Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical KnowledgeU.S. Department of TransportationFEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATIONFlight Standards Service2008 iiiiiThe Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress in their pilot training. Except for the Code of Federal Regulations pertinent to civil aviation, most of the knowledge areas applicable to pilot certication are presented. This handbook is useful to beginning pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certicates. Occasionally the word must or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the AeronauticalInformationManual(AIM).TheAIMisavailableonlineatwww.faa.gov.ThecurrentFlightStandards Service airman training and testing material and learning statements for all airman certicates and ratings can be obtained from www.faa.gov.This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-25, Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 2003.This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov.This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address:AFS630comments@faa.govPreface ivvThe Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the assistance of Safety Research Corporation of America. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors:Mrs. Nancy A. Wright for providing imagery of a de Haviland DH-4 inaugural air mail ight (Chapter 1)The Raab Collection, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for images of the rst pilot license (Chapter 1) Sandy Kenyon and Rod Magner (magicair.com) for photo of 1929 TravelAir 4000 (Chapter 1)Adventure Seaplanesfor photos of a ski and oat training plane (Chapter 2)Jack Davis, Stearman Restorers Asociation, for photo of a 1941 PT-17 Army Air Corps trainer (Chapter 2)Michael J. Hoke, Abaris Training Resources, Inc., for images and information about composite aircraft (Chapter 2)M. van Leeuwen (www.zap16.com) for image of Piaggio P-180 (Chapter 5)Greg Richter, Blue Mountain Avionics, for autopilot information and imagery (Chapter 5)Mountain High E&S Company for various images provided regarding oxygen systems (Chapter 6)Jeff Callahan, Aerox, for image of MSK-AS Silicone Mask without Microphone (Chapter 6)Nonin Medical, Inc. for image of Onyx pulse oximeter (Chapter 6)Pilotfriend.com for photo of a TKS Weeping Wing (Chapter 6)Chelton Flight Systems for image of FlightLogic (Chapter 7)Avidyne Corporation for image of the Entegra (Chapter 7)Teledyne Controls for image of an air data computer (Chapter 7)Watson Industries, Inc. (www.watson-gyro.com) for image of Attitude and Heading Reference system (Chapter 7)Dr. Pat Veillette for information used on decision-making (Chapter 17)John Park for image of spinning plates (Chapter 17) Cessna Aircraft Company, Columbia Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation, Eclipse Aviation Corporation, Garmin Ltd., The Boeing Company for images provided and used throughout the Handbook.Additional appreciation is extended to the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), the AOPA Air Safety Foundation, the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA),and the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) for their technical support and input.Acknowledgments viviiPreface ...................................................................iiiAcknowledgments ..................................................vTable of Contents .................................................viiChapter 1Introduction To Flying .........................................1-1Introduction ....................................................................1-1History of Flight .............................................................1-2History of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)1-3Transcontinental Air Mail Route ................................1-4Federal Certication of Pilots and Mechanics ...........1-4The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 ............................1-5The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 ..............................1-6Department of Transportation (DOT) ........................1-6Air Trafc Control (ATC) Automation ......................1-6The Professional Air Trafc ControllersOrganization (PATCO) Strike ....................................1-7The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 .......................1-7Role of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) .....1-7The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) ....................1-7Primary Locations of the FAA ...................................1-8Field Ofces ............................................................1-8Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI)................................1-9FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam) ................................1-9Obtaining Assistance from the FAA ..........................1-9FAA Reference Material ............................................1-9Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) ...............1-9Handbooks ............................................................1-10Advisory Circulars (ACs) .....................................1-10Flight Publications ................................................1-11Pilot and Aeronautical Information.........................1-11Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)............................1-11Safety Program Airmen NoticationSystem (SPANS) ..................................................1-12Aircraft Types and Categories .....................................1-12Ultralight Vehicles ...................................................1-12Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) Category .......................1-12Pilot Certications .......................................................1-13Sport Pilot .................................................................1-14Recreational Pilot .....................................................1-14Private Pilot ..............................................................1-14Commercial Pilot ......................................................1-14Airline Transport Pilot .............................................1-15Selecting a Flight School............................................1-15How To Find a Reputable Flight Program ...............1-15How To Choose a Certicated Flight Instructor(CFI) .........................................................................1-16The Student Pilot........................................................1-16Basic Requirements ..................................................1-16Medical Certication Requirements .....................1-17Becoming a Pilot ..........................................................1-17Knowledge and Skill Examinations .............................1-18Knowledge Examination ..........................................1-18When To Take the Examination ...........................1-18Where To Take the Examination ..........................1-18Practical Examination ..............................................1-18When To Take the Practical Exam .......................1-19Who Administers the Practical Examination? ......1-20Role of the Certicated Flight Instructor .................1-20Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner...................1-20Chapter Summary .....................................................1-21Chapter 2Aircraft Structure .................................................2-1Introduction ....................................................................2-1Lift and Basic Aerodynamics .........................................2-2Major Components .........................................................2-3Fuselage ......................................................................2-3Wings .........................................................................2-3Empennage .................................................................2-5Landing Gear ..............................................................2-6The Powerplant ..........................................................2-6Subcomponents ..............................................................2-7Types of Aircraft Construction ......................................2-7Truss Structure ...........................................................2-7Semimonocoque .........................................................2-8Table of ContentsviiiComposite Construction .............................................2-8History ....................................................................2-8Composite Materials in Aircraft .............................2-9Advantages of Composites .....................................2-9Disadvantages of Composites .................................2-9Fluid Spills on Composites ...................................2-10Lightning Strike Protection ...................................2-10The Future of Composites ....................................2-11Instrumentation: Moving into the Future....................2-11Control Instruments.................................................2-12Navigation Instruments...........................................2-12Global Positioning System (GPS) ................................2-12Chapter 3Principles of Flight ..............................................3-1Introduction ....................................................................3-1Structure of the Atmosphere ..........................................3-1Atmospheric Pressure .................................................3-2Pressure Altitude ........................................................3-2Density Altitude .........................................................3-3Effect of Pressure on Density .................................3-3Effect of Temperature on Density ..........................3-3Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density .............3-3Theories in the Production of Lift ..................................3-4Newtons Basic Laws of Motion ................................3-4Magnus Effect ............................................................3-4Flow of Air Against a Nonrotating Cylinder ..........3-5A Rotating Cylinder in a Motionless Fluid .............3-5A Rotating Cylinder in a Moving Fluid ..................3-5Bernoullis Principle of Differential Pressure ............3-7Airfoil Design ................................................................3-7Low Pressure Above ..................................................3-8High Pressure Below ..................................................3-9Pressure Distribution ..................................................3-9Airfoil Behavior .......................................................3-10A Third Dimension ......................................................3-10Chapter Summary ........................................................3-10Chapter 4Aerodynamics of Flight .......................................4-1Forces Acting on the Aircraft ........................................4-1Thrust .........................................................................4-2Drag ............................................................................4-3Parasite Drag ...........................................................4-4Induced Drag ..........................................................4-5Lift/Drag Ratio ........................................................4-6Weight ........................................................................4-7Lift ..............................................................................4-7Wingtip Vortices ............................................................4-8Formation of Vortices ................................................4-8Avoiding Wake Turbulence .......................................4-8Ground Effect .................................................................4-9Axes of an Aircraft .......................................................4-11Moment and Moment Arm ..........................................4-12Aircraft Design Characteristics...................................4-12Stability ....................................................................4-12Static Stability .......................................................4-13Dynamic Stability .................................................4-13Longitudinal Stability (Pitching) ..........................4-14Lateral Stability (Rolling) .....................................4-16Vertical Stability (Yawing) ...................................4-17Free Directional Oscillations (Dutch Roll) ..............4-18Spiral Instability .......................................................4-18Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers ...................4-19Forces in Turns .........................................................4-19Forces in Climbs .......................................................4-21Forces in Descents ....................................................4-21Stalls............................................................................4-22Basic Propeller Principles ............................................4-23Torque and P-Factor .................................................4-26Torque Reaction .......................................................4-26Corkscrew Effect ......................................................4-26Gyroscopic Action ....................................................4-27Asymmetric Loading (P-Factor) ..............................4-27Load Factors .................................................................4-28Load Factors in Aircraft Design ...............................4-28Load Factors in Steep Turns .....................................4-29Load Factors and Stalling Speeds ............................4-30Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers .........................4-31Vg Diagram ..............................................................4-32Rate of Turn .............................................................4-33Radius of Turn ..........................................................4-34Weight and Balance .....................................................4-35Effect of Weight on Flight Performance ..................4-37Effect of Weight on Aircraft Structure .....................4-37Effect of Weight on Stability and Controllability ....4-38Effect of Load Distribution ......................................4-38High Speed Flight ........................................................4-39Subsonic Versus Supersonic Flow ...........................4-39Speed Ranges ...........................................................4-40Mach Number Versus Airspeed ...............................4-41Boundary Layer ........................................................4-41Laminar Boundary Layer Flow ............................4-41Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow ..........................4-41Boundary Layer Separation ..................................4-41Shock Waves ............................................................4-42Sweepback ................................................................4-43Mach Buffet Boundaries ..........................................4-44High Speed Flight Controls ......................................4-45Chapter Summary ........................................................4-46ixChapter 5Flight Controls .....................................................5-1Introduction ....................................................................5-1Flight Control Systems.................................................5-2Flight Controls ............................................................5-2Primary Flight Controls ..............................................5-2Elevator ...................................................................5-5T-Tail ......................................................................5-6Stabilator .................................................................5-6Canard .....................................................................5-7Rudder .....................................................................5-7V-Tail ......................................................................5-8Secondary Flight Controls ..........................................5-8Flaps ........................................................................5-8Leading Edge Devices ............................................5-9Spoilers .................................................................5-10Trim Tabs ..............................................................5-10Balance Tabs .........................................................5-11Antiservo Tabs ......................................................5-11Ground Adjustable Tabs .......................................5-11Adjustable Stabilizer .............................................5-12Autopilot ......................................................................5-12Chapter Summary ........................................................5-12Chapter 6Aircraft Systems ..................................................6-1Introduction ....................................................................6-1Powerplant .....................................................................6-1Reciprocating Engines ................................................6-2Propeller .....................................................................6-4Fixed-Pitch Propeller ..............................................6-5Adjustable-Pitch Propeller ......................................6-6Induction Systems ......................................................6-7Carburetor Systems ....................................................6-7Mixture Control ......................................................6-8Carburetor Icing ......................................................6-8Carburetor Heat ......................................................6-9Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge ......................6-10Outside Air Temperature Gauge ..............................6-10Fuel Injection Systems .............................................6-10Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers .......................6-11Superchargers ...........................................................6-12Turbosuperchargers ..................................................6-12System Operation ..................................................6-13High Altitude Performance ...................................6-14Ignition System ............................................................6-14Oil Systems ..................................................................6-15Engine Cooling Systems ..............................................6-16Exhaust Systems ..........................................................6-17Starting System ............................................................6-18Combustion ..................................................................6-18Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) ........6-19Turbine Engines ...........................................................6-20Types of Turbine Engines ........................................6-20Turbojet .................................................................6-20Turboprop .............................................................6-20Turbofan ...............................................................6-20Turboshaft .............................................................6-20Turbine Engine Instruments .....................................6-22Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)...............................6-22Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)........................6-22Torquemeter ..........................................................6-22N1 Indicator ...........................................................6-22N2 Indicator ...........................................................6-22Turbine Engine Operational Considerations ............6-22Engine Temperature Limitations ..........................6-22Thrust Variations ..................................................6-22Foreign Object Damage (FOD) ............................6-23Turbine Engine Hot/Hung Start ............................6-23Compressor Stalls .................................................6-23Flameout ...............................................................6-23Performance Comparison .........................................6-24Airframe Systems........................................................6-25Fuel Systems ................................................................6-25Gravity-Feed System...............................................6-25Fuel-Pump System ...................................................6-25Fuel Primer ...............................................................6-25Fuel Tanks ................................................................6-25Fuel Gauges ..............................................................6-26Fuel Selectors ...........................................................6-26Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains ...........................6-26Fuel Grades ..............................................................6-26Fuel Contamination ..................................................6-27Refueling Procedures ...................................................6-27Electrical System .........................................................6-28Hydraulic Systems .......................................................6-30Landing Gear ............................................................6-31Tricycle Landing Gear Airplanes .........................6-31Tailwheel Landing Gear Airplanes .......................6-31Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear ....................6-31Brakes .......................................................................6-32Pressurized Aircraft .....................................................6-32Oxygen Systems...........................................................6-34Oxygen Masks ..........................................................6-35Cannula .....................................................................6-35Pressure-Demand Oxygen Systems .........................6-36Continuous-Flow Oxygen System ...........................6-36Electrical Pulse-Demand Oxygen System ................6-36Pulse Oximeters ........................................................6-37xServicing of Oxygen Systems ..................................6-37Anti-Ice and Deice Systems .........................................6-37Airfoil Anti-Ice and Deice.......................................6-37Windscreen Anti-Ice ................................................6-38Propeller Anti-Ice .....................................................6-38Other Anti-Ice and Deice Systems ...........................6-39Chapter Summary ........................................................6-39Chapter 7Flight Instruments ...............................................7-1Introduction ....................................................................7-1Pitot-Static Flight Instruments .......................................7-1Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines ..........................7-2Static Pressure Chamber and Lines ............................7-2Altimeter .....................................................................7-3Principle of Operation .............................................7-3Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature ..7-4Setting the Altimeter ...............................................7-5Altimeter Operation ................................................7-6Types of Altitude ....................................................7-6Instrument Check ....................................................7-7Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) ...................................7-7Principle of Operation .............................................7-7Instrument Check ....................................................7-8Airspeed Indicator (ASI) ............................................7-8Airspeed Indicator Markings ..................................7-9Other Airspeed Limitations ..................................7-10Instrument Check ..................................................7-10Blockage of the Pitot-Static System .........................7-10Blocked Pitot System ............................................7-10Blocked Static System ..........................................7-11Electronic Flight Display (EFD) ..................................7-12Airspeed Tape ..........................................................7-12Attitude Indicator .....................................................7-12Altimeter ...................................................................7-12Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) .................................7-12Heading Indicator .....................................................7-12Turn Indicator ...........................................................7-12Tachometer ...............................................................7-12Slip/Skid Indicator ....................................................7-13Turn Rate Indicator ..................................................7-13Air Data Computer (ADC) .......................................7-14Trend Vectors ...........................................................7-14Gyroscopic Flight Instruments .....................................7-15Gyroscopic Principles ..............................................7-15Rigidity in Space ...................................................7-15Precession .............................................................7-15Sources of Power ......................................................7-16Turn Indicators .........................................................7-16Turn-and-Slip Indicator ........................................7-17Turn Coordinator ..................................................7-17Inclinometer .............................................................7-18Yaw String ............................................................7-18Instrument Check ..................................................7-18Attitude Indicator .....................................................7-18Heading Indicator .....................................................7-20Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) ...7-20The Flux Gate Compass System ..............................7-20Remote Indicating Compass .....................................7-21Instrument Check ..................................................7-22Compass Systems ........................................................7-22Magnetic Compass ...................................................7-22Magnetic Compass Induced Errors .......................7-23The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass .....................7-26Lags or Leads ........................................................7-26Eddy Current Damping .........................................7-26Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Gauge ......................7-26Chapter Summary ........................................................7-26Chapter 8Flight Manuals and Other Documents ...............8-1Introduction ....................................................................8-1Preliminary Pages .......................................................8-2General (Section 1) .....................................................8-2Limitations (Section 2) ...............................................8-2Airspeed ..................................................................8-2Powerplant ..............................................................8-3Weight and Loading Distribution ...........................8-3Flight Limits ...........................................................8-4Placards ...................................................................8-4Emergency Procedures (Section 3) ............................8-4Normal Procedures (Section 4) ..................................8-4Performance (Section 5) .............................................8-4Weight and Balance/Equipment List (Section 6) .......8-4Systems Description (Section 7) ................................8-4Handling, Service, and Maintenance (Section 8) .......8-4Supplements (Section 9) .............................................8-5Safety Tips (Section 10) .............................................8-5Aircraft Documents ........................................................8-6Certicate of Aircraft Registration .............................8-6Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) .........................................8-7Airworthiness Certicate ............................................8-7Aircraft Maintenance ..................................................8-8Aircraft Inspections ........................................................8-8Annual Inspection ......................................................8-8100-Hour Inspection ...................................................8-9Other Inspection Programs .........................................8-9Altimeter System Inspection..................................8-9Transponder Inspection ..........................................8-9Emergency Locator Transmitter .............................8-9Preight Inspections ...............................................8-9Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) and Operations With xiInoperative Equipment..................................................8-9Preventive Maintenance ...............................................8-11Maintenance Entries .............................................8-11Examples of Preventive Maintenance ..................8-11Repairs and Alterations ............................................8-12Special Flight Permits ..............................................8-12Airworthiness Directives (ADs) ..................................8-12Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities ...................8-13Chapter Summary ........................................................8-14Chapter 9Weight and Balance ............................................9-1Introduction ....................................................................9-1Weight Control ...............................................................9-1Effects of Weight .......................................................9-1Weight Changes .........................................................9-2Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity ......................9-2Effects of Adverse Balance ........................................9-3Stability ...................................................................9-3Control ....................................................................9-3Management of Weight and Balance Control ............9-4Terms and Denitions ................................................9-4Principles of Weight and Balance Computations .......9-6Weight and Balance Restrictions ...............................9-7Determining Loaded Weight and CG ............................9-7Computational Method ...............................................9-7Graph Method ............................................................9-7Table Method .............................................................9-9Computations With a Negative Arm ........................9-10Computations With Zero Fuel Weight .....................9-10Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight .................9-10Weight Shifting .....................................................9-10Weight Addition or Removal ................................9-11Chapter Summary ........................................................9-11Chapter 10Aircraft Performance .........................................10-1Introduction ..................................................................10-1Importance of Performance Data .................................10-1Structure of the Atmosphere ........................................10-2Atmospheric Pressure ..................................................10-2Pressure Altitude ..........................................................10-3Density Altitude ...........................................................10-3Effects of Pressure on Density .................................10-4Effects of Temperature on Density ..........................10-5Effects of Humidity (Moisture) on Density .............10-5Performance .................................................................10-5Straight-and-Level Flight .........................................10-5Climb Performance ..................................................10-6Range Performance ..................................................10-8Region of Reversed Command ..............................10-10Takeoff and Landing Performance .........................10-11Runway Surface and Gradient ................................10-11Water on the Runway and Dynamic Hydroplaning 10-13Takeoff Performance ..............................................10-13Landing Performance .............................................10-15Performance Speeds ...................................................10-17Performance Charts ....................................................10-17Interpolation ...........................................................10-18Density Altitude Charts ..........................................10-18Takeoff Charts ........................................................10-19Climb and Cruise Charts ........................................10-20Crosswind and Headwind Component Chart .........10-24Landing Charts .......................................................10-25Stall Speed Performance Charts .............................10-26Transport