principles of ichnoarchaeology: new frontiers for studying past … · 2009. 2. 12. · principles...

Principles of Ichnoarchaeology: new frontiers for studying past times

Andrea BAucon1*, Serena PriviterA2, Daniele MorAnDi BonAcoSSi3, Alessandro cAnci3,carlos neto De cArvAlho1, evangelia KyriAzi4, Jacques lABorel5,Françoise lABorel-Deguen5, christophe MorhAnge5 & nick MArriner5

1geopark naturtejo Meseta Meridional, geology and Paleontology office, centro cultural raiano. Av. Joaquim Morão 6060-101 idanha-a-nova, Portugal2 Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità, università di trieste, via lazzaretto vecchio 6, 34123, trieste, italy 3università di udine, via Palladio 8, Palazzo Florio, 33100 udine, italy4natural history Museum of the lesvos Petrified Forest, Sigri, lesvos island, greece5cnrS, cerege, université Aix-Marseille, europôle de l’Arbois, BP 80, 13545, Aix-en-Provence, France*corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

SuMMAry - Principles of Ichnoarchaeology: new frontiers for studying past times - Since its origins, Archaeology has evolved by in-teraction with other disciplines, and, in particular, the earth Sciences have provided major tools for archaeological analysis. Among the branches of earth Sciences, ichnology represents a new, promising field for application in Archaeology. the present work explores the application of ichnological methods and themes in Archaeology, as ichnoarchaeology. Despite case studies on archaeological traces, a uniform, consistent approach has been lacking. As a consequence, archaeologists are still not taking full advantage of traces. this study aims to establish a basis for a coherent, uniform framework by presenting the major themes of ichnoarchaeology through state-of-the-art case studies. it demonstrates the potential for the study of archaeological traces, and encourages collaboration among scientists of different fields to deepen the knowledge of our cultural heritage.

riASSunto - Principi dell’Icnoarcheologia: nuove frontiere per studiare il passato - Fin dalle sue origini, l’Archeologia si è evoluta interagendo con altre discipline; in particolare le Scienze della terra hanno fornito importanti strumenti per l’analisi archeologica. Fra i rami delle Scienze della terra, l’icnologia rappresenta un nuovo e promettente campo di applicazione in Archeologia. Questo articolo esplora l’icnoarcheologia, ovverosia l’applicazione di tematiche e metodi icnologici in Archeologia. Sebbene esistano già diversi studi sulle tracce archeologiche, finora manca un approccio uniforme all’argomento: di conseguenza gli archeologi non stanno traendo pieno vantaggio dalle tracce. Questo studio mira a stabilire una base logica e uniforme all’icnoarcheologia, presentando le sue tematiche principali attraverso casi di studio da manuale. vuole inoltre dimostrare le potenzialità dello studio delle tracce archeologiche e incoraggia la collaborazione fra scienziati di campi differenti per approfondire la conoscenza del nostro patrimonio culturale.

Key words: ichnology, Archaeology, ichnoarchaeology, geoarchaeology, tracesParole chiave: icnologia, Archeologia, icnoarcheologia, geoarcheologia, tracce

1. introDuction

1.1 Scientific Archaeology

“the islanders, too, were great pirates. these islan-ders were carians and Phoenicians, by whom most of the islands were colonised, as was proved by the following fact. During the purification of Delos by Athens in this war all the graves in the island were taken up, and it was found that above half their inma-tes were carians: they were identified by the fashion of the arms buried with them, and by the method of interment”(thucydides, The Pelopponnesian War, i, 8)

thucydides (vth century B.c.) reports one of the first examples of archaeological analysis: in his “the Pelopon-nesian War”, the author reconstructed an historical scenar-io by interpreting ancient weapons buried in the ground. thucydides himself alluded to this approach using the term α’ ρχαιολογια, “speech or research about ancient things”.

Since thucydides’ times, Archaeology has evolved by incessant interaction with other disciplines. Branches of earth Sciences have played a fundamental role, Archaeolo-gy greatly benefiting from interactions with geochemistry, geophysics, Palaeontology, Palynology, Pedology, Sedimen-tology and Stratigraphy.

Among the branches of earth Sciences, ichnology rep-resent a relatively new field with promise for application in

Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72 iSSn 0392-0534© Museo tridentino di Scienze naturali, trento 2008

gy), there are many other items falling within a wide grey zone (Fig. 1).

Bivalve borings on an ancient temple typify the grey zone. Such borings are classic ichnological items, althou-gh they can provide archaeological information (i.e. rela-tionship between civilisation and sea-level fluctuations; Section 2.2). Archaeological coprolites also fall within the grey zone. these biodepositional traces provide ar-chaeologists with information on the palaeoenvironment of archaeological sites (i.e. palaeovegetation and palaeo-climate), and the diet and palaeopathology of ancient ci-vilisations (e.g. Panagiotakopulu 1999; gonzález-Sam-périz et al. 2003).

this work is aiming to inspect how ichnological me-thods and themes can find application in Archaeology.

1.3. Methods

Few archaeological studies have explicitly mentioned ichnology. Some of the major examples concern insect bo-rings in bison bones (West & hasiotis 2007) and archaeo-logical mammal traces (higgs 2001; hasiotis et al. 2007). Jean-Michel geneste included ichnology in his workshop about the archaeological study of the chauvet-Pont d’Arc cave (see also garcia 2005).

From these few examples it would appear that archa-eological traces have been rarely considered. in reality, ho-wever, traces have been commonly studied in Archaeolo-gy but, in most cases, they have been not referred as ich-nology. Archaeologists have often dealt with traces: bur-rows (e.g. giacobini 1992; Pierce 1992), borings (in lithic substrates: e.g. Mohrange et al. 2006; in xylic substrates:

Fig. 1 - ichnoarchaeology represents the transitional zone between ichnology and archaeology. Fig. 1 - L’icnoarcheologia rappresenta la zona transizionale tra icnologia e archeologia.

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Archaeology. this study focuses on the application of ich-nological methods and themes in Archaeology, a discipline termed ichnoarchaeology.

1.2. Archaeology and Ichnology

Archaeology (from greek α’ ρχαιολογìα, α’ ρχαiος “ancient” and λογος “speech”) was considered for a long time a branch of history, although during the 20th cen-tury it developed its own identity. At present, Archaeolo-gy is regarded as the discipline aiming to reconstruct an-cient human civilisations and cultures through the analy-sis and documentation of physical evidence found in the soil (structures, artefacts, biological or human remains) (after Bianchi & Bandinelli 1976; Pallottino 1980; Straz-zulla 1996: 33-82).

the archaeologist’s physical evidence has significant analogies with the keystone of ichnology, i.e. traces. in fact ichnology (from greek ιχνος “trace” and λογος “speech”) is regarded as the study of fossil and recent traces, which can be considered as biogenically-produced sedimentary structures (Frey 1973). recently, Bertling et al. (2006) re-fined Frey’s (1973) approach and defined a trace (fossil) as “a morphologically recurrent structure resulting from the life activity of an individual organism (or homotypic organ-isms) modifying the substrate” (after Blackwelder 1967; Frey 1973; iczn 1999: glossary). however, it must be pointed out that the definition of trace is still debated (i.e. Skolithos listserver 2003).

it is not possible to trace a sharp limit between Ar-chaeology and ichnology. Although the end-terms are cle-ar (e.g. minoan vase= Archaeology; Zoophycos= ichnolo-

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44 Baucon et al. ichnoarchaeology

e.g. Fozzati & Scanferla 2002), gnaw and chop marks (e.g. Brain 1983; Buikstra & ubelaker 1994; Milner & Smith 2005; cáceres et al. 2007; Mcgraw et al. 2006), coprolites (e.g. Billman et al. 2000; horrocks et al. 2003), bioturbation (e.g. Balek 2002; Fowler et al. 2004; Morin 2006).

the above references represent a small fraction of the vast bibliography on archaeological traces, but they are suf-ficient to demonstrate the following points.1. Potential of Ichnoarchaeology. the existing studies on

archaeological traces show the potential of ichnoarcha-eology in addressing archaeological problems which are not solvable using conventional methods.

2. Archaeological traces and ichnologists. Most studies on archaeological traces have not been authored by “tradi-tional” ichnologists. in fact, experts on archaeological traces are more often linked with other disciplines (Ar-chaeology, biology, soil science, etc) and they do not re-gard themselves as “ichnologists”.

3. Lack of a uniform approach. A uniform, systematic ap-proach has been lacking in the study of archaeological traces.

the aforementioned points require a multidisciplinary approach to the subject in order to portray coherently the stu-dy of archaeological traces (points 1, 2) and to place them in a consistent, uniform framework (3). consequently, experts in various fields – ichnology, Archaeology, biology, restora-tion, soil science, anthropology - were invited to share their experience on archeological traces. the philosophy of the re-sulting paper presents the major themes of ichnoarchaeology through state-of-the-art case studies. the experts, co-ordina-ted by the senior authors (Baucon and Privitera), wrote speci-fic sections of the paper (Bonaccossi and canci, section 2.2; laborel, Mohrange, Marriner, laborel-Deguen, section 3.2; Kyriazi, section 3.3; neto de carvalho, sections 3.4, 4).

this is the first step to propose a uniform, systematic approach to the study of archaeological traces.

2. BioturBAtionAl StructureS

2.1. Introduction

Bioturbational structures include some of the most re-presentative traces of Palaeoichnology, such as burrows and footprints. however, these structures are some of the most problematic in ichnoarchaeology because of preservation is-sues. in most of archaeological cases diagenetic processes have acted for insufficient time to enhance these traces. As a consequence, it is often difficult to recognise distinct bur-rows/footprints at archaeological sites. nevertheless, the-re are some recurrent diagenetic and sedimentological con-ditions that facilitate the fine-quality preservation of biotur-bational structures in archaeological context. these are illu-strated by two sites: Aquileia (italy, roman Age) and Qatna (Syria, Bronze Age).

2.2. Artificial substrates vs natural substrates: the imprinted bricks of Aquileia

Although archaeological footprints are uncommon on natural substrates, they have been reported from several si-tes around the world (tab. 1).

the occurrence of footprints is intimately linked with the geotechnical properties of the substrate during the tra-ce-making process. Allen (1997) made use of neoichnolo-gical observations and indentation experiments to analy-se an ichnoarcheological site on the Severn estuary (great Britain), where a diverse ichnofauna of Flandrian intergla-cial to post roman times has been found (tab.1). Diagene-sis also plays a role as the occurrence of archeological fo-otprints is generally linked to relatively prolonged and/or fast diagenesis. For these reasons, archaeological footprints are more difficult to distinguish in very recent deposits (e.g. classical Antiquity and Middle Ages sites).

however, there is a particular kind of substrate – bricks - where archaeological footprints are abundantly reported, even from the middle Ages. Bricks (and tiles) represent an optimal substrate to preserve traces because of their:- Geotechnical properties. Bricks consist of clay-rich

sediment and, before drying, have a reasonable degree of moisture; therefore, they are usually highly suscep-tive to trace-making.

