studying the future of studying the past: -...

INFO510

Studying the Future of Studying the Past:

A Bibliography Examining the Information Needs of Historians and Archivists in the 21st Century

Kathleen Luckett

12/5/2008

A bibliography that examines the information needs and behaviors of historians and archivists in the digital environment; contains a resource guide for this user group.

Kathleen Luckett

This bibliography represents an attempt to bring together a body of literature that examines the information needs of historians and archivists as they work together in the digital environment of the 21st century. Taken as a whole, this body of work may be seen as indicative of the direction that these fields are taking as they evolve and adapt to the rapidly changing landscape of contemporary culture. In the interest of addressing these current concerns, I have attempted to include only the most recent research on this topic; the publication dates of the articles included range from 2002 – 2008. The bibliography is comprised of 16 research articles and one reference article, and contains a guide with 6 resources of value to this complex user group. The articles are focused around the information needs and behaviors of historians in their research, particularly archival research. Articles that focus on the specific needs of art historians and archivists are included, as are articles which take a more general look at the needs of humanist scholars (of which historians are a subset) and archival users in general. All articles are from English language, peer-reviewed scholarly publications (with one exception-- I did include a scholarly paper presented at a conference); the geographical range of users and archives studied covers the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada, with one user study conducted in Greece.

Historians and archivists are the keepers of our cultural memory. They are not, however, mere reporters and preservers. Rather, “history is a record of present beliefs and wishes, not a replica of the past. Remembering … is a reconstruction using bits of past experience to describe a present state” (Greene, 2003/2004, p. 100). Archives are the repositories of those bits, and historians are perpetually involved in the assemblage, deconstruction and reconstruction of the meaning that can be gleaned from those pieces of the past as seen in the light of the present. The information needs of historians and archivists are tightly bound; “the connections between archives and historians have dimensions beyond that of provider and consumer” (Duff, 2004, p. 53). Archiving demands an astute sense of history and historical research, and historians must possess what Yakel refers to as “archival intelligence” (2003, p.51). Ultimately, it is the historical object, the artifact and its provenance, which unites the two groups: “Historians and archivists…share some important principles. Both need to understand the context of creation, to know who created a record and why, and its custodial history” (Anderson, 2004, p.84).

The impact of digital technologies on the needs of historians and archivists to access, catalogue, understand and evaluate these primary sources has been profound. On one hand, tremendous opportunities exist in the arenas of increased and improved access. Projects like OAIster (Hagedorn, 2003) demonstrate the possibilities that exist for user-centered, collaborative digital archives. On the other hand, historians and archivists struggle with the transient nature of born-digital and other web-related primary source materials (Murray & Hsieh, 2008), with the loss of context in digitized primary source artifacts (Toms & O’Brien, 2008), and the loss of spontaneity or serendipitous discovery in an environment where contact with primary sources is digitally mediated (Hoeflich, 2007). Historians and archivists are attempting to negotiate these issues at a time when contemporary postmodern thought

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asks them to question the philosophical underpinnings of their profession and redefine their role as meaning-makers (Greene, 2003/2004).

While earlier research on this user group portrays historical researchers as somewhat technophobic, the newer studies presented here indicate a steadily increasing comfort level with all manner of electronic and digital resources, combined with the sort of healthy respect for more traditional methods and sources one might expect from those who make a profession of studying the past. Historians and archivists are a diverse and idiosyncratic group, and the results of individual studies show a great deal of variance, particularly when dealing with questions about technology use. For instance, the results of Tibbo’s 2003 Primarily History project’s study lead her to express that “the relatively low usage of electronic database searching which is both ubiquitous and free on all major university campuses in the U.S. today is disturbing” (p. 23). Contrarily, in “Historians and Their Information Sources,” Dalton and Charnigo report that “although earlier writers could say that the use of electronic sources by humanists was limited, the combination of easy access and databases that truly serve the needs of humanists has changed that” (2004). What to make of these conflicting assessments of historians’ and archivists’ relationship to the digital medium? Perhaps it is because this group “employs a diversity of information-seeking methods. There is certainly no unwillingness on their part to use on-line methods but equally clear is that current electronic and on-line provision does not accommodate this diversity” (Anderson, 2004, p. 83). The common thread that runs through these studies and research articles is a desire to correct this shortcoming, to produce through the implementation of user studies, tools, databases, finding aids, interfaces, digitized collections and other resources designed not to only facilitate the storage, organization or preservation of the primary sources stored in archives (actual or digital), but to facilitate and encourage their use.

