physiological chanfes in body

8/14/2019 Physiological chanfes in body

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ASSIGNMENT#2OF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES

DURING LIFE- SPAN

SUBMITTED TO

MISS. MEMOONA ISMAIL

SUBMITTED BY

AYESHA BATOOL

BS (PSYCHOLOGY)

2 YEARS- 1STSEM

SUBMITTED ON

29-11-2008


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International Islamic UniversityIslamabad

TABLE OF CONTENT:

Patterns of growth

Infancy

Early childhood

Middle & late childhood

Puberty

Early adulthood

Middle adulthood

Late adulthood


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PATTERNS OF GROWTH:

There are two patterns of growth:

1- CEPHALOCAUDAL PATTERN:

The cephalocaudal pattern is the sequence in which the greatest growth always

occurs at the top (the head) with physical growth in size, weight, and feature

differentiation gradually working its way down from top to bottom e.g. neck,

shoulders, trunk, etc.

This same pattern occurs in the head area, because the top parts of the head (the

eyes and brain) grow faster than the lower parts.

An extraordinary proportion of the total body is occupied by the head during

prenatal development and early infancy.

Sensory and motor development proceeds according to the cephalocaudal

principle e.g. Head is controlled before hands

2- PROXIMODISTAL PATTERN:

Theproximodistal patternof development is where growth starts at the centre of the

body and moves towards the extremities. An example of such a pattern is that head,

trunk and arm control develops before control of hands.

INFANCY:

A newborn's skin is oftentimes grayish to

dusky blue in color. As soon as the newborn

begins to breathe, usually within a minute or


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two of birth, the skin's color returns to normal tones. Newborns are wet, covered in

streaks of blood, and coated with a white substance known as vernix caseosa, which is

believed to act as an antibacterial barrier. The newborn may also have Mongolian spots,

various other birthmarks, or peeling skin, particularly at the wrists, hands, ankles, and

feet.

A newborn's shoulders and hips are narrow, the abdomen protrudes slightly, and the arms

and legs are relatively short. The average weight of a full-term newborn is approximately

7 pounds (3.2kg), but can be anywhere from 5.510 pounds (2.74.6kg). The average

total body length is 1420 inches (35.650.8cm), although premature newborns may be

much smaller.

A newborn's head is very large in proportion to the rest of the body, and the cranium is

enormous relative to his or her face. While the adult human skull is about 1/8 of the total

body length, the newborn's is twice that. At birth, many regions of the newborn's skull

have not yet been converted to bone. These "soft spots" are known as fontanels; the two

largest are the diamond-shaped anterior

fontanel, located at the top front portion of the

head, and the smaller triangular-shaped

posterior fontanel, which lies at the back of

the head.

The average newborn is 20 inches long.

Ninety-five percent of full-term newborns

are 18-22 inches long. Infants grow about

1 inch per month during the first year,

reaching approximately 1 times their

birth length by their first birthday. Infants

rate of growth is considerably slower in

the second year of life than first year. At

age 2, the average infant is 32-35 inches

long. By the end of the first year an infant's

height is increased by 50% and by the age

of 2 the baby will have grown 75% greater.


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The average baby weighs 7 pounds.

Ninety-five percent of full-term newborns

weigh between 5 and 10 pounds. In the

first several days of life, most newborns

lose 5-7 percent of their body weight before

they adjust to neonatal feeding. Infants gain 5-6 ounces per week during the first month.

They have doubled their birth weight by the age of 5 months. They have nearly tripled

their birth weight by their first birthday.

Brain grows from 12 oz to 2.5 pounds in first year.

EARLY CHILDHOOD:As the preschool child grows older, the

percentage of increase in height and weight

decreases with each additional year. Girls are

only slightly smaller and lighter than

boys during these years. Both boys and

girls slim down as the trunks of their

bodies lengthen. Although their heads are

still somewhat large for their bodies, by theend of preschool years most children have

lost their top heavy look. Body fats also

show a slow, steady decline during the

preschool years. Girls have more fatty tissue

then boys; boys have more muscle tissues.