- Open-air drying. usually, the brick-making process includes sun-drying. During this phase, bricks are sto-cked over vast open-air surfaces; consequently, ani-mals have good possibilities to leave footprints on the drying bricks.

- Fast diagenesis. the drying phase causes rapid indu-ration of the bricks; in some cases sun-drying consti-tutes the last phase of the brick-making process (e.g. during neolithic times), although commonly sun-dried bricks are subsequently fired. For instance, in roman times, vitruvium refered only to sun-dried bricks, whi-le buildings made of fired bricks were reported from Silla’s Age (1st century B.c.; Adam 2003). Sun drying and firing processes are analogous to rapid diagene-sis, which can lead to optimal preservation of foot-prints.

- Resistance and abundance. Bricks and tiles have been commonly used throughout antiquity, and they con-stitute a very resistant material, giving footprints on bricks a high preservation potential. the study of imprinted bricks (Fig. 2) can give im-

portant information for interpreting archaeological site. the most basic information concerns the faunal compo-nents present. For example, higgs (2001) studied abun-dant and well-preserved material from various roman and Medieval sites in england. By examining the imprinted bricks, he was able to identify various tracemakers (dogs, cat, birds, mustelids, sheep/goats, cattle, pigs, horses). Be-cause the tracemaker is usually a mammal, it can be identi-fied with a high degree of confidence. however, some cau-

45Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 83 (2008): 43-72

tion must be given to the interpretation of bricks: unlikely most trace fossils, imprinted bricks are commonly transport-ed. therefore, when analysing imprinted bricks, it must be kept in mind that the ichnofauna always refers to the place of production of the bricks. in this regard, ichnological data could be useful to find the place of brick production when this is unknown (i.e. by determining if the ichnoassociation is urban or rural).

Footprints can also give information on palaeoenviron-

Fig. 2 - imprinted bricks. a. roman brick with dog’s fooprint. Aquileia, italy. b. Medieval brick with track; arrow points to the second footprint of the track (partially preserved). the footprints show features typical of cat-like producers (rounded morphology, relatively small size) but the presence of claw marks are indicative of dog-like producer (cats usually retreat claws during locomotion). Monte nao-ne, italy. courtesy of Sebi Arena.Fig. 2 - Laterizi improntati. Scala 1 cm. a. Laterizio romano con impronta di cane. Aquileia, Italia. b. Laterizio medievale con impronta, possibilmen-te di cane. Monte Naone, Italia. Per gentile concessione di Sebi Arena.

reference tracemakers Age location notes

gonzalez et al. (1996) and roberts et al. (1996)

Aurochs, red deer, roe deer, crane, human footprints

3500 years united Kingdom

Belperio & Fotheringham (1990)

emu, kangaroo and human footprints

5000 years Australia

Watson et al. 2005; Willey et al. 2005

human footprints 5400 years north America cave setting

Politis & Bayon (1995)Sea mammal and human traces

7100 years Argentina

Allen (1997)Deer, auroch, domesticat-ed cattle, sheep/goat, horse, wolf/dog, human footprints

from Flandrian interglacial to post-roman times

united Kingdom

tongiorgi & lamboglia (1963); lockley (1999)

human footprints; cave bear footprints and scratch marks

Palaeolithic italy cave setting

vallois (1930) human footprints Palaeolithic France cave setting

Mountain (1966)human, hyaena and bird tracks

Pleistocene South Africa

university of haifa (2007) human footprint roman times israelroman soldier sandal print

tab. 1 - examples of archaeological footprints.Tab. 1 - Alcuni esempi di impronte archeologiche.

ments: some mammals are very sensitive as regards environ-mental setting (e.g. beavers are associated with streams and lakes bordered by trees; otters occur near river courses; squir-rels are usually found within coniferous woods or mixed co-niferous/deciduous woods; red fox is an environment cross-ing species, but it is usually associated with mixed wood-land/open country; see Stokes & Stokes 1986).

even though imprinted bricks offer important informa-tion, we must not consider them as dei ex machina to solve


all the archaeozoological problems of a certain site. in fact it must be kept in mind that imprinted bricks do not record the total biodiversity. For instance, Baucon et al. (in prep.) studied the roman site of Aquileia (italy) and gave evidence that the imprinted bricks (Fig. 3) suggested a much poorer fauna than the skeletal remains.

Footprints on natural substrates: dynamics of 2000 B.C. pot-tery manufacture revealed by ichnoarchaeological evidence (Qatna Acropolis, Syria)

As mentioned, preservation of footprints on natural substrates requires appropriate geotechnical and diagenetic conditions, which are not always associated with the archae-

ological context. nevertheless, when present, archaeologi-cal footprints can provide precious information, usually not determinable with other methods (see Allen 1997; huddart et al. 1999; Webb et al. 2006). Archaeological footprints on natural substrates (Fig. 4) are not transported and therefore provide a vital source of spatial and temporal data that can help in the understanding of the social behaviours of past civilisations. For instance, human footprints have revealed the structure of the groups frequenting caves, and, in some cases, ritual behaviours have been inferred (see the discus-sion in lockley 1999 and tongiorgi & lamboglia 1963 about the toirano, tuc d’Audoubert, chauvet, niaux caves). in addition, footprints can be also a useful tool for determin-ing land use and economical issues. Moreover, archaeolog-

Fig. 3 - imprinted bricks from Aquileia. a. roman brick with two imprinted digits. b. Ancient brick producers marked bricks with finger traces.Fig. 3 - Laterizi improntati da Aquileia. a. Mattone romano con impronta. b. Gli antichi produttori di mattoni demarcavano con le dita alcuni laterizi.

Fig. 4 - Archaeological footprints. a, b. Sefton coast is an outstanding site for studying archaeological footprints left since neolithic times (see gonzalez et al. 1996). Adolescent male footprint (a) and trail (b). images are courtesy of gordon roberts. c. the Jaguar cave footprints date back to more than 5000 years BP and they constitute the earliest evidence of human cave use in the eastern united States (Willey et al. 2005). image courtesy of the cave research Foundation.Fig. 4 - Impronte archeologiche. a, b. La Sefton Coast è un sito straordinario per studiare impronte archeolo-giche lasciate sin dal Neolitico (si veda Gonzalez et al. 1996). Impronta di maschio adolescente (a) e pista (b). Le immagini sono state cortesemente fornite da Gordon Roberts. c. Le impronte della Jaguar Cave risalgono a più di 5000 anni BP; esse sono la più antica testimonian-za di frequentazione ipogea degli Stati Uniti orientali (Willey et al. 2005). Le immagini sono state cortesemente fornite dalla Cave Research Foundation.


ical footprints can give behavioural (direction of travel, gait, speed) and palaeopathologic information (diseases and in-juries), as well as data on the individuals (sex, age) and en-vironment. Some of the aforementioned points are demon-strated in table 2, which take into account two case studies from the literature:

the utility of archaeological footprints is demonstrated by a recently discovered site: the trampled surface of Qatna (Bronze Age) provides information on zoological, ethnozo-ological, anthropological and social features.

Archaeological excavations conducted by an italo-Syr-ian expedition at Mishrifeh, ancient Qatna (central West-ern Syria), discovered a large pottery workshop on the sum-mit of the site’s acropolis. the ceramic manufacturing ar-ea was built at the beginning of the second millennium Bc as a small production area, reached its maximum exten-sion during the Middle Bronze Age ii (c. 1800-1600 Bc), and was abandoned in the following late Bronze Age i (c. 1600-1400 Bc).

During its last centuries of activity, the ceramic man-

information re-vealed by archa-eological foot-prints

Severn estuary (Allen 1997; Flandrian intergla-cial- roman times).

Sefton coast (huddart et al. 1999; neolithic-Bronze Age).

taxonomicinformation

ichnoarchaeological footprints gives the taxonomic position of the animal.

Behavioural in-formation

ichnoarchaeological footprints can reveal the producer’s behavior, direction of travel, gait, speed, age and health.

huddart et al. (1999) hypothesized palaeopathological issues from human footprints (e.g., missing/fused toes, bursitis – showing congenital bunions - and arthritis). even though the specific case remains to be verified, it is conceivable that footprints can reveal palepatholog-ic issues.

Spatio- temporal information

the ichnoassemblages reveal the gradual dis-placement of wild species (e.g. deer) by domes-ticated animals as the degree of human interven-tion in the area increased.

the analysis of the spatial relationships between ich-nosites and archaeosites revealed important information on the land use. More in detail, ichnological and geolog-ical data demonstrated the influence of environmental changes on prehistoric land use and economies.

environmental reconstitution

Substrate properties are understood from foot-prints

land use and economical is-sues

human tracks attest precisely (footprints cannot be transported) exploitation of coastal settings and resources.

Footprints shows direct evidence of the close associa-tion between animals and humans, and permit hypoth-eses an economic pattern based on mobility and cattle grazing (combined with hunting and gathering).

the ichnoassemblages give precise spatial infor-mation on the impact of humans on environment: data on domestication, management of natural areas, distribution of animal populations on the margins of the estuary. Footprints analysis reveal far more about the spatio-temporal distribution of the fauna than the known skeletal remains.

From ichnological, geological and archaeological da-ta it is possible to infer that the Sefton coast was being used for access, as the inland was extensively wood-ed or too wet for easy movement. the coast was prob-ably used for a combination of hunting/gathering while cattle grazing occurred on the dunes slacks at various time periods.

tab. 2 - the table summarizes two ichnoarchaeological studies and shows the potential of archaeological footprints in various fields.Tab. 2 - La tabella riassume due studi riguardanti le impronte archeologiche di vertebrati e mostra le potenzialità dell’analisi icnoarche-ologica.


Fig. 5 - the Qatna archaeological site. a. Female terracotta figurine with a miniature bowl, Middle Bronze Age i. operation J. b. Pottery drying surface with imprints, pottery production area, 17th century B.c. operation J. c. Detail of one of the pottery drying surfaces with imprints of the sandals of the craftsmen, horse hoofs and jar bases, pottery production area, operation J, 17th century B.c.Fig. 5 - Il sito archeologico di Qatna. a. Figurina femminile in terracotta e ciotola in miniatura, Bronzo Medio I, Cantiere J. b. Superficie del Bronzo Medio con impronte, area di produzione ceramica, Cantiere J. c. Una delle superfici per l’asciugatura delle ceramiche con impronte di sandali, di zoccoli di cavallo e di basi di giare. Area di produzione ceramica, Cantiere J, XVII secolo a.C.

ufacturing workshop was subdivided to different specialised sectors. in these sectors the clay was levigated, mixed with temper and kneaded; the vessels were thrown on the wheel, dried on specially built surfaces, fired in kilns and finally stacked before transportation to their final destinations.