What generalizations, then, can be made about this user group as they enter the 21 st Century? Across all studies, it is clear that this group applies a wide range of information-gathering techniques. Informal methods, such as consulting with colleagues and footnote or citation chasing are often preferred. Nearly all studies indicate the importance of browsing, be it online, in an archive, or in the library stacks. The ability to browse allows for a concept mentioned frequently: serendipity. These users often rely on the “happy accident” to guide and inform their research. In order to be able to recognize such opportunities when they occur, these users tend to read widely and across disciplines. Toms and O’Brien note that to an outsider, the research process of these users “may seem chaotic and disorderly, but humanists are methodical; by casting a large net, they are able to reassure themselves that their coverage of the field justifies their selection of resources” (2008, p. 104). Regardless of the way researchers choose to categorize the information-seeking processes of this group, it is generally agreed that these users do not take a linear approach. Rather, they tend to engage in multiple phases of information-seeking behavior simultaneously and repeatedly. Most researchers felt that the research style of these users was determined in part by the critical role played by context. As Dalton puts it, “Evidence plus interpretation are the stuff of historical study;” (2004, p. 400) historians and archivists seek not simply to present artifacts from the past, but to re-present them in both their historical and present context. To accomplish this, these users desire an access to primary and secondary sources that

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is characterized by Dalton as both “diffuse” and “insatiable” (2004, p. 401). Finally, these articles convey an overall impression of these users as eager to embrace technology that is easy to use and tailored to their needs. This body of work represents the attempt to develop a deeper understanding of those needs in order to determine how best to employ the digital technologies and conventional resources available today to better serve this complex group as their professions evolve over the coming century.

Bibliography

Anderson, I. G. (2004, Fall). Are You Being Served? Historians and the Search for Primary Sources. Archivaria, 58, 81-129.

Abstract:

In recent years archives have spent increasing amounts of time and money developing on-line finding aids and other electronic retrieval tools. However, there have been relatively few studies of the effectiveness of such tools or of users’ information-seeking behavior on which to base these developments. This paper presents results from a survey of UK academic historians’ information-seeking behavior. It suggests that although historians have varied information retrieval methods, clear patterns and preferences are visible. Moreover, analysis suggests that the predominant factor to explain historians’ information-retrieval behavior is the type, or genre, or source concerned. Lastly, the implications of these results for the development of archival information systems are considered.

Search Strategy: I did a series of simple searches in the hopes of catching something I might have missed when using longer strings. For this search, I expanded “information” to find the term “information needs,” which I combined with the term, “historian.” As it happened, this was an effective search, yielding multiple results.

Database: DIALOG(R)File 438: LIBRARY LIT. & INFO SCIENCE

Search Method: Controlled vocabulary and truncation

Search String: SS S1 (INFORMATION NEEDS) AND HISTORIAN?

Annotation:

Presents an exhaustive study of the archival-use needs of academic historians in the UK. The study in this article, when considered in conjunction with a similar study performed in the U.S., represents some

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of the most thorough and up to date large-scale investigation of historians’ information behavior when locating primary sources. According to the author, it is the first study to examine U.K. historians’ information-seeking behavior in the digital environment. Sadly, due to low response rates (only 105 of 800 historians returned the questionnaires), the results of this study are less conclusive than that of the study performed in the U.S. by Tibbo. Nevertheless, the author has an interesting perspective on the importance of user studies, arguing that they need to focus more on the “demand side” of archival services, and he envisions intriguing solutions to current challenges, such as an Amazon.com based user interface. His interpretation of the data highlights the importance of context to this user group, a common theme in much of the research. The article also explores this group’s relationship to technology, another timely and relevant issue. The article was published fairly recently in a peer-reviewed, scholarly journal.

Beaudoin, J. (2005, Fall). Image and Text: A Review of the Literature Concerning the Information Needs and Research Behaviors of Art Historians. Art Documentation, 24,(2) 34-7.

Abstract:

This article seeks to present a coherent corpus of materials useful to information professionals interested in the research needs of art historians. The information needs and information-seeking behaviors of art historians are addressed through a discussion of this user group's research methodologies, the types of materials they consult, the impact of technology on their scholarship, and the discipline's continuing development and redefinition. As a review of the literature on the topic, this article's core incorporates the ideas expressed by a number of authors.

Search Strategy: I did a series of simple searches in the hopes of catching something I might have missed. For this search, I expanded “information” to find the term “information needs,” which I combined with the terms (also retrieved with the expand command), “historian” and “historians.”



Search String: SS S1 (INFORMATION NEEDS) AND S6 (E3 HISTORIAN, E8 HISTORIANS)

Annotation:

A broad and inclusive survey of the literature about art-historians’ user needs, this article does an effective job relating art-historian specific research to traditional library science models. As in other articles about this specific user group, the author examines the slower adoption of technology by these users, and addresses some of the concerns unique to practitioners in this field, such as concerns about digital image quality. The work is recent, scholarly, and the author hails from Drexel U.!

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Dalton, M.S. & Charnigo, L. (2004, September). Historians and Their Information Sources. College & Research Libraries, 65(5), 400-25.

Abstract:

This article reports on a survey of historians and a citation analysis undertaken to revisit the questions treated in Margaret F. Stieg’s 1981 article published in College & Research Libraries. It examines which materials historians consider to be the most important and how they discover them. Their attitudes toward and use of electronic materials were also studied. Many characteristics of historians’ information needs and use have not changed in a generation: informal means of discovery like book reviews and browsing remain important, as does the need for comprehensive searches. Print continues to be the principal format. What has changed is that the advent of electronic resources has increased historians use of catalogs and indexes in their efforts to identify appropriate primary and secondary sources of information.