Category Airplane Performance ................10-26Major Differences in Transport Category Versus Non-Transport Category Performance Requirements ....10-27Performance Requirements ....................................10-27Takeoff ................................................................10-27Landing ...............................................................10-27Takeoff Planning ................................................10-27Runway Requirements ...........................................10-27Balanced Field Length ........................................10-28Climb Requirements ..................................................10-30First Segment ..........................................................10-30Second Segment .....................................................10-31Third or Acceleration Segment ..............................10-31Fourth or Final Segment .........................................10-31Second Segment Climb Limitations .......................10-31Air Carrier Obstacle Clearance Requirements ...........10-31Summary of Takeoff Requirements .......................10-32Landing Performance .............................................10-32Planning the Landing ..........................................10-32Landing Requirements ........................................10-32Approach Climb Requirements ..........................10-32Landing Runway Required .................................10-33Summary of Landing Requirements ......................10-33Chapter Summary ......................................................10-34Chapter 11Weather Theory .................................................11-1Introduction ..................................................................11-1Atmosphere ..................................................................11-2Composition of the Atmosphere ..............................11-2Atmospheric Circulation ..........................................11-3Atmospheric Pressure ...............................................11-3Coriolis Force ...............................................................11-3Measurement of Atmosphere Pressure ........................11-4Altitude and Atmospheric Pressure .............................11-5Altitude and Flight .......................................................11-6Altitude and the Human Body .....................................11-6xiiWind and Currents .......................................................11-7Wind Patterns ...........................................................11-7Convective Currents .................................................11-7Effect of Obstructions on Wind ...............................11-8Low-Level Wind Shear ..........................................11-11Wind and Pressure Representation on SurfaceWeather Maps ........................................................11-11Atmospheric Stability ................................................11-12Inversion .................................................................11-13Moisture and Temperature .....................................11-13Relative Humidity ..................................................11-13Temperature/Dew Point Relationship ....................11-13Methods by Which Air Reaches theSaturation Point ......................................................11-14Dew and Frost ........................................................11-15Fog ..........................................................................11-15Clouds .....................................................................11-15Ceiling ....................................................................11-17Visibility .................................................................11-18Precipitation ...........................................................11-18Air Masses .................................................................11-18Fronts .........................................................................11-18Warm Front ............................................................11-19Flight Toward an Approaching Warm Front ......11-20Cold Front ..............................................................11-20Fast-Moving Cold Front .....................................11-21Flight Toward an Approaching Cold Front ........11-21Comparison of Cold and Warm Fronts ..................11-22Wind Shifts .............................................................11-22Stationary Front ......................................................11-22Occluded Front .......................................................11-22Thunderstorms ........................................................11-22Hazards..............................................................11-23Squall Line.........................................................11-23Tornadoes..........................................................11-23Turbulence.........................................................11-24Icing...................................................................11-24Hail....................................................................11-24Ceiling and Visibility.........................................11-25Effect on Altimeters...........................................11-25Lightning .............................................................11-25Engine Water Ingestion.....................................11-25Chapter Summary ......................................................11-25Chapter 12Aviation Weather Services ...............................12-1Introduction ..................................................................12-1Observations ................................................................12-2Surface Aviation Weather Observations ..................12-2Air Route Trafc Control Center (ARTCC) .........12-2Upper Air Observations ...........................................12-2Radar Observations ..................................................12-2Satellite .....................................................................12-3Satellite Weather ...................................................12-3Satellite Weather Products ....................................12-4Service Outlets .............................................................12-4Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) ...............12-4Transcribed Information Brieng Service (TIBS) ...12-4Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS) .....12-4En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) ..............12-5Hazardous Inight Weather Advisory (HIWAS) .....12-5Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB)...............12-5Weather Briengs ........................................................12-5Standard Brieng ......................................................12-5Abbreviated Brieng ................................................12-6Outlook Brieng .......................................................12-6Aviation Weather Reports ............................................12-6Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) ..........12-6Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) ..............................12-8Radar Weather Reports (RAREP) ............................12-9Aviation Forecasts .....................................................12-10Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) ...................12-10Area Forecasts (FA) ...............................................12-11Inight Weather Advisories ...................................12-12AIRMET .............................................................12-12SIGMET .............................................................12-13Convective Signicant MeteorologicalInformation (WST) .............................................12-14Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FD) ........12-14Weather Charts ...........................................................12-15Surface Analysis Chart ...........................................12-15Weather Depiction Chart ........................................12-16Radar Summary Chart ............................................12-17Signicant Weather Prognostic Charts ..................12-18ATC Radar Weather Displays..................................12-19Weather Avoidance Assistance ..............................12-21Electronic Flight Displays (EFD) /Multi-FunctionDisplay (MFD) Weather...........................................12-21Weather Products Age and Expiration ...................12-22The Next Generation Weather Radar System (NEXRAD) .............................................................12-22Level II Data Products ........................................12-22Level III Data Products .......................................12-22NEXRAD Abnormalities ....................................12-23NEXRAD Limitations ........................................12-23AIRMET/SIGMET Display ...................................12-24Graphical METARs ................................................12-24Chapter Summary ......................................................12-26xiiiChapter 13Airport Operations .............................................13-1Introduction ..................................................................13-1Types of Airports .........................................................13-1Towered Airport .......................................................13-2Nontowered Airport .................................................13-2Sources for Airport Data ..............................................13-2Aeronautical Charts ..................................................13-3Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) ............................13-3Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) ................................13-3Airport Markings and Signs .........................................13-4Runway Markings ....................................................13-4Taxiway Markings ....................................................13-5Other Markings ........................................................13-5Airport Signs ............................................................13-6Airport Lighting ...........................................................13-6Airport Beacon .........................................................13-6Approach Light Systems ..........................................13-7Visual Glideslope Indicators ....................................13-7Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) .............13-7Other Glidepath Systems ......................................13-7Runway Lighting ......................................................13-8Runway End Identier Lights (REIL) ..................13-8Runway Edge Lights .............................................13-8In-Runway Lighting ..............................................13-9Control of Airport Lighting ......................................13-9Taxiway Lights .........................................................13-9Obstruction Lights ....................................................13-9Wind Direction Indicators ..........................................13-10Trafc Patterns..........................................................13-10Key to Trafc PatternOperationsSingle Runway ..................................13-11Key to Trafc PatternOperationsParallel