During the archaeological excavations an exceptional discovery was made in the northern part of the workshop. on the surface of a trodden floor located between two platforms (equipped with kilns and other installations) dozens of human and equine footprints were preserved (Fig. 5).

the horse footprints are particularly interesting since they represent one of the earliest archaeological attestations of this animal in Syria. the archaeological context suggests that horses were used to transport the pottery manufactured in this area. in fact, horse footprints are associated with round-ed impressions, probably formed by jars. As a consequence of the previous point, horse footprints assume an important ethnozoological value. the Qatna footprints give evidence that the horse, generally used in war or as a prestige animal by the urban elites, was also employed as a beast of burden in the Middle Bronze Age ii.

As above mentioned, the horse hoof prints were associ-ated with a series of round imprints adjoining the mud plat-forms. these structures might be related to the presence on the

floor of jars fired in the adjacent kilns. Moreover, the rounded impressions – together with other ichnological and archaeo-logical evidence – suggest that this area was a passageway for personnel operating in this part of the workshop, a surface for drying the pottery, and for cooling and storing the pots after firing and before transport to their final destination.

the analysis of the human footprints brings to light the following points:- morphological analysis of footprints shows that the pro-

ducers were either adults or children working in the pot-tery manufacturing area;

- workers were not barefooted but wore simple sandals, probably consisting of a sole fastened to the foot by a strap or a fabric band.the analysis of the Qatna footprints is still underway.

the trampled surface represents an exceptional (and large) da-tabase of anthropological information about the physical cha-racteristics of the Qatna population during this period (Fig 6). its study will make it possible to estimate the stature and sex of the people working in the ceramic production area, which will be combined with the anthropological evidence recove-red from the contemporary necropolis located under the ro-yal Palace to reconstruct the physical type of the ancient in-habitants of Qatna.

Fig. 6 - trampled layers. a. Plan of the pot-tery drying surface (part). b. Footprints that permitted reconstruction of the dynamics (direction of passage, age of the workers, horses as beasts of burden) of the 17th century B.c. site.Fig. 6 - Livelli con impronte. a. Mappa dell’area di produzione ceramica (parte). b. Le impronte hanno permesso di ricostruire le dinamiche (direzioni di passaggio, età dei lavoratori, cavalli come bestie da soma) del sito del XVII secolo a.C.


the combined analysis of borings (animal gnaw marks; hu-man chop marks) and marmot burrows opens a vivid win-dow into human-animal interactions during Palaeolithic ti-mes showing:- bioerosional marks on marmot bones that demonstra-

te skinning, disarticulation and filleting. As a conse-quence it is possible to infer that humans hunted and dismembered marmots;

- the presence of burrows proves that marmots frequen-ted shelters and caves as intrusive animals. the identi-ty of the tracemaker has been determined because, in some cases, articulated skeletons of marmots have be-en found in the burrows.Bioturbation is not just a post-depositional phenom-

enon that mixes an already buried site but, in many cases, represents a mechanism for artefact burial. Darwin (1896) observed that earthworm activity often led to the rapid bur-ial of artefacts. As Balek (2002) noted, the burial of an ar-tefact can often be explained to the combined processes of (1) within-soil burrowing and (2) translocation of small par-ticles from depth to the surface. these processes have been confirmed by the observations of Johnson et al. (2005) of upward biotransfers (ejection of fine soil particles onto the surface) and biomixing (mixing within the soil) as major bi-odynamic processes in the soil.

As mentioned above, bioturbation is fundamentally a post-depositional process, although there is a tendency in Archaeology to consider that artefacts within the same lev-el are contemporaneous. this is compromised by the action of burrowing animals which can drastically mix the stratig-raphy of an archaeosite. For instance, Araujo & Marcelino (2003) simulated an archaeological deposit in a controlled manner and quantified the bioturbation by armadillos. the results of the experiment demonstrated that armadillos sig-nificantly displace artefacts (vertically and horizontally) and are capable of mixing cultural horizons positioned at least 20 cm apart.

Such experiments show the importance of bioturbation as a post-depositional process, either in continental (e.g. canti 2003) and marine environments (see Shaffer et al. 1997 and Stewart 1999 for observations on bioturbation of submerged archaeological sites). the position of artefacts in soils is a crucial element in the interpretation of archaeological sites, although it must be recognised that completely undisturbed archaeological sites are uncommon.

For these reasons, bioturbation is often viewed as an obstacle impeding a “correct” interpretation of past civilisa-tions. nevertheless, we propose a more positive approach to post-depositional bioturbation. in fact, evidence of bioturba-tion may inform about the formation of archaeological sites (after Fowler et al. 2004). According to the biodynamic ap-proach of Johnson et al. (2005), the effects of bioturbation are, in a certain degree, predictable. Morin (2006) followed a similar approach and argued that the vertical distribution of archaeological artefacts is predictable in bioturbated con-texts. Moreover, Morin (2006) proposed a detailed model

Fig. 7 - idealized example of syn- and post-depositional traces. Syn-depositional traces give information on the archaeological level (2), while post-depositional traces are important in the understand-ing of the stratigraphy (i.e. mixed stratigraphy, exemplified by the artefact on the surface of 1).Fig. 7 - Esempio idealizzato di tracce sin- e post-deposizionali. Le tracce sin-deposizionali danno informazioni sul livello archeologico (2), mentre le tracce post-deposizionali sono importanti per meglio capire la stratigrafia (livelli rimescolati, ecc.).

2.3. Archaeological burrows and bioturbation

in Palaeoichnology, burrows are among the most stu-died structures as they can provide precise behavioural and palaeoenvironmental information. nevertheless, archaeolo-gical burrows have received little attention compared to ver-tebrate footprints. this fact is partly due to the difficulty of examining the three-dimensional structure of archaeologi-cal burrows: diagenetical enhancement is usually lacking in archaeological deposits.

Despite these difficulties, archaeological burrows de-serve more attention as they can provide useful information for archaeological analysis (e.g. Jeske & Kuznar 2001 on the Archaeology and canine digging behaviour; Boceck 1986 on rodent burrowing behaviour in archaeological sites; see al-so laza 2001 on insects).

Burrows, as well as the other kinds of traces, can be syn-depositional or post-depositional:- syn-depositional traces include the Qatna trampled

layer whose traces are environmentally related to the Bronze Age where they occur;

- post-depositonal traces would include the burrows of a modern badger disrupting a Palaeolithic site. See fi-gure 7.For instance, giacobini (1992) reported some exam-

ples of syn-depositional traces in various Palaeolithic sites.


to characterise the stratigraphic evolution in bioturbated ar-chaeological sites, which aims to quantify the stratigraphi-cal noise related to bioturbation.

in conclusion, bioturbation is a primary element to take into consideration when studying archaeological sites.

3. BioeroSionAl StructureS

3.1. Introduction

Bioerosional traces are structures excavated mecha-nically or biochemically by organisms into rigid substra-tes (Pemberton et al. 2001). Bioerosional structures are qui-te common at archaeological sites, and show a wide beha-vioural and palaeoenvironmental range. in particular, the fol-lowing rigid substrates are particularly common in archa-eological contexts: rocks (i.e. laborel & laborel-Deguen 1994), wood (i.e. Fozzati & Scanferla, 2002 ) and bone (i.e. Kierdorf 1994).

these substrates are considered below using case stu-dies: borings in ancient Mediterranean harbours (rocky sub-strates), insect borings in wood substrates and therapeutical bioerosion of bone substrates.

3.2. Bioerosional ichnofabrics in ancient Mediterranean harbours

3.2.1. Introduction

the frontispiece of lyell’s “Principles of geology” (lyell 1830) represents one of the first applications of ichno-logy to Archaeology (Fig. 8). lyell described and illustrated borings in the roman market of Pozzuoli as an evidence of sea-level variations in historic times. in spite of lyell’s work, the study of biological indicators of recent sea-level varia-tions is a relatively recent discipline (Flemming 1969). Bioe-rosional structures have been widely considered in “traditio-nal” ichnology (e.g. Bromley & D’Alessandro 1984, 1989; Simon et al. 1984), and have recently found application in the archaeological study of harbours and other littoral struc-tures (laborel & laborel-Deguen 1994; Papageorgiou et al. 1993; Morhange et al. 1996, 1998, 2001, 2006; for a detai-led bibliography see Marriner & Morhange 2007).

Bioerosional structures on lithified substrates typical-ly have a high preservation potential; consequently they are often found in archaeological contexts, where they are use-ful for tracing variations of local sea-level. Such bioindica-tors have been used in a number of studies, either on natural shorelines (e.g. laborel et al. 1994; Pirazzoli et al. 1982), or on ancient harbours affected by recent tectonic changes in sea-level (Morhange et al. 1996, 1998, 2001, 2006; Sti-ros et al. 1996).

the Mediterranean Sea represents an amazing open-air laboratory for the study of bioerosional structures in an archaeological context. Mediterranean coastlines have been

Fig. 8 - one of the first ichnoarchaeological analyses: lyell’s (1830) Principles of Geology, figuring the temple of Serapis (italy). lyell took into account the bioeroded zone on the pillars and demon-strated changes in relative sea-level since the roman period.Fig. 8 - Frontespizio del Principles of geology (1830) di Lyell, raffigurante il Tempio di Serapide (Italia). Lyell ha considerato la zona bioerosa sulle colonne, dimostrando cambiamenti relativi del livello marino sin dai tempi romani.

colonised by flourishing civilisations since before Phoenician times, and its biodiversity includes numerous boring taxa.

3.2.2. The biological bases

the combined action of erosional and constructional agents controls the morphology of rocky shores: biocon-structional agents (e.g. calcareous algae, bivalves and ga-stropods; see laborel 1986) may be counterbalanced by bio-erosional agents (i.e. pholadid bivalves, sea-urchins, poly-chaetes) (Dalongeville et al. 1994).

on the rocky shores of the Western Mediterranean, bioerosional and bioconstructional agents show a very well-defined vertical pattern. in fact, the littoral environmental constraints lead to a precise spatial distribution of fauna and flora (see the detailed studies of Peres & Picard 1964, as well as the broadly similar scheme of Stephenson & Ste-phenson 1949).

the biological zonation of the Western Mediterranean


Sea includes three principal zones, from the land seawards (Fig. 9; see also Fig. 10a). 1. littoral fringe: wetted by surf and colonized by endo-

lithic cyanobacteria.2. Midlittoral zone: periodically submersed by waves and

tides, displaying a pattern of parallel algal belts, with biomass and species diversity increasing seaward. on limestone, the main eroding elements are cyanobac-teria and limpets which shape the tidal notch and ero-sional bench. Bioconstructional elements such as the coralline rhodophyte Lithophyllum lichenoides may al-so be important sea-level markers.

