Bull. Ind Inst. Hist Mad. Vol. XXIII, pp. 37 to 48

PHARMACY AND MEDICINE EDUCATION IN ANCIENT EGYPT

SAMIR YAHIA EL-GAMMAL'"

ABSTRACT

The ancient Egyptians knew many of the therapeutical effects of the medicinal

plants. This knowledge was taught at home from father to son. So. these houses

formed the first primitive pharmacy and medicine schools. Century after century, theancient Egyptians became mor e and more interested in medical sciences. Temples

began to establish medical and pharmaceutical schools. Priests 01 good and honest

character with scientific background were chosen to become teachers and professors

in these schools. Another medical and pharmaceutical schools teaching all the

scientific courses were the Per Ankh or Houses of Life. Special schools were erected

inside the Royal palaces for the education of the Royal family children, the noblesand the court officials comprising all sorts of sciences and arts, specially taught in its

own Per Ankh, as in Heliopolis and Memphis palaces.

In the pre -dvr.astic periods, theancient Egyptians knew many of thetherapeutical effects of the medicinalplants. This knowledge was taughtat home from father to son and waskept secretly in certain families, whobecame very famous in curing thesick people with herbs, minerals,parts of animals together with thehelp of spiritual incantations andamulets So. these houses formedthe first primitive pharmacy andmedicine schools, in which the sonswere taught the art of mixing andpreparing of different pharmaceutical

preparations, together with writingand reading.

When writing and reading becameavailable to many people, round5000 B C., these physician herbalistsbegan to write down all what theyknew of sciences in sheets of papyri,comprising all the pharmaceuticalprepar atior.s. their methods of usesand their curative effects and thetype of diseases each of these reme-dies can be used for cure. Copiesof these sheets were handed overto the priests of the Heliopolis temple,

'" Pharmacist. Researcher in the His. orv of Medicine & Phm macv. P.O. No. 136. Maadi.

CAIRO; EGYPT.

38

who hung them round the columnsand on the walls of the temple, so asthe visiting sick people could consultthem about their diseases and benefitfrom these informations. By time,the temple became so crowded withsick people who considered it as apilyrimage place.

Also, many students came to learnfrom these sheets about the beneficialuses of the herbs and tile differentdiagnostic methods, and get use ofthese informations in their futurecareer of medicine and pharmacy.

The priests collected these bits ofmedico-pharmaceutical informationsand were collectively named "thebook of Ember" or "the Holy Book".It was often referred to as being agift of God That and so it came to bethe basis of the medical text booksand convinced the commons that itwas of devine origin and unchan-geable.

This book of Ember was soonmonopolised by the temple priestswho kept it very secretly hidden.Century after century r the ancientEgyptians became more and moreinterested in medical sciences, andforced the priests to simplify thecontents and informations of thisbook so as to be more handy to alltemples.

These temples began to establishmedical and pharmaceutical schools

Bul!. Ind. lnst . Hist . Med. Vol. XXIII

within its campus, specially in themajor capitals of the provinces ofEgypt, and their teachers werespecialised priests with scientificbackground, and began teaching allkind of sciences. Priests of goodand honest characters were chosento become teachers and professors inthese schools and were obliged towear a coarse uniform cloths made oflinen in the form of a long dress, andcovering their backs with leopardskin and walk with shaven scalp soas to be recognised every where.

The students who wish to beeducated in these schools werechosen to be least talkative persons,with plenty of courage, greatpatience, being circumcized as a signof purity, and must have obtaineda previous priliminary religiouseducation in a temple, for fear ofgetting mixed up with bad-manneredcomrades.

Also, if one of these studentscommited a dishonourable mistake,that deeply affects his belonging to

. his supreme institute, received asevere punishment, either imprison-ment or hanged. This constituted anexample for those students wishingto continue their studies in thoseschools, that they have to keep theirpurity, good manners and excellentconduct, due to the strong belief thatpharmacists and physicians werehonest messengers from God for thesake of preserving the life of thepeople.