Search Strategy: Once again, my most successful Dialog search. I did other, more complex searches, but this simple search had the best results. I searched other files, too, most notably 1, 7, 439 and 434, but I found the most useful articles on 438. I wound up with such small numbers of articles that I rarely bothered to limit them.


Search Method: Controlled vocabulary, combining sets

Search String: SS S1 (INFORMATION NEEDS) AND S6 (E3 HISTORIAN, E8 HISTORIANS)

Annotation:

One of the best, most comprehensive studies I found, this frequently referenced work offers two useful features: it compares and links current research on the user group with previous studies, and it compares user responses to a survey with the results of a citation study as a check against faulty user perceptions. The study explores both how historians search for information and what sources they use. The evolution of the role of electronic media in historians’ research is considered. Facts and figures are clearly and logically presented. Both the body of the article and the notes contain many useful references to additional studies of this topic, both historical and current.

Duff, W., Craig, B., & Cherry, J. (2004, Fall). Finding and Using Archival Resources: A Cross-Canada Survey of Historians Studying Canadian History. Archavaria, 58, 51-80.

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Abstract:

This paper reports the results of a 2001 postal questionnaire (English and French) that gathered information about historians’ use of archival resources. The population for this report consisted of faculty members in history departments in degree-granting institutions in Canada whose area of interest is the history of Canada. The survey probed their current information-seeking practices in archives, invited assessment of their experience doing archival research, and sought their preferences for developments in the future. The conclusions indicate that finding and using sources in the early twenty-first century continues to involve the knowledge and expertise of archivists.

Search Strategy: Another result from a variant of the successful search described above.



Search String: SS S1 (INFORMATION NEEDS) AND HISTORIAN?

Annotation:

Of all the authors researching and reporting on historians and archivists, Wendy Duff is both the most prolific and the most readable. Her passion for her work is apparent in her writing, which is scholarly but not dry. She is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Information Studies, University of Toronto. This study of Canadian historians is comparable in scope and date to the studies of historians undertaken by Anderson and Tibbo. As in those studies, Duff’s exploration of the tension between the historians’ need for context, authenticity and access to primary sources and artifacts with the desire for convenience and the preservation of these original sources is set against the backdrop of the changes brought about by digital technology.

Duff, W. M., Dryden, J., Limkilde, C., Cherry, J., & Bogomazova, E. (2008, Spring/Summer). Archivists’ Views of User-based Evaluation: Benefits, Barriers, and Requirements. The American Archivist, 71(1), 51-80.

Abstract:

This article reports on the second phase of a study concerned with developing standardized questionnaires for user-based evaluation for archives. Based on a review of current practices used by archivists to gather feedback and focus-group sessions held with archivists, this phase of the study concentrated on archivists’ attitudes and concerns about user-based evaluations. It identified archivists’ opinions about user-based evaluation of archives including the type of feedback they value, methods they currently employ to gather feedback from users, benefits and problems posed by conducting formal evaluation studies, and ways archivists would use standardized questionnaires for user-based

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evaluation if these tools were available. The paper also provides some recommendations to help archivists evaluate their services and systems.

Search Strategy: I used the Thesaurus in the Library Literature & Information Full Text database to expand on and explore my search terms. Expanding “user,” I found the term “Use studies/Archives.”

Database: Library Literature & Information Full Text

Search Method: Controlled Vocabulary (probably my favorite method), limiters

Search String: Use studies/Archives AND Peer Reviewed

Annotation:

Looks at the issue of archival user studies from the other side, that of the archivists. The goal of the study was to facilitate development of tools and methods to bring a user-based approach to archives; the results reveal a disconnect between the some of the larger needs of the archivists and the users of archives. Addresses needs for standardization, consistent and empirical data-gathering; discusses opportunities presented by the evolution of digital media. Investigates barriers to a more user-centered approach. A timely article, published in a peer reviewed journal.

Duff, W. M., & Johnson, C. A. (2002, October). Accidentally Found on Purpose: Information-Seeking Behavior of Historians in Archives. Library Quarterly, 72(4), 472-96.

Abstract:

Reports on a qualitative research study of the information-seeking behavior of historians. Investigates how they locate primary sources, carry out their research, and use archival materials; and identifies four different types of information-seeking activities, including orienting oneself to materials, seeking know materials, building contextual knowledge, and identifying relevant material. (Author/LRW)

Search Strategy: Very specific searches seemed not to work well; again, I tried to cast a wide net, using multiple, related controlled vocabulary terms obtained through use of the expand command in conjunction with my keyword.

Database: DIALOG®File 1: ERIC

Search Method: Controlled vocabulary, truncation, expand

Search String: SS S38 AND HISTORIAN?

