takes to help students learn: when it would benefit students to be put into groups, when practice and feedback will be most effective, and what are the pre-requisites for problem-solving and higher-order learning skills, for example.

Application of principles of instructional design would benefit a number of persons connected with education, including those who are in the business of producing instructional materials, such as textbook writers, curriculum material developers, web-based course designers, and knowledge management system designers.

Instructional-Design Theories (Reigeluth 1999)

An instructional-design theory offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop. For example, an instructional-design theory called “Theory One” (Perkins 1992) offers the following guidance for what the instruction should provide:

Clear information. Descriptions and examples of goals, knowledge needed, and the performances expected. Thoughtful practice. Opportunity for learners to engage actively and reflectively whatever is to be learned. Informative feedback. Clear, thorough counsel to learners about their performance, helping them to proceed more effectively. Strong intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Activities that are amply rewarded, either because they are very interesting and engaging in themselves, or because they feed into other achievements that concern the learner.Instructional-design theory is a design-oriented (focusing on means to attain given goals of learning or development), rather than description oriented (focusing on the results of given events). Secondly, instructional design theory identifies methods of instruction (ways to support and facilitate learning) and the situations in which those methods should and should not be used. Third, in all instructional-design theories, the methods of instruction can be broken into more detailed component methods. Fourth, the methods are probabilistic rather than deterministic, which means they increase the chances of attaining the goals rather than ensuring attainment of goals.

Theories can be thought of as dealing with cause-and-effect relationships or with flows of events in natural processes, keeping in mind that those effects or events are almost always probabilistic. Most people think of theories as descriptive in nature, meaning that the theory describes the effects that occur when a given class of causal events occurs, or meaning that it describes the sequence in which certain events occur. Descriptive theories can be used for prediction or for explanation. Design–oriented theories are very different from descriptive theories. Design theories are prescriptive in nature, in the sense that they offer guidelines as to what method(s) to use to best attain a given

goal. Simon (1969) referred to the distinction between descriptive theories and design theories as “the natural sciences” and “and the sciences of the artificial”, respectively. Design theories are intended to provide direct guidance to practitioners about what methods to use to attain different goals, whereas descriptive theories attempt to provide a deeper understanding of effects that result from phenomena. Descriptive theories, therefore, are also useful to practitioners, because they provide an understanding of why a design theory works and because they can help practitioners to generate their own theories for those many situations for which no adequate ones exist. The major concern for people developing and testing descriptive theories is validity, whereas for design theories it is preferability.

Instruction design theory requires at least two components: methods for facilitating human learning and development (which are also called instructional methods), and indications as to when and when not use those methods (which may be called situations). An essential feature of instructional-design theories is that the methods they offer are situational rather than universal. There are two major aspects of any instructional situation: the conditions under which the instruction will take place and the desired outcomes of the instruction. Instructional conditions include:

The nature of what is to be learned (e.g., understandings are learned differently from the way skills are learned)

The nature of the learner (e.g., prior knowledge, learning strategies, and motivation)

The nature of learning environment (e.g., independently at home, in a group, in a classroom, a team in business)

The nature of the instructional development constraints (e.g., resources available for planning and developing instruction)

The second major aspect of any instructional situation is the desired instructional outcomes, which are different from learning goals. They do not include the specific learnings that are desired. Instead, desired instructional outcomes include the levels of effectiveness, efficiency, and appeal you want or need from the instruction. Some trade-offs are necessary, among the desired outcomes.

Instructional methods are also componential, meaning that each can be done in different ways and therefore made up of different components (or features). For example, group discussion can be viewed as a method of instruction. But group discussion is made up of many smaller methods, such as forming groups, presenting an issue for discussion, rules to be followed for discussions, and evaluating group’s as well as individuals’ efforts and so forth. In addition, there are usually many different ways in which a method can be performed. The discussion topic can be presented in many ways; the rules for discussions can be made differently, and so forth. More details can be provided for a method by offering criteria that the method should meet. An instructional-design theory is easier to apply if it describes methods on a relatively detailed level.

Another characteristic of methods of instruction is that they are probabilistic. This means that methods do not guarantee the desired instructional and learning outcomes. They only increase the probability that the desired results will occur. This is because there are so many factors that influence how well a method of instruction works.

So, instructional-design theories can vary greatly in terms of the level of guidance they provide, ranging from very general theories to highly dedicated theories. Instructional-design theories differ in important ways from learning theories, curriculum theories, and instruction-design processes.

Learning theories are often confused with instruction-design theories. Learning theories are descriptive. They describe how learning occurs. For example, one kind of theory, called schema theory, proposes that new knowledge is acquired by accretion into an existing schema, by tuning that schema when minor inconsistencies emerge, and restructuring that schema when major inconsistencies arise. If I am able to successfully identify useful methods for a particular situation, I have created an instructional-design theory. In contrast to learning theories, instructional-design theories are more directly and easily applied to education problems, for they describe specific events outside of the learner that facilitate learning (i.e., methods of instruction), rather than describing what goes on inside a learner’s head when

learning occurs. The same kind of analysis applies to theories of human development.