Runways ..............................13-11Radio Communications ..............................................13-11Radio License .........................................................13-11Radio Equipment ....................................................13-12Lost Communication Procedures ...........................13-12Air Trafc Control (ATC) Services ...........................13-13Primary Radar ........................................................13-13ATC Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) ................13-14Transponder ............................................................13-14Radar Trafc Advisories ........................................13-14Wake Turbulence .......................................................13-15Vortex Generation ..................................................13-16Vortex Strength ......................................................13-16Vortex Behavior .....................................................13-16Vortex Avoidance Procedures ................................13-17Collision Avoidance ...................................................13-17Clearing Procedures ...............................................13-18Runway Incursion Avoidance ................................13-18Chapter Summary ......................................................13-18Chapter 14Airspace .............................................................14-1Introduction ..................................................................14-1Controlled Airspace .....................................................14-2Class A Airspace ......................................................14-2Class B Airspace ......................................................14-2Class C Airspace ......................................................14-2Class D Airspace ......................................................14-2Class E Airspace .......................................................14-2Uncontrolled Airspace .................................................14-3Class G Airspace ......................................................14-3Special Use Airspace ...................................................14-3Prohibited Areas .......................................................14-3Restricted Areas .......................................................14-3Warning Areas ..........................................................14-4Military Operation Areas (MOAs) ...........................14-4Alert Areas ...............................................................14-4Controlled Firing Areas (CFAs) ...............................14-4Other Airspace Areas ...................................................14-4Local Airport Advisory (LAA) ................................14-4Military Training Routes (MTRs) ............................14-6Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) ......................14-6Published VFR Routes .............................................14-6Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSAs) ..................14-6National Security Areas (NSAs) ..............................14-6Air Trafc Control and the National Airspace System 14-7Coordinating the Use of Airspace ............................14-7Operating in the Various Types of Airspace ............14-7Basic VFR Weather Minimums ............................14-7Operating Rules and Pilot/EquipmentRequirements ........................................................14-7Ultralight Vehicles ..............................................14-10Unmanned Free Balloons ...................................14-10Parachute Jumps .................................................14-10Chapter Summary ......................................................14-10Chapter 15Navigation ..........................................................15-1Introduction ..................................................................15-1Aeronautical Charts .....................................................15-2Sectional Charts ........................................................15-2VFR Terminal Area Charts ......................................15-2World Aeronautical Charts .......................................15-2Lattitude and Longitude (Meridians and Parallels) .....15-3Time Zones ...............................................................15-3Measurement of Direction ........................................15-5Variation ...................................................................15-6Deviation ..................................................................15-8Effect of Wind ..............................................................15-9Basic Calculations ......................................................15-11Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours ...............15-11xivTime T = D/GS ...................................................15-11Distance D = GS X T ..........................................15-11GS GS = D/T ......................................................15-11Converting Knots to Miles Per Hour ......................15-11Fuel Consumption ..................................................15-12Flight Computers ....................................................15-12Plotter .....................................................................15-12Pilotage ......................................................................15-12Dead Reckoning .........................................................15-12The Wind Triangle or Vector Analysis ..................15-12Flight Planning ...........................................................15-16Assembling Necessary Material .............................15-16Weather Check .......................................................15-17Use of Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) ..............15-17Airplane Flight Manual or Pilots OperatingHandbook (AFM/POH) ..........................................15-17Charting the Course ...................................................15-17Steps in Charting the Course ..................................15-19Filing a VFR Flight Plan ............................................15-20Radio Navigation .......................................................15-21Very High Frequency (VHF) OmnidirectionalRange (VOR) ..........................................................15-22Using the VOR ...................................................15-23Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) ..........................15-23Horizontal Situation Indicator ................................15-24Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) ............................15-24Tracking With VOR ...............................................15-25Tips on Using the VOR ..........................................15-26Time and Distance Check From a Station ..............15-26Course Intercept....................................................15-27Rate of Intercept .................................................15-27Angle of Intercept..............................................15-27Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) .................15-27VOR/DME RNAV .................................................15-27Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) ........................15-29Loran-C Navigation ................................................15-30Global Positioning System .....................................15-32Selective Availability ..........................................15-32VFR Use of GPS................................................15-32RAIM Capability ................................................15-33Tips for Using GPS for VFR Operations ...............15-33VFR Waypoints.....................................................15-34Lost Procedures ..........................................................15-34Flight Diversion .........................................................15-34Chapter Summary ......................................................15-35Chapter 16Aeromedical Factors .........................................16-1Introduction ..................................................................16-1Obtaining a Medical Certicate ...................................16-2Health and Physiological Factors Affecting Pilot Performance .................................................................16-2Hypoxia ....................................................................16-2Hypoxic Hypoxia ..................................................16-2Hypemic Hypoxia .................................................16-2Stagnant Hypoxia ..................................................16-3Histotoxic Hypoxia ...............................................16-3Symptoms of Hypoxia ..............................................16-3Hyperventilation .......................................................16-3Middle Ear and Sinus Problems ...............................16-4Spatial Disorientation and Illusions .........................16-5Vestibular Illusions ...............................................16-6Visual Illusions .....................................................16-7Postural Considerations ............................................16-7Demonstration of Spatial Disorientation ..................16-8Climbing While Accelerating ...............................16-8Climbing While Turning .......................................16-8Diving While Turning ...........................................16-8Tilting to Right or Left .........................................16-8Reversal of Motion ...............................................16-8Diving or Rolling Beyond the Vertical Plane .......16-8Coping with Spatial Disorientation ..........................16-8Optical Illusions .......................................................16-9Runway Width Illusion .........................................16-9Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion .....................16-9Featureless Terrain Illusion ..................................16-9Water Refraction ...................................................16-9Haze ......................................................................16-9Fog ........................................................................16-9Ground Lighting Illusions .....................................16-9How To Prevent Landing Errors Due toOptical Illusions .....................................................16-11Motion Sickness .....................................................16-11Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning ........................16-11Stress ......................................................................16-11Fatigue ....................................................................16-12Dehydration and Heatstroke ...................................16-12Alcohol ...................................................................16-13Drugs ......................................................................16-14Altitude-Induced Decompression Sickness (DCS) 16-16DCS After Scuba Diving ....................................16-16xvVision in Flight ..........................................................16-17Empty-Field Myopia ..............................................16-18Night Vision ...........................................................16-18Night Vision Illusions ............................................16-19Autokinesis .........................................................16-19False Horizon ......................................................16-19Night Landing Illusions ..........................................16-19Chapter Summary ......................................................16-20Chapter 17Aeronautical Decision-Making .........................17-1Introduction ..................................................................17-1History of ADM ...........................................................17-2Crew Resource Management (CRM) and Single-Pilot Resource Management .................................................17-4Hazard and Risk ...........................................................17-4Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes ..........................17-4Risk ...........................................................................17-4Assessing Risk ......................................................17-5Likelihood of an Event .........................................17-6Severity of an Event ..............................................17-6Mitigating Risk .....................................................17-6The PAVE Checklist...............................................17-6P = Pilot in Command (PIC)................................17-8A = Aircraft.........................................................17-8V = EnVironment .................................................17-8E = External Pressures ..........................................17-9Human Behavior ........................................................17-10The Decision-Making Process ...................................17-11SRM and the 5P Check.........................................17-11The Plan.............................................................17-12The Plane...........................................................17-13The Pilot.............................................................17-13The Passengers...................................................17-13The Programming..............................................17-13Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) .............................17-14Perceive, Process, Perform withCARE and TEAM ...............................................17-14Forming Good Safety Habits.............................17-16The OODA Loop ....................................................17-16The DECIDE Model ...............................................17-17Detect (the Problem) ...........................................17-19Estimate (the Need To React) .............................17-19Choose (a Course of Action) ..............................17-19Identify (Solutions) .............................................17-19Do (the Necessary Actions) ................................17-19Evaluate (the Effect of the Action)....................17-19Decision-Making in a Dynamic Environment..........17-19Automatic Decision-Making.................................17-20Operational Pitfalls .............................................17-20Stress Management ................................................17-20Use of Resources ....................................................17-20Internal Resources ..............................................17-20External Resources .............................................17-22Situational Awareness ................................................17-23Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness ...17-23Workload Management ......................................17-23Managing Risks ..................................................17-24Automation ................................................................17-25Results of the Study ................................................17-27Equipment Use .......................................................17-29Autopilot Systems ...............................................17-29Familiarity ...........................................................17-29Respect for Onboard Systems .............................17-29Reinforcement of Onboard Suites ......................17-29Getting Beyond Rote Workmanship ...................17-29Understand the Platform....................................17-29Managing Aircraft Automation.............................17-30Information Management ...................................17-30Enhanced Situational Awareness ...........................17-31Automation Management .......................................17-31Risk Management ......................................................17-32Chapter Summary.....................................................17-32Appendix ............................................................. A-1Glossary ..............................................................G-1Index ......................................................................I-1xvi1-1IntroductionThe Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge for the student pilot learning to y, as well aspilotsseekingadvancedpilotcertication.Fordetailed informationonavarietyofspecializedighttopics,see specic Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) handbooks and Advisory Circulars (ACs).Thischapteroffersabriefhistoryofight,introducesthe history and role of the FAA in civil aviation, FAA regulations andstandards,governmentreferencesandpublications, eligibilityforpilotcerticates,availableroutestoight instruction, the role of the Certicated Flight Instructor (CFI) and Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) in ight training, and Practical Test Standards (PTS). Introduction To FlyingChapter 11-2Figure 1-2. Glider from 1852 by Sir George Cayley, British aviator (17731857).Figure 1-1. Leonardo da Vincis ornithopter wings. History of FlightFrom prehistoric times, humans have watched the ight of birds,longedtoimitatethem,butlackedthepowertodo so. Logic dictated that if the small muscles of birds can lift them into the air and sustain them, then the larger muscles of humans should be able to duplicate the feat. No one knew about the intricate mesh of muscles, sinew, heart, breathing system, and devices not unlike wing aps, variable-camber andspoilersofthemodernairplanethatenabledabirdto y. Still, thousands of years and countless lives were lost in attempts to y like birds.Theidentityoftherstbird-menwhottedthemselves with wings and leapt off a cliff in an effort to y are lost in time, but each failure gave those who wished to y questions that needed answering. Where had the wing appers gone wrong?Philosophers,scientists,andinventorsoffered solutions,butnoonecouldaddwingstothehumanbody and soar like a bird. During the 1500s,Leonardo da Vinci lledpagesofhisnotebookswithsketchesofproposed ying machines, but most of his ideas were awed because heclungtotheideaofbirdlikewings.[Figure1-1]By 1655, mathematician, physicist, and inventor Robert Hooke concludedthehumanbodydoesnotpossessthestrength to power articial wings. He believed human ight would require some form of articial propulsion. The quest for human ight led some practitioners in another direction. In 1783, the rst manned hot air balloon, crafted by Joseph and Etienne Montgoler, ew for 23 minutes. Ten days later,Professor Jacques Charles ew the rst gas balloon. A madness for balloon ight captivated the publics imagination and for a time ying enthusiasts turned their expertise to the promise of lighter-than-air ight. But for all its majesty in the air, the balloon was little more than a billowing heap of cloth capable of no more than a one-way, downwind journey. Balloons solved the problem of lift, but that was only one of theproblemsofhumanight.Theabilitytocontrolspeed and direction eluded balloonists. The solution to that problem lay in a childs toy familiar to the East for 2,000 years, but not introduced to the West until the 13th century. The kite, used by the Chinese manned for aerial observation and to test winds for sailing, and unmanned as a signaling device and as a toy, held many of the answers to lifting a heavier-than-air device into the air. Oneofthemenwhobelievedthestudyofkitesunlocked thesecretsofwingedightwas SirGeorgeCayley.Born inEngland10yearsbeforetheMongolerballoonight, Cayley spent his 84 years seeking to develop a heavier-than-air vehicle supported by kite-shaped wings. [Figure 1-2] The Father of Aerial Navigation, Cayley discovered the basic principlesonwhichthemodernscienceofaeronauticsis founded, built what is recognized as the rst successful ying model, and tested the rst full-size man-carrying airplane.For the half-century after Cayleys death, countless scientists, yingenthusiasts,andinventorsworkedtowardbuilding 1-3Figure 1-3. First flight by the Wright brothers.Figure 1-4. Benoist airboat.apoweredyingmachine.Men,suchas WilliamSamuel Henson, who designed a huge monoplane that was propelled byasteamenginehousedinsidethefuselage,and Otto Lilienthal, who proved human ight in aircraft heavier than air was practical, worked toward the dream of powered ight. A dream turned into reality byWilbur and Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903.The bicycle-building Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio, had experimentedfor4yearswithkites,theirownhomemade windtunnel,anddifferentenginestopowertheirbiplane. One of their great achievements was proving the value of the scientic, rather than build-it-and-see approach to ight. Their biplane, The Flyer, combined inspired design and engineering with superior craftsmanship. [Figure 1-3] By the afternoon of December 17th, the Wright brothers had own a total of 98 seconds on four ights. The age of ight had arrived. History of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Duringtheearlyyearsofmannedight,aviationwasa freeforallbecausenogovernmentbodywasinplaceto establish policies or regulate and enforce safety standards. Individuals were free to conduct ights and operate aircraft with no government oversight. Most of the early ights were conducted for sport. Aviation was expensive and became the playground of the wealthy. Since these early airplanes were small,manypeopledoubtedtheircommercialvalue.One groupofindividualsbelievedotherwiseandtheybecame the genesis for modern airline travel. P. E. Fansler, a Florida businessman living in St. Petersburg approachedTom Benoist of the Benoist Aircraft Company in St. Louis, Missouri, about starting a ight route from St. Petersburg across the waterway to Tampa. Benoist suggested using his Safety First airboat and the two men signed an agreement for what would become the rst scheduled airline in the United States. The rst aircraft was delivered to St. PetersburgandmadethersttestightonDecember31, 1913. [Figure 1-4]Apublicauctiondecidedwhowouldwinthehonorof becomingtherstpayingairlinecustomer.Theformer mayor of St. Petersburg,A. C. Pheil made the winning bid of$400.00whichsecuredhisplaceinhistoryastherst paying airline passenger.OnJanuary1,1914,therstscheduledairlineightwas conducted.Theightlengthwas21milesandlasted23 minutes due to a headwind. The return trip took 20 minutes. Theline,whichwassubsidizedbyFloridabusinessmen, continued for 4 months and offered regular passage for $5.00 per person or $5.00 per 100 pounds of cargo. Shortly after the opening of the line, Benoist added a new airboat that afforded moreprotectionfromsprayduringtakeoffandlanding. The routes were also extended to Manatee, Bradenton, and Sarasota giving further credence to the idea of a protable commercial airline. The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line continued throughout the winter months with ights nally being suspended when thewintertouristindustrybegantodryup.Theairline operatedonlyfor4months,but1,205passengerswere carried without injury. This experiment proved commercial passenger airline travel was viable. TheadventofWorldWarIofferedtheairplaneachance to demonstrate its varied capabilities. It began the war as a reconnaissance platform, but by 1918, airplanes were being mass produced to serve as ghters, bombers, trainers, as well as reconnaissance platforms. 