(How I got S38:

S24 1 USERS (LIBRARY)

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S25 2826 USERS (INFORMATION) (ADDED 08/01/1986) S26 1 USER PERCEPTIONS S27 132 USER PREFERENCES S28 1 USER RATIONALITY S29 1523 USER SATISFACTION (INFORMATION) (ADDED 01/08/1979) S30 2 USER SERVICES S31 0 USER STUDIES S32 2 USER SURVEYS S33 96 USER NEEDS S34 2 USER NEEDS (INFORMATION S35 3491 USER NEEDS (INFORMATION) (ADDED 08/01/1986) S36 28 USER GROUPS S37 138 USER CHARACTERISTICS S38 7194 E39,E38,E23,E24,E25,E26,E27,E28,E29,E19,E20,E21,E16,E7)

Annotation:

A thoughtful article that analyzes a study of historians in archives. This study is tightly focused around the methods (rather than the types of sources or information sought) of this group’s behavior, and develops four categories of archival information behavior. Another insightful and frequently cited article by Duff, provides much qualitative data.

Elam, B. (2007). Readiness or avoidance: e-resources and the art historian. Collection Building, 26(1), 4-6.

Abstract:

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to study the information-seeking behaviors of art historians.Design/methodology/approach – A survey of art historians was done to ascertain their use of e-resources. The paper discusses the impact of electronic resources and digital image databases on the research methodologies of today’s art historians.Findings – Although art historians depend on using the library for research, many have a rather limited awareness of electronic resources and have not fully developed the skills to utilize them to their fullest potential.Originality/value – This follows up on Deirdre R. Stam’s 1984 study of the information-seeking behaviors of art historians. [Publisher Abstract]

Search Strategy: In my Dialog searches, I noticed that the library science databases were yielding the best results. I decided to use Hagerty library’s databases to do more searching, hoping to find articles I may have missed. I particularly liked the peer-review limiting feature in this database.

Database: Library Literature and Information Science Full Text & Library Literature and Information Science Retrospective

Method of searching: Used thesaurus to find useful keywords, used peer-reviewed limiter

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Search String: historians <in> Keyword AND Peer Reviewed

Annotation:

This article discusses digital needs specific to art historians and some of the issues present that prevent a full embrace of digital media by this group. Cites the current research on the topic, then uses a small, informal study to provide rich qualitative information. Highly quotable, current.

Green, M. A. (2003/2004). The Messy Business of Remembering: History, Memory, and Archives. Archival Issues, 28(2), 95-103.

Abstract:

While some archivists may question the relevance of the seemingly esoteric discussion of postmodernism to the practical work of our profession, this article argues for postmodern analysis being deeply relevant to archivists--to everything from our acquisition decisions to how we view and relate to our users. One way to frame the pertinence of postmodernism to archives is to take a close look at how the positivist/postmodernist perspectives affect the legitimacy of the uses to which the material in archives can be put. Specifically, this article looks at the still-vibrant argument that something called "history" is a legitimate end to which archives can be put, while something called "memory" (also referred to more broadly as "social memory," the idea that societies--not just individuals--create, shape, interpret, and hold memory) is a much less legitimate purpose. Behind each of these end uses is a set of end users: professional historians on the one hand, and amateur researchers of all kinds on the other. And behind each of these purposes is also a distinct set of archival and other documentary material that is more or less legitimate or useful to the end users.

Search Strategy: This is a second result from the search described immediately above. (It’s rather uncanny how the alphabetization and search strategies seem to coincide.)

Database: Library Literature and Information Science Full Text & Library Literature and Information Science Retrospective

Method of searching: Used thesaurus to find useful keywords, used peer-reviewed limiter


Annotation:

Included for reference purposes only, this article is not a research article, nor does it specifically describe the information seeking habits or needs of this user group. What it does bring to this collection of references is that it positions the user group within the cultural framework of current and contemporary thought about meaning-making, a concept integral to this group. The article’s ideological and temporal

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currency is particularly relevant in light of the effort to focus on only the most current research and ideas in this bibliography.

Hagedorn, K. (2003). OAIster: a “no dead ends” OAI service provider. Library Hi Tech, 21(2), 170-81.

Abstract:

OAIster, at the University of Michigan, University Libraries, Digital Library Production Service (DLPS), is an Andrew W. Mellon Foundation grant-funded project designed to test the feasibility of using the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) to harvest digital object metadata from multiple and varied digital object repositories and develop a service to allow end-users to access that metadata. This article describes in-depth the development of our system to harvest, store, transform the metadata into Digital Library eXtension Service (DLXS) Bibliographic Class format, build indexes and make the metadata searchable through an interface using the XPAT search engine. Results of the testing of our service and statistics on usage are reported, as well as the issues that we have encountered during our harvesting and transformation operations. The article closes by discussing the future improvements and potential of OAIster and the OAI-PMH protocol.

Search Strategy: I noted the term OAIster in another article; I didn’t know what it was, so I thought I’d see if I could find out more information. OAIster seems like it will be a great resource for historians and archives users, and I found this article that describes some of the user studies done during the design of this resource.

Database: Library Literature and Information Full Text

Search Method: Keyword searching

Search String: oaister <in> smart search

Annotation:

This brief but informative article describes work being done on the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting and includes a discussion of user survey methods utilized in the both the digital collection development and the interface design phases of this ongoing archives project. The article refers the reader to the OAIster website to view the survey, the raw data and a more detailed summary of the study.