Growth pattern vary individually: some are

taller, some are shorter, some are fatter,

some are thinner, some are stronger, some

are weaker. Much of the variation is due to

heredity, but environmental experiences are

also involved. Urban, middle-socioeconomic-

status, and first born children were taller then


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rural, lower- socioeconomic-status, and later-

born children.

Growth hormone deficiency is the absence or

deficiency of growth hormone produced by

pituitary glands to stimulate the body to grow.

Growth hormone deficiency may occur during

infancy or later in childhood.

Children who are chronically sick are shorter then

their counterparts who are rarely sick. Children who

have been physically abused or neglected may not

secrete adequate growth hormone, which can restrict

their physical growth. Children of addict parents have

inappropriate growth then children of healthy parents.

MIDDLE & LATE CHILDHOOD:

This period involves slow and consistent growth.

During the elementary school years, children

grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a years. At the

age of 8 the average boy and the average girl are 4

feet and 2 inches tall. During middle and late

childhood years, children gain about 5 to 7

pounds a year. The average 8 years old boy and

the average 8 years old girl weigh 56 pounds.

The weight increase is due mainly to increase in

the size of the skeletal and muscular system, as

well as the size of some body organs. Muscle

mass and strength gradually increase as baby fat

decreases in middle and late childhood.

The loose movement and knock-knees of early

childhood give way to improved muscle tone in


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middle and late childhood. The increase in

muscular strength is due to heredity and to

exercise. Children also double their strength

capabilities during these years. Because of their greater number of muscle cells, boys

tend to be stronger then girls. Head circumference, waist circumference, and leg length

decrease in relation to body height.

PUBERTY:

Puberty refers to the physiological changes

involved in the sexual maturation of a child,

as well as other body changes that may occur

during this period of time. Adolescence refers

to the stage from puberty to adulthood, and

includes the psychological experiences of the

child during this period. Adolescence is

described as being the teenage years from

thirteen to eighteen years of age; however,

puberty decides the onset of adolescence.

Therefore, adolescence occurs in some children as early as nine years of age. During this

period of time the child has a great deal of concern over his/her body image.Puberty is

the time when a person's reproductive organs begin the process of becoming mature and

functional. The brain is the organ that starts the whole process of puberty. At the base of

the brain is a center called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus sends signals to the

pituitary gland which in turn releases hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones

(special chemical substances) travel to an individual's "sex glands" or "reproductive

organs" which are called gonads. There are two kinds of gonads: ovaries which are found

in the female body and testicles which are found in the male body.

FEMALES:

The female body, much like the male body, experiences a variety of changes during

adolescence as a result of puberty. Puberty in a young woman's body is the time when her

reproductive organs, ovaries, begin producing increased amounts of a hormone called


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estrogen, and estrogen is the special chemical substance that causes the changes to occur.

Usually the first change that takes place will be in the female's breasts. They begin to get

larger so that some day she will be able to breastfeed a newborn baby. The young

woman's hips begin to get broader, and she will also begin to grow taller. Hair will begin

to grow under her arms, around her sex organs (pubic region). Her voice may deepen

much like a male's does, and she may start having some skin problems due to the increase

of oil in the pores of her skin, especially on her face.

The first menstrual bleeding is referred to as menarche. The average age of menarche is

about 12.7 years, usually about 2 years after thelarche. Menses (menstrual periods) are

not always regular and monthly in the first 2 years after menarche. Ovulation is necessary

for fertility, and may or may not accompany the earliest menses. By 2 years after

menarche, most girls are ovulating at least several times a year. Over 90% of girls who

experience menarche before age 13 years are experiencing very regular, predictable

menses accompanied by ovulation within 2 years, and a higher proportion of those with

later menarche may not establish regular ovulation for 4 years or more. However,

initiation of ovulation after menarche is not inevitable, and a high proportion of girls with

continued irregularity several years from menarche will continue to have prolonged

irregularity and anovulation, and are at higher risk for reduced fertility.