Curriculum theories are concerned with what to teach, whereas decisions about how to teach constitute the province of instruction-design theories. However, the interrelationships between these two kinds of decisions are so strong that it often makes sense to combine the two. Regarding what to teach (goals), the Instructional System Design (ISD) process has traditionally looked at only what works, through the process of needs analysis. But many curriculum theories are based on a philosophy (a set of values). In fact both empirics (data about what is needed) and values (opinions about what is important) are relevant and should be addressed in the ISD process for deciding what to teach, perhaps with different degrees of emphasis for different situations. Decisions regarding how to teach need also to take into consideration how one situation differs from another, because people differ in their values about what outcomes are important. Thus, both values and empirics are important for making decisions about how to teach as well as what to teach, so elements of curriculum theory and the ISD process should be combined.

Instructional-Design Process or Instructional System Development (ISD) is the process a teacher or instructional designer should use to plan and prepare for instruction, while instructional-design theory concerns what the instruction should be like (i.e., what methods of instruction should be used). However, instructional-design theories and instructional-design processes are closely related. Different theories require differences in the process used to apply those theories to particular situations.

Instructional practice is a subsystem that is part of different kinds of systems, such as public education system, higher education systems, corporate training systems, health agencies, the armed forces, museums, informal learning systems, and many others. Systems thinkers know that, when a human-activity system (or societal system) changes in significant ways, its subsystems must change in equally significant ways to survive. This is because each subsystem must meet one or more needs of its supersystem in order for the supersystem to continue to support it.

Instructional System Design Model

Introduction

Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Models are the systematic guidelines instructional designers follow in order to create a workshop, a course, a curriculum, an instructional program, a training session, or the instructional materials and products for educational programs. ISD is a process to ensure learning does not occur in a haphazard manner, but is developed using a process with specific measurable outcomes. The responsibility of the instructional designer is to create instructional experiences, which ensure that the learners will achieve the goals of instruction. ADDIE is generic model for instruction system design. All other ISD models can be treated as particularizations of this model for specific purposes. For example, the very popular Dick and Carey model can be seen as particularization of ADDIE model for training programs, though the authors did not refer to ADDIE. One particularization of ADDIE model to courses in formal engineering programs is presented in the following.

ADDIE Model

The “ADDIE Model” is a colloquial term used, since 1980s, to describe a systematic approach to instructional development. The term is virtually synonymous with instructional systems development. The label seems not to have a single author, but rather to have evolved informally through oral tradition. It is not a specific, fully elaborated model in its own right, but rather an umbrella term that refers to a family of models that share a common underlying structure. ADDIE is an acronym referring to the major processes that comprise the generic ISD: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. These processes are sequential and iterative, as depicted in figure 1.

The basic engine of ISD models (Molenda 2003) is the systems approach: viewing human organizations and activities as systems in which inputs, outputs, processes (throughputs), and feedback and control elements are the

ANALYSIS

DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

EVALUATION

IMPLEMENTATION

EVALUATION

salient features. Advocates of this model claim that the process of designing instruction can be carried out more efficiently and effectively if the steps are followed in a logical order so that the output of each step provides the input to the next. For example, the outputs of the Analysis phase are a set of learning objectives prepared based on a selected set of competencies, a concept map that arranges the concepts to be mastered to achieve the learning objectives, and course contents arranged as modules. In the Design phase learning objectives at the level of modules are prepared, media in which learning material would be presented is selected, and instructional methods are chosen for different learning units/modules. The blueprint created in the Design phase is converted into instructional materials and procedures in the Development phase. The materials and procedures are used by actual learners in the Implementation phase. The learners and the instructional system are probed, in the Evaluation phase to decide whether revisions are necessary, in which case the process would be repeated with the next version of instruction.

Fig. 1: ADDIE model of ISD

The iterative aspect of the model is represented vertically down the model by the arrows in both directions between each phase, as depicted in

figure 1. Each major phase of the process is accompanied by some sort of formative evaluation, as depicted on the left side of the model, to test the adequacy of the decisions made during that phase. After Analysis, for example, the accuracy of descriptions of the audience and the learning needs are evaluated by a group of experts. After Design, the concept map and instructional methods are judged by experts. After Development, the efficacy of prototype work in a small-scale tryout is evaluated and improvements to the learning materials are worked out. Did the entire intervention achieve its goal, or what remains to be done after Implementation? This summative evaluation is what is symbolized by the final Evaluation phase. At each of these phases, the results of the evaluative activity could lead the developers to revisit earlier steps, hence the arrows between phases in both the directions.

The single most important feature of ADDIE model is the identification, at the beginning of instruction design, of learning objectives that determine the nature and content of learning material.

The activities under all these four phases will greatly depend on the nature of what is being created and the context in which it is being created. The context is defined by the audience and their background, environment in which the instruction takes place, and the technologies accessible.