3. infralittoral (sublittoral) zone: ranging from mean sea-level (MSl) down to a depth of 25-35m, this zone is densely populated by brown sea-weeds and its nar-row upper fringe bears cemented gastropod molluscs (Dendropoma petraeum, Vermetus triqueter) and bi-valves (Chama). lower down in the infralittoral zone, the main erosional agents are boring sponges Cliona spp. (rutzler 1975; Spencer 1992), annelids (Polydora and related species), sea-urchins (Paracentrotus) and rock-boring bivalves, mainly Lithophaga lithophaga.vermetid gastropods and coralline algae protect the

rock against bioerosion and, under favourable condi-tions may build reef-like rims and platforms which are very precise sea-level markers (laborel & laborel-De-guen 1994; Morhange et al. 1998). in protected harbou-rs, zonation is somewhat simplified as the open-water, high-energy fauna generally does not develop; in the-se cases the main bioconstructors are usually cirrhi-peds (Balanus) and oysters, while the main bioeroder are polychaetes. on wooden elements such as posts, infralittoral bioerosion is represented mainly by tere-dinid bivalves and polychaetes (Fig. 10b)

3.2.3. Bioerosional ichnofabrics in Ichnoarchaeology

the distribution of bioerosional-bioconstructional agents gives data on a number of different topics.- Air/water interface. the borderline between marine and

subaerial forms corresponds to the air/water interface gives an accurate indication of the past sea-level. this separation line is generally well marked by the abrupt disappearing of macroborings, even in protected har-bours (Fig. 11; see also laborel et al. 2003).

- Periodic sea-level fluctuations. Periodical oscillations

Fig. 9 - Schematic zona-tion of bioconstructional and bioerosive forms in Mediterranean limestone shorelines. the diagram is divided in two parts, one dedicated to agents, the other to morpholo-gies.Fig. 9 - Zonazione de-gli agenti bioerosivi e biocostruttori delle co-ste rocciose calcaree nel Mediterraneo. Lo schema è diviso in due parti, una dedicata agli agenti, l’al-tra alle morfologie.


Fig. 10 - ichnological zonations on rocky and xylic substrates. a. ichnological zonation on displaced jetty boulders (eubea). 1. Supralitoral weathering on limestone breccia. 2. Midlittoral indicators: limpet cupulae. 3,4,5. infralitoral indicators: Entobia and Gastrochaenolites. Arrows indicate mean sea level. b. Perforations of Teredo navalis in a wooden stock (from an ancient roman harbour, Marseilles).Fig. 10 - Zonazioni icnologiche su substrati rocciosi e lignei. a. Zonazione icnologica su massi di un pontile (Eubea). 1. Erosione sopralit-torale 2. Infralittorale, cupulae di molluschi. 3,4,5. entobia, gastrochaenolites. Le frecce indicano il livello medio del mare. b. Perforazioni di teredo navalis su substrato ligneo, in un antico porto romano (Marsiglia)

Fig. 11 - Sea level variations revealed by Lithophaga borings on roman columns (Pozzuoli, italy). the borings from the Phlegrean Fields area (italy) were described by lyell (1830) (see Fig. 8) and, more recently, they have been studied by Mohrange et al. (1998, 2006).Fig. 11 - Variazioni relative del livello marino rivelate da perforazioni di litophaga (Pozzuoli). Le perforazioni dell’area dei campi flegrei sono state già studiate da Lyell (1830) e, più recentemente, da Mohrange et al. (1998, 2006).

of sea level can be inferred by the study of ichnofabri-cs and/or by cross-cutting relationships between bio-erosional and bioconstructional forms. For instance, the superposition of infralittoral on midlittoral forms shows a sea-level rise. An example is given in figure 12, where sea-urchin and Lithophaga borings are dis-

secting an older vermetid rim, indicating a slight rise of sea-level after the formation of the rim (thomme-ret et al. 1981).

- Duration of sea-level fluctuations. the duration of a transgressive event may be deduced from the size of the bioerosional forms. For instance, some years are requi-


red before Lithophaga produces a bioerosional ichno-fabric. the mean diameter of Lithophaga borings de-pends on the age of the animals and reaches its maxi-mum value after a long time, often more than fifty ye-ars (Kleemann 1973). As a consequence, the measu-rement of Lithophaga borings allows an indirect esti-mation of the transgressive event.

- Physical properties of the environment. the degree of opening of a harbour may be deduced from the fixed fauna, but also from the bioerosional ichnofabric. Do-minance of annelid tubes is generally associated with semi-closed or even brackish environments, whereas an open water, high energy environment is characteri-sed by an ichnoassociation dominated by clionid, echi-noid and Lithophaga borings (respectively correspon-ding to the ichnogenera Entobia, cf. Circolites, Gastro-chaenolites). For example, the marble columns of the roman market in Pozzuoli are bored by wide Litho-phaga burrows, up to an altitude of +7 metres, there-fore indicating a prolonged stay in open sea water (Fig. 11). the bases of the mentioned columns – as well as smaller pillars – are coated by encrusting annelid tu-bes, consequently indicating that the open water envi-ronment was later replaced by a brackish one.

3.3. European wood-boring organisms and the conserva-tion of archaeological artefacts

3.3.1. Introduction

Wood is one of the most commonly used materials be-cause of its favourable properties: it is durable, light, easily decorated, easy to work, burns, floats, looks attractive, and makes a noise under strain. it has been used since the appe-arance of humankind and it is inconceivable to imagine the cultural evolution of the european civilisations without it.

Wood is destroyed by several biological and physico-chemical factors causing anisotropic dimensional altera-tion, chemical alterations, cracking, discouloration, growth rings and bark detachment, lessening of mechanical streng-th, surface decay, and several other modifications of phy-sical properties. Among biological factors, boring organi-sms are a prominent in damaging archaeological wood. in fact borings strongly influence the preservation of xylic ar-tefacts and, consequently, the quality of the archaeological information.

A general overview of the problem is given here, focu-sing on the following points using european case studies: 1. types of borings affecting archaeological wood;

Fig. 12 - ichnofabric analysis to determine late holocene shoreline changes. Falasarna (crete), after Aloisi et al. (1978). 1. erosional notch, with superimposed infralittoral perforations. 2. eroded vermetid (Dendropoma) rim, marking the contemporary sea-level. 3. Sea-urchin raspings dissecting the vermetid rim Litophaga holes, contemporary of 3. in conclusion, the ichnofabric analysis indicates a relative sea-level change related to neotectonics.Fig. 12 - L’analisi dell’ichnofabric permette di determinare variazioni della linea di costa nel tardo Olocene. Falsarna (Creta), da Aloisi et al. (1978). 1. Solco erosionale con perforazioni (infralittorale). 2. Biocostruzioni di vermetidi (Dendropoma) parzialmente erose: contrasse-gnano il livello marino attuale. 3. Perforazioni di riccio di mare che intersecano le biocostruzioni di vermitidi. 4. Perforazioni di Litophaga, contemporanee a 3. In conclusione, l’analisi degli ichnofabric rivela una variazione del livello marino legato alla neotettonica.


2. wood-boring tracemakers;3. restoration and conservation of bored wood; 4. borings as a potential palaeoenvironmental tool.

3.3.2. Wood-boring organisms of Europe

Several taxa are known to bore wood, either in marine or continental environments. in the marine realm certain bi-valves and crustaceans are a major treat for submerged wo-od artefacts. Archaeological wood is particularly affected by boring organisms: Fozzati & Scanferla (2002) presented evi-dence that xylophagous animals (Teredo, Limnoria, Chellu-ra) preferentially attack archaeological wood.

in the continental realm, insects are regarded as the major group of animals damaging wood. insects attack wo-od for shelter, food and laying eggs, and in some cases they cooperate with micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi to transform cellulose and lignin to more easily digestible products. the principal orders of xylophagous insects are coleoptera (“beetles”) and isoptera (“termites”). termites are a social group of insects mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions (among 26-32 °c and 70-90% rela-tive humidity; unger et al. 2001). in tropical regions they re-present a major threat for wood artefacts, while in the most of europe they are a secondary pest (termites are only pre-sent in the southernmost part of europe).

For these reasons, coleoptera will be taken into parti-

cular account. the life cycle of wood-boring coleoptera in-cludes different ontogentic stages, which are always asso-ciated with characteristic traces (Fig. 13).1. Tunnel systems. Wood-boring coleopterans usually cho-

ose cracks to lay eggs, which will develop into larvae. larvae are responsible for intricate tunnel systems, de-rived from their feeding activity. these structures are the most damaging for wood artefacts.

2. Faecal pellet. these are products of digestion, in so-me cases diagnostic of the tracemaker (see tab. 3).

3. Wood dust. Freshly pulverised wood is often one of the more conspicuous traces of the activity of wood-bo-ring insects.

4. Pupal chambers. Just before pupation, the larva enlar-ges the diameter of a section of a tunnel. During the pupal stage, the insect limits its movements and com-pletes metamorphosis in the pupal chamber.

5. Exit holes. When the adult emerges, it leaves charac-teristic exit holes which are typical of each species.According to Korozi (1997: 19), the life cycle of Me-

diterranean insects lasts from 1-10 years, depending on the insect, wood type and environment. generally speaking, wo-od-boring coleopterans favour high temperatures and low rh (relative humidity) levels. Most are very adaptive, but cannot withstand extreme conditions. table 3 lists the most common european wood-boring organisms, with particular account to their traces.

Fig. 13 - commonest traces produced by wood-boring coleopterans (based on the genus Anobium).Fig. 13 - Principali tracce prodotte da coleotteri perforatori (basato sul genere Anobium).


tab. 3 - Major wood-boring organisms of europe. Based on unger et al. (2001), SiS disinfestazioni (pers. com.)Tab. 3 - Principali organismi perforatori del legno in Europa. Basato su Unger et al. (2001), SIS disinfestazioni (com. pers.).

Fam. Species Associated traces environmental parmeters

inse

cta,

ord

er c

oleo

pter

a

Ano

biid

ae

Anobiumpunctatum

the female lays eggs in the cracks of the wood (or in the exit holes of previous gen-erations); when the insects become adults, they swarm producing the characteristic exit holes (round, 1-2 mm in diameter). the galleries are tortuous with thick debris mixed with excrements. in hardwood the galleries are irregular and partially filled with cigar-shaped faecal pellets.

Anobium punctatum is especially widespread in zones influenced by marine climate and significant humidity.its presence is reported from in europe, but it has been introduced also into north America, South Africa, South Austral-ia and new zealand.it attacks broadleaves and conifers, and especially the sapwood. the larva is capable of using very poor, weathered and dry wood. even if the wood is seriously attacked, it does not fully lose its resistance and its structure is always recognisable.

Xestobiumrufovillosum

the galleries are meandering, and the exit holes are usually numerous, circular (2, 5-4 mm diameter). Faecal pellets large and lens-shaped. A special feature is the brown discoloration of the wood, derived from the simultaneous attack by decay fungi.this species is named death watch beetle for the ticking sound produced to attract mates; this sound is produced by hitting the forehead on the gallery floor.

the optimum development of the larvae occurs at 22-25 °c and 80% rh. it is rare in mountainous regions.this species lives in wood already degraded by fungi, not perfectly dry. it feeds on broadleaves, such as oak, elm, wal-nut, splinter, poplar and willow.