1-4Figure 1-6. The transcontinental airmail route ran from New York to San Francisco. Intermediate stops were: 2) Bellefonte, 3) Cleveland, 4) Bryan, 5) Chicago, 6) Iowa City, 7) Omaha, 8) North Platte, 9) Cheyenne, 10) Rawlins, 11) Rock Springs, 12) Salt Lake City, 13) Elko, and 14) Reno.Figure 1-5. The de Haviland DH-4 on the New York to San Francisco inaugural route in 1921.Aviation advocates continued to look for ways to use airplanes. Airmail service was a popular idea, but the war prevented the Postal Service from having access to airplanes. The War Department and Postal Service reached an agreement in 1918. TheArmywouldusethemailservicetotrainitspilotsin cross-country ying. Therst airmail ight was conducted on May 15, 1918, between New York and Washington, DC. The ight was not considered spectacular; the pilot became lost and landed at the wrong aireld. In August of 1918, the United States Postal Service took control of the airmail routes and brought the existing Army airmail pilots and their planes into the program as postal employees. Transcontinental Air Mail RouteAirmail routes continued to expand until theTranscontinental Mail Route was inaugurated. [Figure 1-5] This route spanned fromSanFranciscotoNewYorkforatotaldistanceof 2,612mileswith13intermediatestopsalongtheway. [Figure 1-6] On May 20, 1926, Congress passed theAir Commerce Act, whichservedasthecornerstoneforaviationwithinthe United States. This legislation was supported by leaders in theaviationindustrywhofeltthattheairplanecouldnot reach its full potential without assistance from the Federal Government in improving safety. The Air Commerce Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air trafc rules,licensingpilots,certicatingaircraft,establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. TheDepartmentofCommercecreatedanewAeronautics Branch whose primary mission was to provide oversight for theaviationindustry.Inaddition,theAeronauticsBranch tookovertheconstructionandoperationofthenations system of lighted airways. The Postal Service, as part of the Transcontinental Air Mail Route system, had initiated this system. The Department of Commerce made great advances inaviationcommunications,aswellasintroducingradio beacons as an effective means of navigation.Builtatintervalsofapproximately10miles,thestandard beacontowerwas51feethigh,toppedwithapowerful rotatinglight.Belowtherotatinglight,twocourselights pointed forward and back along the airway. The course lights ashed a code to identify the beacons number. The tower usually stood in the center of a concrete arrow 70 feet long. A generator shed, where required, stood at the feather end of the arrow. [Figure 1-7] Federal Certication of Pilots and MechanicsThe Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce beganpilotcerticationwiththe rstlicenseissuedon April 6, 1927. The recipient was the chief of the Aeronautics Branch,William P. MacCracken, Jr. [Figure 1-8] (Orville Wright, who was no longer an active ier, had declined the honor.) MacCrackens license was the rst issued to a pilot byacivilianagencyoftheFederalGovernment.Some3 months later, the Aeronautics Branch issued the rst Federal aircraft mechanic license.Equally important for safety was the establishment of a system of certication for aircraft. On March 29, 1927, the Aeronautics Branchissuedtherstairworthinesstypecerticatetothe Buhl Airster CA-3, a three-place open biplane. In 1934, to recognize the tremendous strides made in aviation andtodisplaytheenhancedstatuswithinthedepartment, 1-5Figure 1-7. A standard airway beacon tower.Figure1-8.ThefirstpilotlicensewasissuedtoWilliamP. MacCracken, Jr.Figure1-9.ThethirdheadoftheAeronauticsBranch,Eugene L. Vidal, is flanked by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (left) and Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace (right). The photograph was taken in 1933. During Vidals tenure, the Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce on July 1, 1934. The new name more accurately reflected the status of the organization within the Department of Commerce.theAeronauticsBranchwasrenamedtheBureauofAir Commerce. [Figure 1-9] Within this time frame, the Bureau of Air Commerce brought together a group of airlines and encouraged them to form the rst three Air Trafc Control (ATC) facilities along the established air routes. Then in 1936, the Bureau of Air Commerce took over the responsibilities of operating the centers and continued to advance the ATC facilities. ATC has come a long way from the early controllers usingmaps,chalkboards,andperformingmentalmath calculations in order to separate aircraft along ight routes.The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938In1938,the CivilAeronauticsActtransferredthecivil aviationresponsibilitiestoanewlycreated,independent body, named theCivil Aeronautics Authority (CAA). This Act empowered the CAA to regulate airfares and establish new routes for the airlines to service. PresidentFranklinRooseveltsplittheCAAintotwo agencies, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the CivilAeronauticsBoard(CAB).Bothagencieswere stillpartoftheDepartmentofCommercebuttheCAB functionedindependentlyoftheSecretaryofCommerce. The role of the CAA was to facilitate ATC, certication of airmen and aircraft, rule enforcement, and the development ofnewairways.TheCABwaschargedwithrulemaking to enhance safety, accident investigation, and the economic regulation of the airlines. Then in 1946, Congress gave the 1-6Figure 1-10. First Administrator of the FAA was General Elwood Richard Pete Quesada, 19591961.CAAtheresponsibilityofadministeringtheFederalAid Airport Program. This program was designed to promote the establishment of civil airports throughout the country.The Federal Aviation Act of 1958By mid-century, air trafc had increased and jet aircraft had beenintroducedintothecivilaviationarena.Aseriesof mid-air collisions underlined the need for more regulation of the aviation industry. Aircraft were not only increasing in numbers, but were now streaking across the skies at much higher speeds. TheFederal Aviation Act of 1958 established a new independent body that assumed the roles of the CAA and transferred the rule making authority of the CAB to the newly createdFederal Aviation Agency (FAA). In addition, the FAA was given complete control of the common civil-militarysystemofairnavigationandATC.Themanwho was given the honor of being the rst administrator of the FAA was former Air ForceGeneral Elwood Richard Pete Quesada. He served as the administrator from 19591961. [Figure 1-10]Department of Transportation (DOT)On October 15, 1966, Congress established theDepartment of Transportation (DOT), which was given oversight of the transportation industry within the United States. The result was a combination of both air and surface transportation. Its mission was and is to serve the United States by ensuring a fast, safe, efcient, accessible, and convenient transportation systemmeetingvitalnationalinterestsandenhancingthe quality of life of the American people, then, now, and into the future. At this same time, the Federal Aviation Agency was renamed to theFederal Aviation Administration (FAA). The DOT began operation on April 1, 1967.TheroleoftheCABwasassumedbythenewlycreated National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), which was charged with the investigation of all transportation accidents within the United States. As aviation continued to grow, the FAA took on additional dutiesandresponsibilities.Withthehighjackingepidemic ofthe1960s,theFAAwasresponsibleforincreasingthe security duties of aviation both on the ground and in the air. AfterSeptember11,2001,thedutiesweretransferredto anewlycreatedbodycalledthe DepartmentofHomeland Security (DHS).With numerous aircraft ying in and out of larger cities, the FAA began to concentrate on the environmental aspect of aviation by establishing and regulating the noise standards ofaircraft.Additionallyinthe1960sand1970s,theFAA began to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon ying.1970broughtmoredutiestotheFAAbyadding themanagementofanewfederalairportaidprogramand increased responsibility for airport safety. Air Trafc Control (ATC) AutomationBy the mid-1970s, the FAA had achieved a semi-automated ATCsystembasedonamarriageofradarandcomputer technology. By automating certain routine tasks, the system allowedcontrollerstoconcentratemoreefcientlyonthe vitaltaskofprovidingaircraftseparation.Dataappearing directlyonthecontrollersscopesprovidedtheidentity, altitude, and groundspeed of aircraft carrying radar beacons. Despite its effectiveness, this system required enhancement to keep pace with the increased air trafc of the late 1970s. The increase was due in part to the competitive environment created by the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978. This law phased out CABs economic regulation of the airlines, and CAB ceased to exist at the end of 1984.To meet the challenge of trafc growth, the FAA unveiled theNationalAirspaceSystem(NAS)PlaninJanuary 1982.Thenewplancalledformoreadvancedsystems forenrouteandterminalATC,modernizedightservice stations,andimprovementsinground-to-airsurveillance and communication.1-7Figure 1-11. President Jimmy Carter signs the Airline Deregulation Act in late 1978.TheProfessional Air Trafc Controllers Organization (PATCO) StrikeWhilepreparingtheNASPlan,theFAAfacedastrike bykeymembersofitsworkforce.Anearlierperiodof discordbetweenmanagementandtheProfessionalAir Trafc Controllers Organization (PATCO) culminated in a 1970sickoutby3,000controllers.Althoughcontrollers subsequentlygainedadditionalwageandretirement benets, another period of tension led to an illegal strike in August 1981. The government dismissed over 11,000 strike participants and decertied PATCO. By the spring of 1984, the FAA ended the last of the special restrictions imposed to keep the airspace system operating safely during the strike.TheAirline Deregulation Act of 1978Until 1978, the CAB regulated many areas of commercial aviationsuchasfares,routes,andschedules.TheAirline DeregulationActof1978,however,removedmanyof these controls, thus changing the face of civil aviation in the United States. After deregulation, unfettered free competition ushered in a new era in passenger air travel.TheCABhadthreemainfunctions:toawardroutesto airlines, to limit the entry of air carriers into new markets, and to regulate fares for passengers. Much of the established practices of commercial passenger travel within the United States went back to the policies of