Analysis

Analysis is the first stage of ADDIE model. The first task in this phase is identification of audience and determination of their entry behavior. As engineering programs are formal, elaborate mechanisms exist for selection of students to these programs, and the curriculum identifies the course structure and prerequisites of each course, the analysis of audience and entry behaviors need not be undertaken for each course. The time and budget constraints also do not change from one course to the other very much. All courses are of one semester duration and have well defined credit load. The system of examination to evaluate the performance of students is prefixed and the instruction designer has only a limited choice in this regard. Therefore, the major task of the analysis phase is identification of instructional goals. An engineering program has well defined outcomes, which are generic in nature. Each course attempts to meet a subset of these outcomes. The selected

outcomes need to be translated into a set of technical and non-technical competencies related to the subject matter of the course. Learning objectives are written for the identified list of competencies. The stages of analysis phase for an engineering course may be listed as

State the context of the course in terms of Mission and Vision of the Institution, Program Educational Objectives, Curriculum of the program of which the course is an element, and course overview.

Select a subset of program outcomes proposed to be addressed by the course.

Identify the competencies related to the subject under consideration that also achieve the selected program outcomes.

Determine instructional methods proposed to be used for the course. Select an assessment pattern for the identified competencies. Write instructional objectives that would lead to the identified

competencies. Create the concept map of the course that arranges in a hierarchical

manner the concepts that need to be learnt to achieve the competencies.

Prepare the course contents as per the concept map. Prepare competency-program outcome matrix. Have the outcomes, competencies, assessment pattern, learning

objectives, and concept map evaluated by peers, and modify them if necessary.

Design Phase

The design phase represents activities that enable the instruction designer to generate a plan according to which the instructional material would be identified and/or developed. The stages of design phase for an engineering course may be listed as

Work out instructional strategies for achieving each competency taking the available tools and preferences into account.

Write overview and instructional objectives for each unit. Select appropriate delivery system for each unit from the available

technology systems.

Work out instructional strategy for a group of units (Module) or for each unit.

Plan the non-lecture oriented sessions (assignment, laboratory experiments, field trips, reports, group projects, discussion sessions etc.) if required.

Have the outputs of design phase peer reviewed.

Development Phase

The development phase represents activities that convert the blueprints created in the design phase into instructional materials, learning materials and materials and procedures for planned activities. The stages in the development phase of an engineering course consist of

Select and/or prepare learning materials for the course. The learning material could be in the form of learning objects

Identify reference materials and internet links relevant resources. Prepare instructional materials as per the selected instructional methods

and strategies

CHAPTER 6:MICRO-TEACHING

INTRODUCTION

The art of teaching does not merely involve a simple transfer of knowledge from one to other. Instead, it is a complex process that facilitates and influences the process of learning. Quality of a teacher is estimated on how much the students understand from his/her teaching. The classrooms cannot be used as a learning platform for acquiring primary teaching skills. Training of medical teachers in specific teaching skills is a major challenge in medical education programs. The pedagogic skill for teaching can be acquired only through more structured and cheaper faculty training techniques. With the introduction of microteaching about five decades ago, the lacunae of scientifically proven or effective methods to be followed in teacher training programs has been overcome.

The aim of this article is to emphasize the need for using microteaching techniques more frequently and efficiently with minimum available facilities. A systematic literature search of research articles and reviews was undertaken from various educational databases. From the reference lists of published articles, books available were also reviewed.

MICROTEACHING

Definition and basic concepts

Microteaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It employs real teaching situation for developing skills and helps to get deeper knowledge regarding the art of teaching. This Stanford technique involved the steps of “plan, teach, observe, re-plan, re-teach and re-observe” and has evolved as the core component in 91% of on-campus clinical teaching development programs, with the significant reduction in the teaching complexities with respect to number of students in a class, scope of content, and timeframe, etc. Most of the pre-service teacher education programs widely use microteaching, and it is a proven method to attain gross improvement in the instructional experiences. Effective student teaching should be the prime quality of a teacher. As an innovative method of equipping teachers to be effective, skills and practices of microteaching have been implemented.

THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Microteaching in medical education

The traditional medical teaching emphasizes on the transmission of factual knowledge and hence, the teachers are the main source of information. But, the conventional methods of medical teacher training are not adequate. So, the teaching objectives have now shifted to the student centered, measurable, achievable, relevant, and timely concept. Microteaching allows learning each skill to the maximum extent as there is a chance of listening, observing, and practicing.

Implementation of microteaching in medical education

There was an increase in interests toward introducing microteaching techniques in the Indian medical schools. This training technique provides medical teachers an excellent opportunity to improve their teaching skills and follows the Skinners’ theory of operant conditioning and also has a scientific basis. The Medical Council of India has also recommended training for medical teachers for their continued, efficient performance in that capacity at any age. It is widely accepted that the quality and competency of medical teachers can be improved by effective medical education training programs.