Nicobiumcastaneum

galleries follow fiber direction and exit holes are 1.3-3 mm in diameter. Pupa co-coons are made of faecal pellets and placed near the exit hole. Nicobium hirtum is widespread in Japan, where it causes significant damages to temples.

it colonises nearly every wooden object present in poorly ventilated and very hot environments. it damages paper too.

Oligomerus ptilinoides

the boring morphology is very similar to Nicobium castaneum. it is a typical Mediterranean species occurring in poorly ventilated and hot environments.

cer

amby

cida

e

Hylotrupes bajulus

the larva is up to 25 mm long, and makes large (more than 1 cm long) straight and curvy tunnels, extending close to the wood surface. the galleries are usually grooved and stuffed with fine and abundant wood-dust mixed with cylindrical-shaped excrete. Due to the size of the larvae, the mechanical resistance of the wooden structures is se-riously compromised. the exit holes are elliptical and present rich and fine debris.

it lives in discreetly elevated temperatures (28-30 °c), usually occurring in house interiors and roof beams. it is associated with conifers, such as redwood, fir, larch and pine.

ver

amby

cida

e

Hesperophanes cinereus

the larvae cause serious damage: they affect structural and mechanical properties of the wood, up to the extent of making it impossible to diagnose their presence. the exit holes are oval, 6-10 mm in diameter.

this species prefers broadleaves, such as turkey oak, acacia, beech, poplar, walnut and chestnut.

Neoclytus acuminatus Winding galleries, often parallel to the bark. circular exit holes. It is a widely diffused species attacking furniture made of broadleaves.

Phymatodes testaceus

the larvae produce abundant granular debris, and the exit holes are elliptical with a diameter of 5-7 mm.

it attacks broadleaves, especially oak.

lyct

idae

Lyctus brunneus

its tunnels are stuffed with wood-dust and the exit holes are round, 0.8-2mm in di-ameter. the galleries are meandering with rectilinear traits. the galleries, 1-2 mm wide, are similar to those of Anobium punctatum but they can be distinguished for the frass: Lyctus brunneus is associated with extremely fine and light coloured frass, not forming fecal pellets. hence the common name “pow-der post beetle”.

it is diffused especially in the tropics, but it has been introduced into europe, north America, Australia and Japan with the commerce of tropical wood. it is associated with 10-16% rh and 20 °c temperature.it attacks very porous woods with a moisture content of around 15%.

Biv

alvu

a

tere

dini

-da

e

Teredo navalisclavate borings, 6-8 mm in diameter. characteristically the boring walls have carbon-ate linings. Teredo has a worm-like body (hence the common name shipworm).

Teredo usually attacks shipwrecks in salty water and most often associated with warm and temperate waters.

cru

st.

lim

no-

rida

e

Limnoria lignorumLimnoria (“gribble”, a crustacean) produces winding tunnels, which are usually nar-row (1 mm diameter) and shallow (not more than 20 mm deep).

Limnoria usually occurs in cold and temperate waters.


(tab. 3 - continued)(Tab. 3 - continua)

Fam. Species Associated traces environmental parmeters

inse

cta,

ord

er c

oleo

pter

a

Ano

biid

ae

Anobiumpunctatum

the female lays eggs in the cracks of the wood (or in the exit holes of previous gen-erations); when the insects become adults, they swarm producing the characteristic exit holes (round, 1-2 mm in diameter). the galleries are tortuous with thick debris mixed with excrements. in hardwood the galleries are irregular and partially filled with cigar-shaped faecal pellets.

Anobium punctatum is especially widespread in zones influenced by marine climate and significant humidity.its presence is reported from in europe, but it has been introduced also into north America, South Africa, South Austral-ia and new zealand.it attacks broadleaves and conifers, and especially the sapwood. the larva is capable of using very poor, weathered and dry wood. even if the wood is seriously attacked, it does not fully lose its resistance and its structure is always recognisable.

Xestobiumrufovillosum

the galleries are meandering, and the exit holes are usually numerous, circular (2, 5-4 mm diameter). Faecal pellets large and lens-shaped. A special feature is the brown discoloration of the wood, derived from the simultaneous attack by decay fungi.this species is named death watch beetle for the ticking sound produced to attract mates; this sound is produced by hitting the forehead on the gallery floor.

the optimum development of the larvae occurs at 22-25 °c and 80% rh. it is rare in mountainous regions.this species lives in wood already degraded by fungi, not perfectly dry. it feeds on broadleaves, such as oak, elm, wal-nut, splinter, poplar and willow.

Nicobiumcastaneum

galleries follow fiber direction and exit holes are 1.3-3 mm in diameter. Pupa co-coons are made of faecal pellets and placed near the exit hole. Nicobium hirtum is widespread in Japan, where it causes significant damages to temples.

it colonises nearly every wooden object present in poorly ventilated and very hot environments. it damages paper too.

Oligomerus ptilinoides

the boring morphology is very similar to Nicobium castaneum. it is a typical Mediterranean species occurring in poorly ventilated and hot environments.

cer

amby

cida

e

Hylotrupes bajulus

the larva is up to 25 mm long, and makes large (more than 1 cm long) straight and curvy tunnels, extending close to the wood surface. the galleries are usually grooved and stuffed with fine and abundant wood-dust mixed with cylindrical-shaped excrete. Due to the size of the larvae, the mechanical resistance of the wooden structures is se-riously compromised. the exit holes are elliptical and present rich and fine debris.

it lives in discreetly elevated temperatures (28-30 °c), usually occurring in house interiors and roof beams. it is associated with conifers, such as redwood, fir, larch and pine.

ver

amby

cida

e

Hesperophanes cinereus

the larvae cause serious damage: they affect structural and mechanical properties of the wood, up to the extent of making it impossible to diagnose their presence. the exit holes are oval, 6-10 mm in diameter.

this species prefers broadleaves, such as turkey oak, acacia, beech, poplar, walnut and chestnut.

Neoclytus acuminatus Winding galleries, often parallel to the bark. circular exit holes. It is a widely diffused species attacking furniture made of broadleaves.

Phymatodes testaceus

the larvae produce abundant granular debris, and the exit holes are elliptical with a diameter of 5-7 mm.

it attacks broadleaves, especially oak.

lyct

idae

Lyctus brunneus

its tunnels are stuffed with wood-dust and the exit holes are round, 0.8-2mm in di-ameter. the galleries are meandering with rectilinear traits. the galleries, 1-2 mm wide, are similar to those of Anobium punctatum but they can be distinguished for the frass: Lyctus brunneus is associated with extremely fine and light coloured frass, not forming fecal pellets. hence the common name “pow-der post beetle”.

it is diffused especially in the tropics, but it has been introduced into europe, north America, Australia and Japan with the commerce of tropical wood. it is associated with 10-16% rh and 20 °c temperature.it attacks very porous woods with a moisture content of around 15%.

Biv

alvu

a

tere

dini

-da

e

Teredo navalisclavate borings, 6-8 mm in diameter. characteristically the boring walls have carbon-ate linings. Teredo has a worm-like body (hence the common name shipworm).

Teredo usually attacks shipwrecks in salty water and most often associated with warm and temperate waters.

cru

st.

lim

no-

rida

e

Limnoria lignorumLimnoria (“gribble”, a crustacean) produces winding tunnels, which are usually nar-row (1 mm diameter) and shallow (not more than 20 mm deep).

Limnoria usually occurs in cold and temperate waters.


Fig. 14 - restoration of an agricultural tool affected by boring organisms. a. general view of the artefact. b. image showing bioerosional structures (coleopteran exit holes) and restoration techniques (injection of cuprinol).Fig. 14 - Restauro di un attrezzo agricolo danneggiato da organismi perforatori. a. Vista generale dell’attrezzo. b. Questa immagine mostra strutture bioerosionali (fori d’uscita di coleotteri) e tecniche di restauro (iniezioni di Cuprinol).

3.3.3. Conservation and restoration of bored wood: case studies

in this contribution, three case studies are conside-red to explain some of the most common treatments for bo-red wood.- Agricultural tool (property of the natural history Mu-

seum of lesvos). this tool, dragged by animals, was used to separate cereal seeds. All of its surfaces were seriously damaged by the attack of at least three dif-ferent types of wood-borers, as evidenced by the sev-eral types of exit holes and tunnels (Fig. 14).

- greek orthodox icon (private collection of Mr. tsar-bopoulos, Athens). this magnificent piece of histo-ry and art has been seriously damaged by larvae. the biogenic structures include tunnels which partly col-lapsed, causing the structural damaging of the paint. exit holes were also present on the sides of the object. Freshly pulverised wood and faeces indicated the pres-ence of living insects in several areas (Fig. 15).

- greco-roman mummy (property of the Museum of egyptian Archaeology of turin). even though the ar-tifact is constituted by composite materials, it repre-sents a very interesting case study regarding boring insects. in fact the mummy has been attacked by very aggressive organisms; the delicate nature of the arti-

fact required special disinfestation techniques (deve-loped by SiS Disinfestazioni in collaboration with the Museum of egyptian Archaeology of turin, italy). typically, wooden artefacts undergo several stages

of treatment: cleaning, disinfestation, adhesion, consolida-tion, filling, and in the case of waterlogged wood, desalina-tion and drying.

if boring organisms are still present, disinfestation is important. For the disinfestation of dry wooden objects, several methods are used, among which are the application of toxic substances, microwaves, heat and creation of an-oxic environments (i.e. Xavier-rowe et al. 2000). chem-icals have been used to disinfest two of the listed objects, the agricultural tool and the icon. As regards the agricultur-al tool, a chemical agent (cuprinol) was injected into the exit holes, and subsequently brushed on the object’s surfac-es. the greek-orthodox icon (Fig. 16) underwent to a simi-lar treatment: after removing mechanically excrements and pulverized wood, the artifact was injected and impregnated with chemicals (Wood Shield).

Sometimes, the disinfestation of boring insects re-quires more elaborate treatments. the combined use of an-oxic environments with inert gases (argon and nitrogen) has been described by valentin et al. (1992: pp. 165-167). Sim-ilar techniques have been used on the described greco-ro-man mummy infested by insects (Fig. 17).