Walter Folger Brown, the United States Postmaster General during the administration of President Herbert Hoover. Brown had changed the mail payments system to encourage the manufacture of passenger aircraftinsteadofmail-carryingaircraft.Hisinfluence wascrucialinawardingcontractsandhelpedcreatefour majordomesticairlines:United,American,Eastern,and TranscontinentalandWesternAir(TWA).Similarly, Brown had also helped give Pan American a monopoly on international routes.The push to deregulate, or at least to reform the existing laws governing passenger carriers, was accelerated by President Jimmy Carter, who appointed economist and former professor Alfred Kahn, a vocal supporter of deregulation, to head the CAB.Asecondforcetoderegulateemergedfromabroad. In1977,FreddieLaker,aBritishentrepreneurwhoowned Laker Airways, created the Skytrain service, which offered extraordinarily cheap fares for transatlantic ights. Lakers offerings coincided with a boom in low-cost domestic ights astheCABeasedsomelimitationsoncharterights,i.e., ights offered by companies that do not actually own planes but leased them from the major airlines. The big air carriers responded by proposing their own lower fares. For example, AmericanAirlines,thecountryssecondlargestairline, obtained CAB approval for SuperSaver tickets.Alloftheseeventsprovedtobefavorableforlarge-scale deregulation.InNovember1977,Congressformally deregulated air cargo. In late 1978, Congress passed the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, legislation that had been principally authored by Senators Edward Kennedy and Howard Cannon. [Figure 1-11] There was stiff opposition to the billfrom the major airlines who feared free competition, from labor unions who feared nonunion employees, and from safety advocates who feared that safety would be sacriced. Public support was, however, strong enough to pass the act. The act appeased the major airlines by offering generous subsidies and it pleased workers by offering high unemployment benets if they lost their jobs as a result. The most important effect of the act, whoselawswereslowlyphasedin,wasonthepassenger market. For the rst time in 40 years, airlines could enter the marketor(from1981)expandtheirroutesastheysawt. Airlines (from 1982) also had full freedom to set their fares. In 1984, the CAB was nally abolished since its primary duty of regulating the airline industry was no longer necessary.The Role of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)TheCode of Federal Regulations (CFR)The FAA is empowered by regulations to promote aviation safety and establish safety standards for civil aviation. The FAAachievestheseobjectivesundertheCodeofFederal Regulations (CFR), which is the codication of the general and permanent rules published by the executive departments andagenciesoftheUnitedStatesGovernment.The regulations are divided into 50 different codes, called Titles, that represent broad areas subject to Federal regulation. FAA regulations are listed under Title 14, Aeronautics and Space, whichencompassesallaspectsofcivilaviationfromhow toearnapilotscerticatetomaintenanceofanaircraft. 1-8Figure 1-13. Atlanta Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).SubchaptersAeronautics and SpaceCode of Federal RegulationsADefinitions (definitions and abbreviations)BProcedural rules (rulemaking processes, claims, enforcement)CAircraft (Aircraft certification procedures [21],Airworthiness standards [parts 25 through 33depending on type of aircraft], airworthiness directives [39], maintenance[43], aircraft registration [47])DAirmen (certification of pilots and Instructors [61], (Medical standards [67]) EAirspace(designation of airspace classification [71], special use airspace [73]FAir traffic and general rules (general operating and flight rules [91], special air traffic rules and airport traffic patterns [93]) GAir carriers, air travel clubs. and operators for compensation or hire: certification and operationsHSchools and other certified agenciesIAirportsJNavigational facilitiesKAdministrative regulationsLMReservedNWar risk insuranceChapter 1. Federal Aviation AdministrationFigure 1-12. Overview of 14 CFR, available online free from the FAA, and for purchase through commercial sources.Title 14 CFR Chapter 1, Federal Aviation Administration, is broken down into subchapters A through N as illustrated in Figure 1-12.For the pilot, certain parts of 14 CFR are more relevant than others.Duringighttraining,itishelpfulforthepilotto become familiar with the parts and subparts that relate to ight training and pilot certication. For instance, 14 CFR part 61 pertains to the certication of pilots, ight instructors, and ground instructors. It also denes the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, ight prociency, as well as training and testing requirements for each type of pilot certicate issued. 14 CFR part 91 provides guidance in the areas of general ight rules, visual ight rules (VFR), and instrument ight rules (IFR), while 14 CFR part 43 covers aircraft maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alterations. Primary Locations of the FAAThe FAA headquarters are in Washington, D.C., and there are nine regional ofces strategically located across the United States. The agencys two largest eld facilities are the Mike MonroneyAeronauticalCenter(MMAC)inOklahoma City,Oklahoma,andtheWilliamJ.HughesTechnical Center(WJHTC)inAtlanticCity,NewJersey.Hometo FAAtrainingandlogisticsservices,theMMACprovides anumberofaviationsafety-relatedandbusinesssupport services. The WJHTC is the premier aviation research and development and test and evaluation facility in the country. The centers programs include testing and evaluation in ATC, communication,navigation,airports,aircraftsafety,and security.Furthermore,theWJHTCisactiveinlong-range development of innovative aviation systems and concepts, developmentofnewATCequipmentandsoftware,and modication of existing systems and procedures. Field Ofces Flight Standards Service Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service promotes safe airtransportationbysettingthestandardsforcertication andoversightofairmen,airoperators,airagencies,and designees. It also promotes safety of ight of civil aircraft and air commerce by:Accomplishing certication, inspection, surveillance, investigation, and enforcement.Setting regulations and standards.Managing the system for registration of civil aircraft and all airmen records.The focus of interaction between Flight Standards Service andtheaviationcommunity/generalpublicistheFlight Standards District Ofce (FSDO). Flight Standards District Ofce (FSDO)TheFAAhasapproximately130FSDOs.[Figure1-13] Theseofficesprovideinformationandservicesforthe aviation community. FSDO phone numbers are listed in the telephone directory under Government Ofces, DOT, FAA. Another convenient method of nding a local ofce is to use the FSDO locator available at: www.faa.gov/about/ofce_org/headquarters_ofces/avs/ofces/afs/afs600.1-9Figure 1-14. Aeronautical Information Manual.web site, go to www.faa.gov. Individuals can also e-mail an FAA representative at a local FSDO ofce by accessing the staff e-mail address available via the Contact FAA link at the bottom of the FAA home page. Letters can be sent to: Federal Aviation Administration800 Independence Ave, SWWashington, DC 20591 FAA Reference MaterialThe FAA provides a variety of important reference material for the student, as well as the advanced civil aviation pilot. In addition to the regulations provided online by the FAA, several other publications are available to the user. Almost all reference material is available online at www.faa.gov in downloadable format. Commercial aviation publishers also providepublishedandonlinereferencematerialtofurther aid the aviation pilot. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) is the ofcial guide to basic ight information and ATC procedures for the aviation community ying in the NAS of the United States. [Figure 1-14] An international version, containing parallel information, as well as specic information on international airports, is also available. The AIM also contains information of interest to pilots, such as health and medical facts, ight safety, a pilot/controller glossary of terms used in the system, and information on safety, accidents, and reporting of hazards. In addition to accident investigation and the enforcement of aviationregulations,theFSDOisalsoresponsibleforthe certicationandsurveillanceofaircarriers,airoperators, ight schools/training centers, and airmen including pilots andightinstructors.EachFSDOisstaffedbyAviation Safety Inspectors (ASIs) who play a key role in making the nations aviation system safe. Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI) The Aviation Safety Inspectors (ASIs) administer and enforce safety regulations and standards for the production, operation, maintenance,and/ormodicationofaircraftusedincivil aviation. They also specialize in conducting inspections of various aspects of the aviation system, such as aircraft and parts manufacturing, aircraft operation, aircraft airworthiness, andcabinsafety.ASIsmustcompleteatrainingprogram at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, which includes airman evaluation, and pilot testing techniques and procedures. ASIs also receive extensive on-the-job training andrecurrenttrainingonaregularbasis.TheFAAhas approximately 3,700 inspectors located in its FSDO ofces. All questions concerning pilot certication (and/or requests for other aviation information or services) should be directed to the local FSDO. FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam)TheFAAisdedicatedtoimprovingthesafetyofUnited States civilian aviation by conveying safety principles and practices through training, outreach, and education. The FAA SafetyTeam(FAASTeam)exempliesthiscommitment. The FAASTeam has replaced the Aviation Safety Program (ASP),whoseeducationofairmenonalltypesofsafety subjectssuccessfullyreducedaccidents.Itssuccessledto its demise because the easy-to-x accident causes have been addressed.Totakeaviationsafetyonestepfurther,Flight Standards Service created the FAASTeam, which is devoted to reducing aircraft accidents by using a coordinated effort to focus resources on elusive accident causes. Each of the FAAs nine regions has a Regional FAASTeam Ofce dedicated to this new safety program and managed by the Regional FAASTeam Manager (RFM). The FAASTeam is teaming up with individuals and the aviation industry to create a unied effort against accidents and tip the safety culture in the right direction. To learn more about this effort to improve aviation safety, to take a course at their online learningcenter,ortojointheFAASTeam,visittheirweb site at www.faasafety.gov/default.aspx.Obtaining Assistance from the FAAInformation can be obtained from the FAA by phone, Internet/e-mail, or mail. To talk to the FAA toll-free 24 hours a day, call 1-866-TELL-FAA (1-866-835-5322). To visit the FAAs 1-10Figure 1-16. Pilot Operating Handbooks from manufacturers.TheAeronauticalInformationManualisdesignedtoprovide theaviationcommunitywithbasicflightinformationand ATCproceduresforuseintheNASoftheUnitedStates.It also contains the fundamentals required in order to fly in the UnitedStatesNAS,includingitemsofinteresttopilot