Hoeflich, M. H. (2007, Fall). Serendipity in the Stacks, Fortuity in the Archives. Law Library Journal, 99(4), 813-27.

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Abstract:

Professor Hoeflich explores the notion of serendipity and its components as they relate to historians, particularly legal historians, and to those institutions-libraries and archives-that present the opportunities for serendipity to work its magic. He also discusses the ways in which libraries and archives can help to encourage serendipitous discoveries, and the dangers he sees in overefficient and economically rational disposal policies, including reproduction instead of preservation of originals. [Publisher Abstract]

Search Strategy: Speaking of serendipity, I was perusing another article when I noticed “Research and the library” as a controlled vocabulary subject term. I combined this with my keyword search.

Database: Library Literature and Information Full Text

Search Method: Controlled vocabulary & keyword searching

Search String: Research and the library AND historians

Annotation:

Although this recent article in a peer-reviewed journal by law professor and legal historian Hoeflich is of a decidedly less research-oriented bent, I feel that its inclusion in the bibliography was critical for several reasons. Hoeflich examines the concept of serendipity through the use of historical and personal examples. Serendipity, a concept mentioned frequently in the literature about this user group, does not exactly reside in the realm of the quantifiable and empirical. Nevertheless, the “happy accident” of discovery often plays an important role in the research tactics of this group. Browsing is a behavior noted in several studies as a method of attaining unexpected and inspiring leads or sources. It is my opinion that it would be short-sighted to ignore this facet of user behavior simply because it is difficult to measure, for the cultivation of an environment that encourages serendipitous discovery should surely be one goal of information and resource providers. Hoeflich frames his advocacy of “planned chaos” (814) within the current discourse about digital media in this interesting and well crafted article.

Katifori, A., Torou, E., Vassilakis, C., & Halatsis, C. (2008). Supporting Research in Historical Archives: Historical Information Visualization and Modeling Requirements. Information Visualization 12th International Conference, IV, 32-7.

Abstract:

The on-going progress in the area of digital libraries has lead to the beginning of a digitization effort in Historical Archives, as well. The requirements of historical research, which works with histories of entities and incomplete information, create the need for supplementary tools to support users in handling the digitized content. This work is based on a user study of historian information retrieval

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methods in order to create a set of tools for the context of historical archives, which will facilitate historical data storage, management, and visualization.

Search Strategy: I wanted to leave no stone unturned, so I checked out the IEEExplore database. I didn’t really use it long enough to feel very comfortable with its capabilities, but I did find this thought-provoking conference presentation.

Database: IEEExplore

Search Method: Keyword searching

Search String: “historians”

Annotation:

Far more technical in nature than many of the other selections, and extremely timely, this is a presentation of the results of a combination of a study of queries made at an historical archive and semi-structured interviews with historians. The researchers’ goal was to develop a model for a digitized user interface based on their discoveries. This paper demonstrates the degree of complexity and effort that goes into the development of archival finding aids. An exploration of the endnotes would provide an excellent jumping-off point for the reader who wishes to delve further into the more technical aspects of archival user studies.

Murray, K. R., & Hsieh, I. K. (2008). Archiving Web-published materials: A needs assessment of librarians, researchers, and content providers. Government Information Quarterly, 25, 66-89.

Abstract:

The Web-at-Risk project is a digital preservation project funded by the Library of Congress as part of the National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program. The project is developing a Web archiving service to enable curators to build, store, and manage archived collections of Web-published materials captured largely from U.S. federal and state government agency Web sites. In 2005 the project’s 22 curators, as well as librarians and archivists working primarily in academic libraries(n=43), university researchers (n=7), and content providers (n=7) participated in a study to identify their needs in relation to Web archiving. This paper summarizes the issues and challenges these groups face and discusses the need for collaborations among libraries and government entities for preserving Web-published materials. [Publisher Abstract]

Search Strategy: Articles that specifically address the information behavior and needs of archivists and historians were not easy to locate; I was attempting to cast a wide net by using synonymous terms.

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Search Method: Keyword searching with proximity and truncation

Search String: SS ARCHIVIST? AND (INFORMATION()SEEKING OR INFORMATION()NEED? OR ONLINE()SEARCHING)

Annotation:

Useful in its simultaneous consideration of the needs of archivists and those engaged in historic research, this article explores the needs of researchers and libraries/archives in the digital arena. Of particular interest is the consideration of the transience of digital information, specifically born-digital documents and websites. Many digital information concerns are discussed, such as the need for reliable capture of information, the disappearance or undocumented change of digital information, the need for documentation standards and for collaboration to prevent redundancy and extend service. The authors tackle the challenges faced in these endeavors, exploring the ideas of responsibility and stewardship with regard to digital preservation and suggest methods of capturing and organizing this fragile cultural record.

Rose, T. (2002, Fall). Technology’s Impact on the Information-Seeking Behavior of Art Historians. Art Documentation, 21(2), 35-42.