Fig. 15 - greek orthodox icon damaged by insect borings. a. this greek orthodox icon of folk art presents numerous problems created by wood borers. the tunnels are so close to the painted surface that paint has fallen into the gaps, resulting in loss of painted surfaces. this is evident in the upper part of the icon, around St. John’s head, and mostly on the lower part of the icon, the wood underneath St. george (on the left corner), the face of St. charalambos (in the centre) and less in the area of St. Demetrios (on the right corner). b. the coloured surface has collapsed and was lost due to the existence of wood borer tunnels underneath it, resulting to the loss of nearly half of St. charalabos’s face. A crack runs across all of the saint’s body, indicating the existence of a tunnel. in the areas where the paint has been lost, wood dust and woodbore excrement can be seen.Fig. 15 - Icona ortodossa danneggiata da insetti perforatori. a. Quest’icona greca presenta numerosi danni procurati da insetti perforatori. I tunnel sono così vicini alla superficie dipinta che la pittura è collassata nei vuoti, producendo una perdita delle superfici pitturate. b. La superficie dipinta è collassata e quasi metà del viso di San Charalabos è stata distrutta a causa dei tunnels. Nelle aree dove la pittura è stata danneggiata, si osservano escrementi e segatura.

Fig. 16 - restoration of bored greek icon. a. Mechanical cleaning of pulverised wood and excrement, with the aid of a scalpel. b. con-solidation of the back of the icon by injecting Paraloid B72 40% v/v in acetone. the tunnels were quite long and very close to the surface. injecting acrylic resin into one hole resulted in the oozing out of the material from another spot, along the length of the underlying tunnel. this may be observed by the inlined dots of acrylic resin in this photograph.Fig. 16 - Restauro dell’icona greca perforata. a. Pulizia meccanica da segatura e escrementi, effettuata con l’aiuto di uno scalpello. b. Consolidamento della parte posteriore dell’icona tramite l’iniezione di Paraloid B72 40% v/v in acetone. I tunnel sono estesi e vicini alla superficie. L’iniezione di resina in un foro di uscita è sgorgata da un’altra apertura, dopo aver attraversato un tunnel. Questo fatto è dimostrato dalle gocce di resina allineate.


After disinfestation, the wood can be consolidated with epoxy, acrylic or wax fillers that may vary in viscosity, accord-ing to the needs of the object (see also Schniewind & Kronk-right 1984: pp146-150).

insect tunnels and exit holes are filled for static and aes-thetic reasons but also as a means of prevental conservation, since certain insects use exit holes of previous generations to lay their eggs.

Acrylic thermoplastic resin (Paraloid B72 40% v/v in propanone - c

3h

6o) has been applied to the agricultural tool

and the greek icon to fill exit holes and tunnels. the artis-tic value of the icon required some attention for restoration. the destroyed wooden surface on the back was filled with a warm mixture of beeswax, chalk and acrylic colours, while the destroyed areas on the front were filled with a warm mix-ture of beeswax and chalk, later retouched with acrylic col-ours and varnished.

Preventative conservation is vital in ensuring that wood-en objects are maintained in optimal condition. rh (relative humidity) should be less than 70% and temperature should be 20-25 ºc. in some cases conservators create a microcli-mate to enclose very fragile objects. the rooms where wood-en objects are kept should be monitored for the presence of wood borers. this is often done using insect traps. child and Pinninger (1994: pp 129-131) provide guidelines on effective monitoring strategies, and note some of the limitations of the methodology.

3.3.4. Future scenarios: wood borings as a palaeoenviron-mental tool

hitherto, borings have been only considered as causes of damages to archaeological wood. We conclude this contri-bution with a novel approach: wood borings could constitu-te an additional source of information for the archaeologist. taking in mind the preference of wood borers for precise en-vironmental conditions (tab. 3), wood borings could express the environmental history of a particular artefact. Structures such as exit holes and tunnels could provide valuable infor-mation for the archaeologist, such as climate (temperature, humidity) and bathymetry. Such an approach was partly an-ticipated by oevering et al. (2001) who noted that wood-bo-rers (including coleopterans and molluscs) can be precise in-dicators of sea-levels.

insect traces could constitute a very proficient ichno-archeological tool as wood-boring insects are very selecti-ve about environment. the palaeoenvironmental value of in-sects has been already tested in Archaeology (e.g. Kenward 2006), and ichnologists previously described borings in fossil wood (e.g. ichnogenera Dekosichnus, Palaeobuprestus, Pala-eoipidus, Palaeoscolytus, Xylonichnus; see also genise 1993, 1999). As a consequence, it appears manifest that archaeolo-gists, conservators, entomologists and ichnologists have to be encouraged in collaborating to better understand our cul-tural heritage.

The limits of Ichnoarchaeology revealed by trepanation

in the introductory part of the paper we discussed the difficulty of finding a discrete boundary between Archaeolo-gy and ichnology. in fact these disciplines are separated by a wide grey zone, which comprises also human-produced struc-tures. the archaeological record registers numerous human traces, such as footprints (i.e. Allen 1997) and coprolites (i.e. Bryant 1974). it is also known that humans are responsible for a number of bioerosional structures (i.e. gnaw marks, landt 2007). nevertheless, predation is not the only behaviour pro-ducing modifications of bone substrates: humans have pro-duced various modifications of osteological substrates for sur-gical, religious or mystical purposes (Maccurdy 1905, Ford 1937, Piggott 1940, Stewart 1958, rytel 1962, lisowski 1967, Stevens & Wakely 1993, Brothwell 1994, lillie 1998, Jackson 1988, Figueiredo 2002).

Since prehistoric times, human skulls have been object of these kind of modifications, which are found in archaeological deposits from all ages and areas: europe (e.g.. genna 1930; castiglioni 1941), Africa (hilton-Simpson 1913; Forgue 1938; oakley et al. 1959), pre-colombian America (verano 1997; tiesler Blos 1999), india (Sankhyan & Weber 2000) and Au-stralia (Webb 1988). two main categories are recognised:- sincipital marks (trepanation sensu lato): superficial scra-

pings resulting from therapeutic or ornamental activities at the scalp level;

- craniectomies (trepanation sensu stricto): complete re-

Fig. 17 - restoration of a mummy infested by boring insects. A special bag was created to enclose the mummy, which was con-nected to a nitrogen container. careful monitoring was performed, with the aid of special sensors. temperature, relative humidity and oxygen content were recorded at regular intervals and the readings were displayed on a computer screen.Fig. 17 - Restauro di una mummia infestata da insetti perforatori. La mummia è stata inclusa in un involucro di plastica, connesso ad una bombola di azoto. L’intervento è stato monitorato con attenzione grazie a particolari sensori. Temperatura, umidità e ossigeno sono state registrate ad intervalli regolari e controllate tramite un monitor.


moval of areas of the cranial bone, resulting in a bo-rehole. in many cases craniectomies were not respon-sible for the death of the patient (Kurth & rohrer-ertl 1981).the question naturally arises: is trepanation a kind of

bioerosion?trepanation (Fig. 18) is the intentional process of perfo-

rating the skull of a living (or recently deceased) person (af-ter Pahl 1993). Moreover, the word trepanation comes from the greek term “trypanein” which means “to bore”.

therefore, it is evident that trepanation can be associa-ted with bioerosion which is, by definition, the process whe-re animals, plants and microbes sculpt or penetrate surfaces of hard substrates (Bromley 1994). As a consequence, one could point to ichnology as the optimal discipline to study trepanation. however, it is manifest that “traditional” ich-nological methods show important limitations in this field. in fact other disciplines (e.g. forensic medicine, anthropo-logy) play a much more important role in the study of this phenomenon.

From this example, a problematical aspect of ichnoar-chaeology emerges. A great part of human-related structures can be considered as traces (e.g. rock art, stone tools, graves;

see hasiotis et al. 2007), although the traditional methods of ichnology do not find application to all of them.

4. ichnologicAl hieroPhAnieS

4.1. Rocks, cultural landscapes, and Ichnology

rocks have been part of the human cultural landsca-pe since Palaeolithic times (Bradley 2000). they have be-en referential landmarks in a cognitive cartography which often defined day-life activities and environmental interac-tions. in many cases they have been linked with the divina-tory and the magic.

in such cases rocks represent hierophanies, that are sup-posed to be manifestations of the sacred: according to elia-de’s (1959) observations, hierophanies mirror “something of a wholly different order, a reality that does not belong to our world, in objects that are an integral part of our natural ‘profane’ world”.

Archaeologists are extremely interested in geological hierophanies. in fact “sacred rocks” provide precious insights into the religious beliefs of a civilization.

Fig. 18 - trepanation is a form of human bioerosion; Meso-lithic of Muge (Por-tugal, 6360 years BP).Fig. 18 - La trapana-zione è una forma di bioerosione huma-na; Muge, Mesoliti-co (Portogallo, 6360 anni BP).


there are many examples of geological hierophanies. uluru (Ayers rock, Australia) is a monumental example of hierophany for Aboriginal people. Sacred rocks are found worldwide, in many cultures of the past and of the present; some other major examples are eej Khad (Mongolia), Mac-chu Picchu’s sacred rock (Peru), and the Meotoiwa Wedded rocks (Japan).

curiously, archaeologists themselves are frequently re-sponsible for the creation of new hierophanies. For instance the Pedra redonda (Rounded Stone, Portugal) village deve-loped around a large, rounded ammonite. Archaeologists er-roneously interpreted the fossil as religious rock art depic-ting magic alignments (Silva 2001).

Among geological hierophanies, there are many ichno-logical ones (“ichnohierophanies”), which are also found in an archaeological context. For instance, slabs with fossil fo-otprints were collected by indians; they brought these slabs

- named “uki stones” by the iroquois – to their villages for religious purposes (Mayor 2007). in the rio do Peixe area of Brazil has been found a petroglyph associated with a di-nosaur footprint (leonardi & carvalho 2000; Fig. 19). the Aztecs used the toponomastic term temacpalco, which me-ans “impression of the hands”; this fact is linked with an an-cient Aztec legend, which tells of Quetzalcoatl - the Feathe-red Serpent god – leaving hand-prints in the rock (Mayor 2007). in Spain, peasants and shepherds from la rioja Ba-ja attributed dinosaur footprints to the horse shoes of Saint thomas (Sanz 1999).

From the few examples cited above, it is possible to categorize ichnohierophanies (tab. 4) into five socio-cultu-ral groups: cultural, morphological, artistic, scientific and composite.

this contribution aims to show some major examples of ichnohierophanies, particularly from Portugal and Spain.

ichnohierophanies Definition examples remarks

culturaltrace fossils interpreted as manifestation of supernatu-ral realities.

At cabo espichel (Portugal) a religious pilgrimage is related to sauropod track-ways. the legend tells that the footprints were left by a mule carrying our lady.

this kind of ichnohiero-phanies are not connected with the scientific meth-od (as happens for scien-tific ichnohierophanies), but they are associated with popular beliefs and religion.

MorphologicAbiotic structures interpret-ed as ichnological traces of supernatural.

At Monte Sant’elia (Stromboli, italy) are found rounded depressions interpreted as Devil’s footprints.

this kind of hierophany is usually linked with geo-morphological features (i.e. karstic structures)

Anthropichuman-produced structures associated either with ich-nology or supernatural.