The estrogen-induced pubertal growth spurt in girls begins at the same time the earliest

breast changes begin, or even a few months before, making it one of the earliest

manifestations of puberty in girls. Growth of the legs and feet accelerates first, so that

many girls have longer legs in proportion to their torso in the first year of puberty. The

rate of growth tends to reach a peak velocity (as much as 7.5-10 cm or 3-4 inches per

year) midway between thelarche and menarche and is already declining by the time

menarche occurs. In the 2 years following menarche most girls grow about 5 cm (2

inches) before growth ceases at maximal adult height. This last growth primarily involves

the spine rather than the limbs.

MALES:

Spermarche is when sperms are produced first time. At puberty, testosterone starts

being produced by the testicles, and when this takes place, the journey to sexual maturity


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begins. Some of the first changes are as follows: clothes begin fitting tighter; arms and

legs grow rapidly; muscles become heavier and stronger; and sex organs (penis and

testicles) grow. This hormone can also cause some rather unusual and perhaps

embarrassing things to happen. Sometimes young men have what are called nocturnal

emissions or "wet dreams". These are times when seminal fluid - a liquid which contains

sperm cells - is released from the penis when the individual is sleeping. This is a natural

way for the male body to get rid of excessive seminal fluid.

Testosterone also causes hair to grow on the young man's face, chest, legs, under his

arms, and around his pubic region - the area where his external sex organs are located.

The adolescent males vocal cords begin to change, so his voice may "crack" as the pitch

begins to lower. They may begin having some skin problems due to an increase of oil in

the pores of their skin.

EARLY ADULTHOOD:

Young adults do not grow significantly taller in

their 20s; they typically grow stronger and

healthier as their bodies reach adult size.

In terms of overall health, as well as peak

physical condition, early adulthood is the

prime of life. With each year from 20 to 40,

signs of senescence-the state of physical

decline, in which the body gradually becomes

less strong and efficient with age-become more

apparent. All the body systems gradually become

less efficient (though at different rates) and

homeostasis takes increasingly longer to reach.

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD:

During this stage changes are gradual. Rate of aging vary from person to person.


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PHYSICAL APPEARANCE:

Many people are concerned with changes in their body shape as they age. Although some

changes inevitably occur with aging, your lifestyle choices may slow or accelerate these

changes.People may become shorter. The tendency to become shorter occurs among all

races and both sexes. Height loss is related to aging changes in the bones, muscles, and

joints.People typically lose about 1 cm (0.4 inches) every 10 years after age 40. Height

loss is even greater after 70 years old. In total, you may lose 1 to 3 inches in height as you

age.This varies, however. Physical activity, a proper diet, and treating osteoporosis can

help reduce height loss.

Men often gain weight until about age 55, then begin to lose weight. This may be related

to a drop in the male sex hormone testosterone. Women usually gain weight until age 65,

then begin to lose weight. Weight loss is, in part, caused by a loss of muscle tissue.

Of course, weight loss or gain varies from person to person, too. Diet and exercise play a

large role in these changes.

HAIR :

Hair color change is probably one of the most obvious signs of aging. Hair color is

caused by a pigment (melanin) produced by hair follicles. With aging, the follicle

produces less melanin.Graying often begins in the 30s, although this varies widely.

Graying usually begins at the temples and extends to the top of the scalp. Hair becomes

progressively lighter, eventually turning white.Many people have some gray scalp hair by

the time they are in their 40s. Body and facial hair also turn gray, but usually later than

scalp hair. The hair in the armpit, chest, and pubic area may gray less or not at

all.Graying is genetically determined. Gray hair tends to occur earlier in Caucasians and

later in Asian races. Nutritional supplements, vitamins, and other products will not stop

or decrease the rate of graying.