Abstract:

At a 1989 ARLIS/NA conference presentation in Phoenix, Deirdre Stam summarized all previous studies of "tracking" art historians that had been conducted since the 1960s.(FN1) She explained this group's information needs and information-seeking behavior as it has been studied from three perspectives: bibliometric tracking; autobiographical accounts; and user studies. Stam herself undertook the first comprehensive user study of art historians in her 1984 dissertation.(FN2) Her study surveyed art historians in museums and colleges within the United States. Using both questionnaires and interviews, she sought to determine their modes of communication, maintenance of collegial networks, consultation with information providers, and how they establish authoritativeness in their information sources. In 1986, the Getty Art History Information Program (then part of the Getty Information Institute) conducted the second comprehensive user study of art historians.(FN3) The Getty study, using in-depth interviews and actual observations, sought to understand art historians from a much broader perspective, beginning with their formative experiences, educational and professional development, gathering of information, analytical techniques, and the organization and publication of their research. Since no comprehensive user studies of art historians had been conducted in the past fifteen years, I chose this issue as a research topic for Professor Betty Jo Irvine's "Seminar in Art Librarianship" course at Indiana University.(FN4) Recognizing that this study would be unable to cover the art historian's entire information-seeking process in the depth explored by the Getty study, I focused instead on the aspects

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of the research process upon which the art librarian could have the greatest impact, those involving the gathering, organization, and analysis of information. Survey instruments included both a questionnaire and follow-up interviews. The questionnaire was designed to understand art historians' research process through their methodological approaches, resources they consult, their use of computers, how they organize information, and any barriers they confront during these processes. The questions were intentionally open-ended so that respondents could discuss their process and not be forced into choosing from pre-defined categories (for the complete questionnaire, see Appendix). Follow-up interviews, ranging from thirty to ninety minutes, were used to clarify and expand on some of the responses.

Search Strategy: I found FirstSearch to be very useable in our class exercises; thought I’d give it a try. A keyword search brought up some useful results. Again, simple worked best.

Database: ECO, ArticlesFirst and WilsonSelectPlus; FirstSearch interface

Search Method: Keyword

Search String: KW historians AND KW information KW behavior

Annotation:

Explores in greater detail the sometimes contentious relationship that art historians have with technology, discusses art-historian use of various specific technologies—search engines, databases, word-processing programs and digital cameras. Offers more detailed insight into discipline specific technology barriers, and presents a “wish list” that would improve use and access for this group. This article is frequently cited in other work, is current, and published in a peer-reviewed journal.

Tibbo, H.R. (2003, Spring/Summer). Primarily History in America: How U.S. Historians Search for Primary Materials. The American Archivist, 66(1), 9-50.

Abstract:

The Primarily History project is the first international, comparative study to examine historians’ information-seeking behaviors since the advent of the World Wide Web, electronic finding aids, digitized collections, and an increasingly pervasive networked scholarly environment. Funded by the Gladys Kriebel Delmas Foundation, Primarily History is a collaboration of the School of Information and Library Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH) and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute (HATII) at the University of Glasgow, Scotland. This article reports on a survey that asked historians teaching American history at sixty-eight top-ranked institutions how they located primary resources for their research. Information-seeking behaviors identified range from

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traditional print approaches to use of on-line databases, Web searching, and virtual repository visits. Implications are drawn for archives and special collection repositories.

Search Strategy: I found this citation early; if I had not, I would have had to look for it as it is quoted so frequently. I was doing a number of keyword searches on Library Literature & Information Full Text and Library Literature and Information Science Retrospective, using the peer-review limiter.

Database: Library Literature & Information Full Text and Library Literature and Information Science Retrospective

Search Method: Keyword, limiters


Annotation:

A huge study and a report loaded with facts and figures, this recently published article is quoted in nearly all the other subsequently published literature on this user group. Helen Tibbo is an associate professor and associate dean at the School of Information and Library Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, one of the top Library Science programs in the U.S.

Toms, E. G., & Duff, W.M., (2002, December). “I spent 1 ½ hours sifting through one large box…” Diaries as Information Behavior of the Archives User: Lessons Learned. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(14), 1232-8.

Abstract:

This article describes how diaries were implemented in a study of the use of archives and archival finding aids by history graduate students. The issues concerning diary use as a data collection technique are discussed as well as the different types of diaries.

Search Strategy:

Citation chasing, author search. Searching Wendy Duff on Science Citation database, I found a reference to this article, to which Duff was a contributor. When searching on the Science and Social Science Databases, I utilized the limiting tools provided to refine my author search by subject area and document type. I am glad I tried these databases; normally I shy away from anything related to the hard sciences. They really offer a lot of useful research features, and I will definitely use them in the future. Even so, when I went back later to look for this article, I stayed within my comfort zone, doing an author search on Toms in Library Literature & Information Full Text.