At Bohuslän (Sweden) there are Bronze Age carvings depicting boats and foot-prints, probably linked with the cult of the netherworld (Bradley, 1997).

these kinds of symbols are linked to the super-natural by human inter-vention. For instance, rit-ual podomorphs are not a direct manifestation of the supernatural (as hap-pens for cultural/morpho-logic ichnohierophanies) but they actually reflect worshipping of the super-natural. thus, these kinds of sym-bols correspond to an ex-tended meaning of hiero-phany.

Scientific

ichnohierophanies resulting from the erroneous scientif-ic interpretation of the ich-nological record.

the “Bicha Pintada” (“painted snake”) of Milreu (Portugal) has been interpreted by archaeologists as a petroglyph. Accord-ing to this interpretation, the “Bicha pin-tada” would be produced by celtic tribes as a symbol of ophiolatric rituals. in real-ity it is a trace fossil (Cruziana).

compositeSuperposition of different ichnohierophanies.

the podomorphs of ifanes (Portugal) are actually rock art, but popular culture suc-cessively interpreted them as footsteps of Saint Joseph, our lady and Jesus.

Probably the most of ich-nohierophanies are com-posite, as cultures conti-nuously superimpose their beliefs.

tab. 4 - classification of ichnohierophanies.Tab. 4 - Classificazione delle icnoierofanie.


4.2. “Admire Our Lady climbing the rock” and other cultural ichnohierophanies

in popular culture trace fossils have been interpreted as the manifestation of supernatural realities. For instance, huge footprints in rocks have been often connected to the supernatural capabilities of extraordinary creatures / divini-ties; according to eliade’s (1959) terminology, this fact re-presents a “kratophany” (hierophany in which the experien-ce of power dominates). the structures known as “ciampa-te del Diavolo” (“Devil’s footprints”, italy) are an example of a kratophanic interpretation: an ancient legend interprets the footprints as produced by the Devil who has the super-natural power of walking on lava. the “Devil’s Footprints” are actually hominid trackways preserved in ash deposits (Mietto et al. 2003). other examples from classical antiqui-ty often interpret fossil footprints as produced by hercules. For instance, this interpretation is reported by herodotus (as regards ancient Moldavia, 450 years Bc) and Diodorus (1st century Bc, Sicily; Mayor & Sarjeant 2001).

Apart from kratophanic interpretations, there are se-veral other examples showing that humans associated tra-ce fossils with supernatural realities (“cultural ichnohiero-phanies”). As mentioned above, fossil footprints were col-lected for religious purposes by the iroquois (Mayor 2007) and petroglyphs are associated with dinosaur footprints in Brazil (leonardi & carvalho 2000) and north America (Ma-yor 2007). iberian neolithic tribes have been also inspired by fossil medusoid impressions (see below).

An astounding cultural ichnohierophany comes from cabo espichel (Western Portugal). this case is quite recent but shows clearly the archaeological value of ichnohiero-phanies and the anthropological basis of “sacred trace fos-sils” (Fig. 20).

Fig. 19 - Petroglyph associated with dinosaur footprints (Serrote do letreiro, Sousa Basin, Brasil; see leonardi & carvalho 2000). Fig. 19 - Petroglifo associato ad impronta di dinosauro (Serrote do Letreiro, Sousa Basin, Brasile; si veda Leonardi & Carvalho 2000).

Fig. 20 - cultural ichnohierophany from cabo espichel (Portugal). a. general view of the azulejos depict-ing the ichnohierophany. b. Detail showing the “Mule’s footprints”. c. Panorama of the geosite containing the ichnohierophany. d. the tracksite related to the ichnohierophany.Fig. 20 - Icnoierofania culturale di Cabo Espichel (Portogallo). a. Visione d’insieme degli azulejos che raffigurano l’icnoierofania. b. Particolare che mostra le “impronte del Mulo”. c. Panorama del geosito che ha originato l’icnoierofania. d. Il sito ad impronte associato all’ic-noierofania.


inside the Memory chapel at cabo espichel is an 18th century azulejo (a painted, glazed ceramic tilework) depic-ting the miracle of our lady of Mule’s Stone (Fig 20a). this azulejo shows a set of footprints intersecting a huge sea-cliff; a mule is carrying the virgin Mary over the track-way (Fig. 20b).

the tilework refers to an ancient legend dealing with our lady. According to the legend, the virgin Mary came from the sea on the back of a mule which left its footprints on the sea-cliffs. this legend is associated with an important christian ritual observed for many centuries. on the sum-mit of cabo espichel is a sanctuary where the ritual is cele-brated in a very popular annual pilgrimage (even the Portu-guese royal Family have participated in this ceremony sin-ce the 18th century).

the legend is linked with the palaeontological trea-sure preserved on the crags projecting on the ocean (nowa-days a protected natural Monument). in fact, on the same cliff depicted in the azulejo (Fig. 20c), are two parallel and overlapping sets of fossil trackways (Brontopodus); one set produced by adult sauropods, the other by juveniles (loc-kley et al. 1994a, 1994b; Fig. 20d). Fishermen were proba-bly astonished by the enormous size of the footprints (al-most 1 m in diameter) and, more than 800 years ago, this has fuelled their devotion.

4.3. “Virgin of the Footprint”: medieval ichnohieropha-nies from Portugal

there are many natural phenomena (weathering pits, gnamma, potholes) interpreted as traces of extraordinary creatures such as saints or demons (morphological ichno-hierophanies). Such ichnohierophanies are present in cultu-

res from all over the world. to cite a few examples, a granite boulder is named “Devil’s Foot rock” after a colonial legend telling of a squaw being chased by the devil (rhode island). Foot-like depressions in the ground (more than one metre in diameter) are interpreted as the footprints of the giant Mo-su, leaving his trace on his way across the Pacific to Fiji (Sa-moa island). At Monte Sant’elia (Stromboli, italy) there are rounded depression interpreted as Devil’s Footprints.

in Portugal, the “virgin of the Footprint” ichnohiero-phany recurs in various areas (Fig. 21). one of the most in-teresting examples is represented by the “footprints” of the virgin Mary from nazaré. nazaré itself demonstrates the potential role of ichnohierophanies in Archaeology. in fact the cultural and economic development of nazaré is deeply connected with the miracle of the knight D. Fuas roupin-ho (revealed in the 17th century by Bernardo de Brito). the legend takes place in the forests of Sítio (“the Place”) and tells of a knight who was hunting when he encountered an enormous deer. the deer was the devil, trying to attract the knight to a high cliff. When the demoniac deer jumped from the steep cliff, the virgin Mary immobilized the knight’s hor-se by penetrating its hind legs into the rock. in the sanctua-ry of Sítio there is an azulejo (glazed tilework) depicting the miracle (Fig 21a).

the weathered limestone bed (turonian) with the “foot-prints” is sacralized by the “Memory chapel” (built in 1377); here thousands of pilgrims and tourists try to find the hor-seshoe prints of the legend (Fig. 21b). this legend was de-veloped through years of “religious Archaeology” trying to establish a link between the natural landscape and some fos-silized bones (found in a nearby pre-historic cave). Possibly, the monks tried to find morphological analogies with the fo-otprints of cabo espichel (“Pedra da Mua”), which were –

Fig. 21 - “virgin of the Footprints” ichno-hierophanies. a. the legend of nazaré is exposed in the glazed tiles (18th century) of the Sítio sanctuary . this azulejo shows the slab where roupinho’s horse was blocked by the divine intervention of virgin Mary. b. the limestone layer with the “footprints” of roupinho’s horse: differential weathering of the limestone is partly due to the ichnofabric. c. “our lady of the Jump” sanctuary. in this river gorge some potholes are interpreted as the devil’s landing site. d. Weathering pits in quartzites interpreted as Mary’s footprints and stick prints near the Senhora da candosa sanctuary.Fig. 21 - Le icnoierofanie della “Vergine delle Impronte”. a. Il santuario di Sítio preserva alcuni azulejosche che raccontano della leggenda di Nazaré. b. Lo strato con le “impronte” del cavallo di Roupinho. c. Il santuario di “Nostra Signora del Salto”. d. Il santuario di Senhora de Candosa.


at that time - one of the most famous sanctuaries in Portu-gal. indeed, the cretaceous limestones of nazaré commonly contain “depressions” and “pits”, which originated by kar-stification and weathering of nodular limestones. the textu-re is partly related with the ichnofabric, often dominated by Rhizocorallium and Thalassinoides (Fig. 21b).

Similar ichnohierophanies occur all over Portugal; for instance the miracle of “our lady of the Jump” (spread in northern Portugal) is based on the devil that crossed the ri-ver gorge by jumping (Fig. 21c). two parallel potholes are interpreted as the landing imprints of the devil. According to another legend, the virgin Mary of candosa also crossed the ceira river gorge. indeed some “pits” formed by wea-thering of ordovician quartzites are interpreted as the im-prints of the stick of the virgin Mary (Fig. 21d).

in Benedita (north of lisbon) there is a weathered slab of bioturbated limestone (upper Jurassic) associated with the virgin Mary. According to the legend, the inhabitants dedi-cated a fountain to the virgin Mary, who imprinted her feet as a sign of gratitude.

4.4. Solar medusae in the House of the Written Stone

Mayoral et al. (2004) described an impressive geomon-ument presenting 90 impressions of hydromedusae (from the lowermost cambrian). the locality, known as “casa de la Piedra escrita” (The House of the Written Stone; consta-tina, Spain), corresponds to the oldest unquestionable re-cord of jellyfishes (Mayoral et al. 2004; Fig. 22). Although the impressions are not ichnofossils, they show the inter-action between biogenic structures (mortichnia?) and past civilizations.

in fact the medusoid impressions were inspirational entities for neolithic people. Some specimens of Cordubia gigantea were pitted and rasped in order to highlight their morphology. Moreover, some petroglyphs found in the sur-roundings seem to replicate the biogenic impressions.

Probably, the sun-like morphology of Cordubia is the base of the fascination for these structures. Solar petroglyphs have been often interpreted as sacred/mystic symbols, al-though it is difficult to confirm this interpretation for Cor-dubia. nevertheless, “casa de la Piedra escrita” shows the interaction between humans and fossil biogenic structures.

in conclusion, the “house of the Written Stone” dem-onstrates that past civilizations were attracted by peculiar biogenic morphologies in the rocks; the fascination was so pronounced that neolithic tribes reproduced and highlight-ed the morphology of Cordubia.

Similar anthropologic bases are shared by other ar-chaeological cases. native Americans and African tribes (Mayor & Sarjeant 2001) used to transpose “sacred foot-prints” from the consecration space (the tracksite) to other environments. For instance, Palaeo-indians depicted tridac-tyl footprints in correspondence of dinosaur tracksites and transposed these iconographies to granite landscapes (see Mayor & Sarjeant 2001). in lesotho, Bushmen depicted in

cave paintings not only the iguanadontid footprints but also their rather accurate conception of the creatures that made them (Mayor 2001).

the association of tracksites and petroglyphs shows the fascination for traces and their probable sacralization. Ac-cordingly, the replication of fossil traces reveals a process of cultural transfer, where ichnological morphologies were transported to new geographies and different geologies.