IMMUNE SYSTEM:

The immune system loses it's ability to fight off infections as people grow older. This

increases risk for geting sick, and may make immunizations less effective. Flu shots or

other immunizations may not work as well, and protection may not last as long as


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expected. The immune system's ability to detect and correct cell defects also declines,

which results in an increase in cancers associated with aging.Later in life, the immune

system also seems to become less tolerant of the body's own cells. Sometimes an

autoimmune disorder develops -- normal tissue is mistaken for non-self tissue, and

immune cells attack certain organs or tissues.

SKIN:

With aging, the outer skin layer (epidermis) thins even though the number of cell layers

remains unchanged.The number of pigment-containing cells (melanocytes) decreases, but

the remaining melanocytes increase in size. Aging skin thus appears thinner, more pale,

and translucent. Large pigmented spots (called age spots, liver spots, or lentigos) may

appear in sun-exposed areas.

JOINTS, BONES & MUSCLES:

The human body is made up of fat, lean tissue

(muscles and organs), bones, watesssr, and other

substances. As we age, the amount and

distribution of these materials will change.

Fat tissue may become increasingly deposited

toward the center of the body, including

around the abdominal organs. The proportion

of body fat may increase by as much as 30%.

As fat increases, lean body mass decreases.

Your muscles, liver, kidney, and other organs may

lose some of their cells. This process is called

atrophy. Bones may lose some of their minerals and become less dense (a condition

called osteopenia, or at its later stage, osteoporosis). Tissue loss reduces the amount ofwater in your body.

HEART & RESPIRATION:

Some decline occurs in the body's ability to gather and distribute oxygen, and to the

circulatory system's ability to carry oxygen-enriched blood from the heart to the rest of


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the body. These declines are really only visible when the individual is engage in

exercise, not when we're at rest. Beginnings at age 40, people are likely to experience a

1% decrease per year in respiration. With regard to individuals heart, between ages 25-

65, there will be a decline of 30-40%. Again, these declines are only visible during

exercise, not rest, and maintaining aerobic fitness in old age will decrease the likelihood

of decline. Finally, systolic blood pressure increases until age 70-80, when it may

decrease. This is caused by the lack of elasticity in the circulatory system that occurs as

age increases.

SEXUAL ABILITY:

Women's ability to reproduce is influenced much earlier. Hormonal changes produce

menopause somewhere around 49-51 on average. Menopause means that women stop

menstruating, they no longer release eggs and reproduction ceases. Menopause is

accompanied by changes in the breasts (tissue is subsequently less dense and firm) and

the genitals: ovaries and uterus become smaller, vagina shorter and smaller in diameter

(walls thinner and less elastic). As a result of less estrogen in their systems, women

produce less lubrication. Fifty to 75% of women experience hot flashes (a quick rise in

body temperature, skin flushes and sweating occurs) which may last from a year (85% of

those who experience hot flashes) to 5 or more years. These hot flashes may make

women feel awkward, and more seriously, if they occur too frequently, they may interfere

with sleep patterns and produce exhaustion. But most men does not loss the ability to sex.

LATE ADULTHOOD:

Late adulthood brings an increased risk of physical disability.

HEIGHT & WEIGHT:

For most people aging is a process of growing shorter and (at least initially) heavier.

Expect to lose 1-2 inches of height over the course of your life starting around age 40 as

your disks (and later the vertebrae) begin to shrink. Most people gain weight in their

30's, and continue to do so until sometime in their 50's when they are likely to begin

losing weight.


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VISION:

Changes in vision begin at an early age. The cornea

becomes thicker and less curved. The anterior chamber decreases in size and volume.

The lens becomes hicker and more opaque, and also

increases rigidity and loses elasticity. The ciliary

muscles atrophy and the pupil constricts. There is

also a reduction of rods and nerve cells of the retina.