Database: Science Citation; Library Literature & Information Full Text

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Kathleen Luckett

Search Method: Author search

Search String: toms <in> Author, Personal

Annotation:

I included this article not because of what it reveals about the user group, historians and archivists, but rather for the detailed examination of the methodologies used to examine this group of specialized information seekers. The article discusses precedents for the use of diaries or behavior logs as a tool for information behavior study, then explores the advantages and disadvantages of this method in general, and in relation to an ongoing study of information-seekers in archives. Taken in conjunction with other Duff articles, this study provides insight into the methods and the thoroughness of this researcher.

Toms, E. G., & O’Brien, H.L., (2008). Understanding the information and communication technology needs of the e-humanist. Journal of Documentation, 64(1), 102-30.

Abstract:

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to understand the needs of humanists with respect to information and communication technology (ICT) in order to prescribe the design of an e-humanist's workbench. Design/methodology/approach – A web-based survey comprising over 60 questions gathered the following data from 169 humanists: profile of the humanist, use of ICT in teaching, e-texts, text analysis tools, access to and use of primary and secondary sources, and use of collaboration and communication tools.

Findings – Humanists conduct varied forms of research and use multiple techniques. They rely on the availability of inexpensive, quality-controlled e-texts for their research. The existence of primary sources in digital form influences the type of research conducted. They are unaware of existing tools for conducting text analyses, but expressed a need for better tools. Search engines have replaced the library catalogue as the key access tool for sources. Research continues to be solitary with little collaboration among scholars. Research limitations/implications – The results are based on a self-selected sample of humanists who responded to a web-based survey. Future research needs to examine the work of the scholar at a more detailed level, preferably through observation and/or interviewing. Practical implications – The findings support a five-part framework that could serve as the basis for the design of an e-humanist's workbench. Originality/value – The paper examines the needs of the humanist, founded on an integration of information science research and humanities computing for a more comprehensive understanding of the humanist at work.

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Kathleen Luckett

Search Strategy: Citation chasing—see above—this article came from the same search as the one directly preceding it.

Database: Science Citation; Library Literature & Information Full Text

Search Method: Author search

Search String: toms <in> Author, Personal

Annotation:

An extremely detailed and up to date study of the user group “humanists” or “humanities researcher” of which historians are a subset; they share many characteristics with the larger group. This study seeks to explore the role of digital media in the research process of the humanists in order to create a recommendation for a set of tools to enhance that process. This article is frequently cited in the literature.

Yakel, E., & Torres, D. A. (2003, Spring/Summer). AI: Archival Intelligence and User Expertise. The American Archivist, 66(1), 51-78.

Abstract:

User studies in archives have long focused on researchers’ satisfaction, behaviors, and use of primary sources. Yet, archivists have never defined what characteristics denote an expert user of archives. This article reports on a research study involving in-depth interviews with twenty eight individuals. The analysis of these interviews led to the development of a model of researcher expertise that might be incorporated into archival user education to create information literacy for primary sources. The authors assert that there are three distinct forms of knowledge required to work effectively with primary sources: domain (subject) knowledge, artifactual literacy, and the authors’ own concept of archival intelligence. Archival intelligence is a researcher’s knowledge of archival principles, practices, and institutions, such as the reason underlying archival rules and procedures, the means for developing search strategies to explore research questions, and an understanding of the relationship between primary sources and their surrogates. This is separate from domain or subject knowledge and artifactual literacy, or the ability to interpret and analyze primary sources. Archival intelligence encompasses three dimensions: 1) knowledge of archival theory, practices, and procedures; 2) strategies for reducing uncertainty and ambiguity when unstructured problems and ill-defined solutions are the norm; 3) and intellective skills.

Search Strategy: Browsing. Impatient for the delivery of some articles by ILLIAD, I decided that since I had planned on joining the SAA anyway, that there was no time like the present. As a member, I had

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Kathleen Luckett

access to the Spring/Summer 2003 Special Section: Users and Archival Research that I had requested, but not received. This article was part of that section.

Database: SAA Website (not a database)

Search Method: Point and click

Search String: none

Annotation:

Frames the results of a study of archival users (mainly historians) in terms of the development of user expertise; intended to offer guidance in archival user education. Pinpoints the information behavior of successful archives users, contrasts with the behavior of novices. Highlights the need for researchers and historians to develop archival expertise outside their areas of specialization. Many quotes and much qualitative evidence from users of all expertise levels.

Resources for Historians and Archivists

Congleton, R. (2005). AI: Evaluating Web sites featuring primary sources on United States history. Behavioral & Social Sciences Librarian, 24(1), 61-82.

Abstract:

Most library Web sites offer lists of recommended Web sites for primary sources with only cursory summaries of the sites. While many of the resources listed are outstanding, too many are dubious in quality, often referring to dead URLs or sites containing no information on their sponsor, source of material, or other information needed to evaluate the accuracy of the information being offered. As student researchers use the Web more and more as their sole means of obtaining primary sources, they need to know how to evaluate the quality of a Web site. This paper discusses a five-step method for evaluating Web sites and uses this method to review several Web sites offering primary sources on United States history.