4.5. Anthropic ichnohierophanies

the previous paragraph concluded with some exam-ples of anthropic reproduction of ichnological features. Such cases represent not only cultural ichnohierophanies (they re-flect a supernatural interpretation of actual trace fossils) but also anthropic ichnohierophanies.

Anthropic ichnohierophanies are well represented by some Bronze and iron Age sites. For instance, at Bohuslän (Sweden) several carvings depict boats and footprints, and they are probably linked with the cult of the netherworld (Bradley 1997).

one of the best examples of anthropic ichnohierophany comes from Asia. A recurrent symbol of buddhism is consti-

Fig. 22 - Cordubia gigantea from “casa de la Piedra escrita” (Spain).Fig. 22 - cordubia gigantea da “Casa de la Piedra Escrita” (Spagna).


the production of the petroglyphs. in fact the carvings reveal features in common with natural ichnoassociations (in parti-cular size disparities and feet proportionality).therefore, re-al feet were used as models for the rock art: the authors out-lined their own feet with a pointed tool. Moreover, ichnoar-chaeological analysis revealed individuals of different ages: children, teenagers and adults all participated in the creative process, bare-footed or wearing simple sandals.

4.6. Reading the trace fossil alphabet: written stones and other mistakes

Scientific ichnohierophanies are modern-day hieropha-nies derived from the erroneous interpretation of trace fos-sils. in several cases archaeologists failed to interpret trace fossils, similarly to illiterate peasants deciphering an alien alphabet. under a misleading anthropocentric light, fossili-sed behavioural patterns became expressions of past civili-sations. two paradigmatic examples from Portugal show the importance of ichnoarchaeology to avoid such erroneous in-terpretations of the past.

“Bicha Pintada” – which means Painted Snake – is a winding concave structure found on the top of a quartzite bed in the ribeira de codes valley. Archaeologists interpre-ted the “Bicha Pintada” as a totemic symbol dating back to the vth century B.c. (Fig. 24c). According to this interpre-tation, the structures were carved by a celtic tribe celebra-ting ophiolatric rituals (oliveira 1959; Félix 1969). this di-scovery raised significant clamour: recently the “Bicha Pin-tada” has been regarded as the largest iberian (and proba-bly european) serpentiform petroglyph ever found. Moreo-ver, its occurrence would be associated with a rock carving sanctuary dating from the Final copper or iron Age (gomes 1999). under this interpretation the “Bicha Pintada” beca-me a notorious element of the Portuguese cultural patrimo-ny, although a celtic origin of this structure lacks archaeo-logical basis (neto de carvalho et al. 1999).

in fact its genesis is biological (not artistic) and much more remote: “Bicha Pintada” dates back to lower ordovi-cian. unquestionable ichnologic evidence (neto de carvalho & cachão 2005) shows that “Bicha Pintada” is not a petro-glyph but a burrow produced by trilobite feeding activity.

in France the trace fossil Cruziana, popularly known as Pas-de-bouefs or Monument druidique, is also part of popu-lar mythology (Deslongchamps 1856; Fauvel 1868; Morière 1879). its importance is explicit in the slab with Pas-de-bou-efs of vaudobin (trun), considered an historical monument for the associated legend but more recently reinterpreted as a layer with trilobite trace fossils (Durand 1985).

Cruziana is not the only ichnogenus to have misled ar-chaeologists. At a place known as “Penas escrevidas” (Writ-ten Stones) in the Barreiras Brancas range (not far from rio de onor village, Portugal) are curly, winding, looping struc-tures in the rocks (Medeiros 1950). these structures resemble alphabetical inscriptions (Figs 24 a, 24b) and, for this reason, they were considered rock art by Santos Junior (1940).

Fig. 23 - Alagoa rock with shod podomorphs from the Bronze Age, tondela (Portugal).Fig. 23 - La roccia di Alagoa con podomorfi dell’età del bronzo, Tordela (Portogallo).

tuted by “Buddhapada”, which means “Buddha’s footprint” in Sanskrit. Buddhapada are known at least from the 1st cen-tury B.c. (see Motoji 1992) and they usually consist of ar-tificial engravements symbolizing the presence of Buddha. Frequently they are finely decorated and there are also an-cient poems dedicated to these symbols (i.e. “the Buddha’s Footprint Stone Poems” described by Mills 1960).

carved footprints are also present in numerous Bron-ze and iron Age sites, from various parts of europe: north-western iberia, canary islands, France, Scandinavia and the italian Alps (zurla, capo di Ponte, valcamonica; coimbra 2004). Many christian sanctuaries were built close to the-se symbols and became destinations of pilgrimage. Such cultural superpositions are found near the village of ifanes (northern Portugal) where numerous prehistoric podomor-phs have been reinterpreted by christian popular culture. in fact the ifanes podomorphs are traditionally worshipped as the footprints left by Saint Joseph, the virgin Mary and Je-sus during their escape to egypt (coimbra 2004). ichnoar-chaeological methods have revealed that the producers out-lined their own feet to produce the carvings (neto De car-valho & Baucon 2008).

More ichnological symbols come from Portugal. in the village of Barreiro de Besteiros there is a rock art mo-nument of national importance, the Alagoa rock (Fig. 23). More than 110 podomorphs are carved in the rock (gomes & Monteiro 1977; Fig. 23).

A problematic aspect of the Alagoa rock concerns the technique used for carving the petroglyph. the use of ich-noarchaeological methods confirmed the hypothesis about


this interpretation is completely incorrect; in fact the curly structures correspond to the ichnospecies Daedalus halli. What seems to be written scrawls are dense associa-tions of these trace fossils sectioned by the bedding plane (in the type of preservation called Humilis). the trace cor-responds to the helicoidal displacement of thin, subverti-cal burrows in a shallow marine environment (lower or-dovician). it has relevance to a complex ethological pattern which is still problematic nowadays (Seilacher 2000). the “Sun clock” from Marra das três Senhoras (another locali-ty in the Barreiras Brancas range; Alves 1935: 827-828, Fig. 80) is probably also a scientific ichnohierophany associated with the misinterpretation of Daedalus..

5. concluSionS

this contribution has considered the archaeological implications of the major themes of ichnology.- Bioturbational structures: Archaeological footprints

are an important source of information and they are usually associated with recurrent diagenetical scena-rios. the case studies demonstrate that footprints can

provide fundamental information that are often unob-tainable using other methods. For instance, footprints can reveal behavioural information (speed, gait, etc.), data on the individuals (sex, age), identification of the faunal assemblages, palaeopathological issues, struc-ture of the human groups, dynamics of ritual beha-viours, land use and economical issues.

- Burrows are difficult to discern in an archaeological context because of insufficient diagenesis; neverthe-less, when they are determinable, they offer an impor-tant source of palaeoenvironmental and behavioural in-formation. Burrows are related to another important aspect of ichnoarchaeology, bioturbation. Bioturba-tion is not just a process that mixes an already buried site, but represents in itself a mechanism for artifact burial. For these reasons, the mechanics of bioturba-tion are important to an understanding of the forma-tion of particular archaeological sites.

- Bioerosional structures. Borings in lithic substrates play an important role in ichnoarchaeology. in fact they can provide precise details on the dynamics of littoral establishments. For instance, the study of bioerosio-nal ichnofabrics can answer many questions, such as:

Fig. 24 - Scientific ichnohierophanies from Portugal. a. “Written Stones” consist of a Daedalus-domi-nated ichnoassemblage which has been interpreted incorrectly by archaeologists as an ancient alphabet engraved in the rock. b. Particular of the previ-ous image. c. “Bicha Pintada” (Painted Snake), a specimen of Cruziana erroneously identified as a petroglyph. Fig. 24 - Icnoierofanie scientifiche dal Portogal-lo. a. Le “Pietre Scritte” corrispondono ad un ichnoassociazione a Deadalus, interpretata dagli archeologi come un antico alfabeto. b. Particolare dell’immagine precedente. c. “Bicha Pintada” (Bi-scia Pitturata), un esemplare di Cruziana che è stato erroneamente identificato come un petroglifo.


What was the mean sea level? how long did the tran-sgressive event last? What were the periodical fluctua-tions of relative sea-level? Was it a restricted harbour or an open one?

- Archaeological borings occur also in xylic substrates. in fact wood-borers are a major phenomenon to con-sider during the restoration of artefacts. it is important to understand their mechanics to correctly preserve the archaeological information. Wood-borings are not on-ly an obstacle for the archaeological interpretation, but they can also represent new palaeoenvironmental tools as wood-borings are usually produced by environmen-tally-sensitive organisms; therefore, the morphologi-cal study of wood-borings can provide precious pala-eoenvironmental information.

- Borings in bone substrates play an important role in permitting reconstruction animal-animal interactions (humans included). Among borings on bone substrates, trepanation constitutes a peculiar case which is proble-matical with respect to the boundary between Archae-ology and ichnology.

- Ichnohierophanies. trace-related symbols have a strong archaeoanthropologic value. in this study a new term, “ichnohierophany”, for ichnological symbols re-lated to the sacred supernatural. in several cases, trace fossils have been interpreted as manifestations of su-pernatural entities (cultural ichnohierophanies). in oth-er cases, abiotic structures have been misunderstood as ichnological traces of the supernatural. there are also human-produced structures associated either with ich-nology or supernatural (anthropic ichnohierophanies). the interpretation of these symbols requires a certain degree of ichnological knowledge: for instance, there are several cases in which archaeologists have inter-preted trace fossils as petroglyphs (scientific ichnoh-ierophanies).

- Further themes: this study considered only margin-ally coprolites and gnaw marks, which are important traces to take into consideration in Archaeology (e.g. Marquardt 1974).

- Further directions: this work establishes a base for a consistent, uniform approach to the study of archae-ological traces. in order to reach this aim, archaeolo-gists are encouraged to collaborate with ichnologists (and related experts) during research. therefore, the next step is providing a theoretical approach based on “traditional” ichnology.

AcKnoWleDgeMentS

We thank Federica Fontana (trieste) for the discussions and support in examining the collections from Aquileia. We would also to thank the association of the italian Archaeolog-ical groups (gruppi Archeologici d’italia) and, in particular, Sebastiano Arena, Salvatore chilardi and Dario Brinchi. We

acknowledge gordon roberts (Sefton coast), P. Willey, Ju-dy Stolen, Field Malcom (Journal of Cave and Karst Stud-ies), ismar Souza De carvalho (rio de Janeiro) for provid-ing outstanding iconographic material. We also thank SiS Disinfestazioni, the egyptian Museum of turin, the lesvos Museum of natural history and nick Barton (oxford) for collaboration. We would like to give a special thank to the referee Paul taylor for his help.

We would like to give a special thank to the referees Paul taylor and Marco Avanzini for their help.

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