SKIN & HAIR:

You will probably begin to wrinkle noticeably around

age 40-50 (wrinkles are more pronounced on those individuals who spend a lot of time in

the sun). Why? - fat gets redistributed, collagen reduces elasticity, sweat & oil glands

aren't as effective, so skin is more likely to dry out, crack,. Hair loss and graying of hair

is extremely variable. However, most all adults will experience some of both (including

hair loss in women who have experienced menopause).

HEARING:

Just as tissue in the eye will begin to harden, so too does tissue in the ear, producing

(along with other types of decay) some hearing loss over time - presbycusis. The little

hair cells in the cochlea are particularly sensitive to this hardening, and become less

sensitive. Hearing loss begins much earlier, and most of you are already beginning to

lose your hearing, but it is not so severe as to require intervention. Hearing loss is more

common among men than women. Hearing loss associated with presbycusis is

particularly likely to occur at higher frequencies. In addition, the elderly are likely to

have difficulty perceiving speech when there is noise in the background.

TASTE AND SMELL:Sensitivity to odors and taste decline with age. The sense of smell begins to degenerate

with the loss of olfactory sensory neurons and loss of cells from the olfactory bulb. The

decline in taste sensation is more gradual than that of smell. The elderly have trouble

differentiating between flavors. The number of fungiform papillae of the tongue decline

by 50% by the age of 50. Taste could also be affected by the loss of salivary gland


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secretions, notably amylase. This loss of taste and smell can have a significant effect on

an elder's health. With the reduced ability to taste and smell, it is difficult to adjust food

intake as they can no longer rely on their taste receptors to tell them if something is too

salty, or too sweet. This can also cause the problem in that they might not be able to

detect if something is spoiled, making them at a higher risk for food poisoning.

MUSCLES & BONES:

A serious loss of strength (around 20%)

begins in late adulthood (as early as age

50 or as late as 70). It is not simply that

we do less as we age and our muscles

decay as a result (even muscles in the

bladder, diaphragm, and chest, all of

which are constantly in use get weaker).

Muscles will respond positively to weight

training in old age, but aerobic activity

does not ward off the effects.

As age increases, a number of changes occur in bones

as well. 1. People begin to lose bone

marrow (the part of body that produces blood cells) in extremities and it becomes more

concentrated in the bones of trunk. 2. Osteoporosis - bones become more brittle and

porous because of losing calcium. This begins in the thirties and is more serious for

women, particularly after menopause. 3. Osteoarthritis - the joints can become worn,

and this produces pain.

MENS REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

Climateric - the loss in reproductive ability (men & women). Reproductive capability

can continue on into the 80s for men. Beginning around age 40, there is a decline in

sperm produced, and around age 60 seminal fluid decreases in volume. There is also

thought to be a small decline in the amount of testosterone produced. Impotency (the

inability to achieve or maintain an erection, which may or may not be related to physical

factors) shows a significant increase as men age. Risk factors for impotency include:


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heart disease, alcohol consumption, heart & high blood pressure medication, and

smoking.

HEART DISEASE

The heart loses about 1% of its reserve plumbing capacity every year after weturn 30. Change in blood vessels that serve brain tissue reduce nourishment to

the brain, resulting in the malfunction and death of brain cells. By the time we

turn 80, cerebral blood flow is 20% less, and renal blood flow is 50% less than

when we were age 30. As we age our heart goes through certain structural

changes: the walls of the heart thicken and the heart becomes heavier, heart

valves stiffen and are more likely to calcify, and the aorta, the major vessel

carrying blood out of the heart, becomes larger.

DIGESTION

The digestive system is very sensitive to emotions. An older person may experience an

upset stomach or lack of appetite when lonely, depressed, or worried. Regular contact

with friends and relatives, through visits and telephone calls, can help prevent these

problems.It is fairly common for older people to have less frequent bowel movements

and to suffer from constipation. This is due to changes in tissue and muscles and reduced

thirst. Regular exercise, such as a daily walk, can prevent constipation. A well-balanced

diet that includes adequate fiber and fluid intake also encourages normal bowel function

and minimizes the need for laxatives.

physiological chanfes in body

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