Annotation:

Remarkably, though the article was published three years ago (eons in internet time), all of the reviewed sites are operational, many are improved. Of the twelve sites listed, only two links were broken; navigation to the correct sites was simple and intuitive. Valuable both for the detailed reviews and

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Kathleen Luckett

assessments of the historic websites themselves and the evaluative criteria provided. All websites deal with primary sources. Listed sources are also all free to the public.

OAIster website: www.oaister.org

Annotation:

OAIster is a union catalog of digital resources "harvested" by their descriptive records using OAI-PMH (the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting). OAIster reveals these deep web digital resources in a user-friendly, searchable interface for users interested in useful, academically-oriented digital resources. The service also works to eliminate dead ends by retrieving not only descriptions (metadata) about resources, but actual digital resources. OAIster can be searched by Title, Author/Creator, Subject, Language or Entire Record. Searches can also be limited by resource type (text, image, audio, video, dataset) and sorted by title, author, date and hit frequency. Results allow further limiting by data contributor (i.e., where the record was harvested from), as well as the option to re-sort the data and return to the search page to revise a search. Provides easy, single-site access to primary sources.

Digital Library Foundation website: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/i/imls/

Annotation:

Similar to OAIster, The Digital Library Federation (DLF) portal is a follow-on project of the University of Michigan Digital Library Production Service. The portal can be used to search for primary sources. There are currently 2,648,902 records from 62 data contributors. The site is offers keyword and phrase searching with Boolean operators, field searching by Title, Author, Subject and Language, and limiting by resource type, topic and sub-topic. Advantages include single-site access to vast amounts of primary sources, ease of searchablity.

e-History website: http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/

Annotation:

An amazing history website from Ohio State that offers free access to primary sources that are keyword searchable and browse-able, including documents, maps and photographs. A site-wide search is also available. Contains a page of links to additional history websites, including several history blogs.

Digital History website: http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/

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http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/

http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/

http://quod.lib.umich.edu/i/imls/

http://www.oaister.org/

Kathleen Luckett

Annotation:

A collaborative effort of the University of Houston, Chigago Historical Society, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, Houston’s Museum of Fine Arts, The National Park Service and The Project for the Active Teaching of American History, this site offers an online textbook, searchable and browse-able primary sources, images, maps, writing guides and a super-cool interactive timeline. Easily navigable site.

Library of Congress American Memory website: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html

Annotation:

American Memory provides free and open access through the Internet to written and spoken words, sound recordings, still and moving images, prints, maps, and sheet music that document the American experience. It is a digital record of American history and creativity. American Memory is a gateway to the Library of Congress’s vast resources of digitized American historical materials. Comprising more than 9 million items that document U.S. history and culture, American Memory is organized into more than 100 thematic collections based on their original format, their subject matter, or who first created, assembled, or donated them to the Library. Only keyword searchable, but it has a detailed directory that can be browsed by topic, time period, resource type or geographic location.

Conclusion: What I learned from this project, or, “Frozen fishsticks for dinner again?”

As I progressed through this project, I frequently consulted (and re-consulted) the project description. Again and again I found that I had somehow managed to stray from the instructions and advice, wandering down the path of wasted time. In general this quarter I have found that I have had to invest a great deal of time in learning how to be a student again. As the project began, I stubbornly tried to force the assignment to fit my interests. I didn’t think I would enjoy the research unless I was following my own ideas, but as I began to gather the articles that eventually became this bibliography, I found myself enthralled by the search process. However, I was convinced that I would hate reading the dry, scholarly articles, so I gathered up loads of references, planning to read them later (yes, later I did re-discover that we were advised against this practice). When I (finally) began to read the articles, I suddenly realized what “citation chasing” was all about. More searching ensued. Thankfully, I did get one thing right—I documented my searches, closely. Honestly, I really didn’t adequately grasp the concept of scholarly research until I was immersed in the process, and by then, I had wasted a lot of the

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http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html

Kathleen Luckett

most precious resource I had: time. I did discover a lot about my own research process, though, and the improvements that I can make. I have plans that include post-its, and other memory devices (I noticed that I could remember which article I wanted to reference by visualizing the color hi-lighter pen I used to underline!) Next time, I’ll be ready!

Another discovery I made—I found those dry scholarly articles fascinating! I admit, I didn’t much care for all the charts and figures, but I became fascinated by my user group, thinking about what makes them tick, and why. I’ve been fascinated by the idea of archives and archivists since I researched the SAA in my INFO 520 class, and this was an excellent opportunity to find out all I could about them. I was happy to learn some archival lingo—I feel ever-so-slightly more prepared for the archives class I signed up for next term. Another revelation—my own information behavior is very similar to the user group I chose to research. I, too, am deeply concerned with context, and am inclined to read widely and across disciplines in order to feel that I have a grasp of the topic at hand. I am a firm believer in serendipity, and in browsing. I, too, rely on a mix of print and digital aids. I was interested to read the post of another student on the discussion board who noticed the same phenomena—she identified with the information behavior of her teenage user group. When it’s all said and done, I feel pretty satisfied with my process and my results. This was my first serious research project, and a real learning experience.

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studying the future of studying the past: -...

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