Pharmacy and Medicine Education-El-Gammal

The education and studying inthese institutes was for a limitednumber of years. First, the studentsget a primary education of the basicprinciples of sciences, then theintelligent students were chosen bytheir professors so as to proceed inhigher courses and so on. Whenthey have fininshed this stage withsuccess, and pass their final examin-ations, then the officials of theseinstitutes celebrate this occasion byholding a graduation ceremony, inthe most holy and sacred place ofthe temple. There. the professorsand the Government's high officialsattend and the graduates swear anoath on medical and pharmaceuticalethics, which can be briefed in theirpromise by the devine God that theywill keep in utmost secrecy, all thesciences they were taught so as toprevent them from falling into thehands of evil commons, and that theyshould do all their best to serve thesociety's welfare and must besympathetic with the poor patientsand must not reveal any of thepatient's secrets .. etc. This oath wascopied literally by Hippocrates, andall the medical graduates in ancientGreece were made to swear it beforestarting their professional career, andthis custom is still in functionthroughout the whole world Theoriginal Pharaonic Oath was foundwritten in Hearst Papyrus. The newlymedical and pharmaceutical graduateswere obliged to begin their practiceby forcibly joininq for a certain time,

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in the r.ervice of the terr pies theyhave graduated from, by treating th e

poor sick people who come aski;;gfor help, all free of cha-qe, beforethey could start their private career.

Many out-patient clinics wereerected, attached to the rnedicalschools in all the temples, togetherwith in-patient wards for the cureand treatment of the sick andoperable patients.

Also a big pharmacy was erectedjoining these clinics for the prepara-tion of all the necessary neededpharmaceuticals for the use of thepatients. Each temple was suppliedwith the medicinal plants for thepreparation of the different pharma-ceutical forms, from the annexedbotanical garden, which were con-trolled by experienced pharmacists,equipped with laboratories followingscientific rules of that time. Thecollection of these valuable medicinalplants were done under strict super-vision of guards who were priests inorigin.

The wealthy families sent theirchildren to be educated and studywriting, reading, medicine, pharmacy... etc. in these temples specially thefamous ones.

The oldest and most famoustemple-institute in ancient Egypt wasthat one in the city of Annu(Heliopolis) (now a suberb, north of

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Cairo), and was considered a sacredcity for the worship of the one andonly God Ra. This temple was veryfamous all over the known world tobe the highest cultural centre everbuilt, and students from all Egyptand the neighbouring countries cameand joined it for higher education inall sciences. This temple-universitywas most probably erected before4000 B C. This temple-university,together with its famous school forherbalists. was highly appreciated forits highest standard of education.Its medical school in the first twoyears. gave general medical know-ledge, while in the following years,specialised section for every branchof medicine accepted studentswishing to specialise in a certainbranch, such as internal medicine,ophthalmology, dermatology, surgery,dentistrv ... etc.

The pharmacy school used toeducate the students, the art ofpreparing drugs and pharmaceuticalsfrom herbal, mineral or animal sources,with special attention to the ways ofcultivation, propagation, preservation..etc. of the various medicinal plants.

Many of the ancient Greekstudents came to study and learn inthis temple, such as Hippocrates,Pythagoras, Galen, Adox, Solon,Plato, Cornelius, Celsus, Serabion(150 A.D.), Democritus (400 A.D.),Epicurus and many others, not toforget the very famous Greek phvsi-

BUll. u.« 1;:5t. Hist . Mea. Vol. X XIII

cian Asclepios in the 11th centuryB.C. Also Hecutaeus of Miletus(Malta) in 520 B.C., Hecataeus ofAbdera in 300 B C., Aristophanus,Pliny, Xenophonus, Tacitus and manyother Greek and Roman scientistsand philosophers (AI~o Eudoxus in395 A D.).

Another famous temple univer-sity was built in Memphis, south ofCairo, during the period of the OldKingdom (2800 B.C ), when Memphisbecame the unified capital of Egypt(in 3200 B C ). This temple harbouredthe famous school of pharmacy, andanother for medicine. This latterschool graduated the famous physi-cian Imhotep, which later on, becameone of its professors and director ofthe temple-institute, and on hisdeath, it was called Imhotep temple.Also contained a very famous library.

Also, in the temple of Memphis(Sakkara today), there existed aspecial temple for the treatment ofpsychological diseases, based onmusic and the help of some sedativeherbal preparations

A third famous temple-institutewas that of Sais (now called SaAI-He·gar). which was 60 km. southof the present-day Alexandria, andbecame celebrated every where.Ebers Papyrus ment.oried that itswriter was graduated from bothHeliopolis and Sais temples, as a signunci poof of his great • kill in medical

Pharmacy and Medicine Education--E! - Gernrnal

profession, (this papyrus was con-sidered as the text-book for drugclassification in every branch andevery human organ). Also a famousSchool of Midwifery was attached tothe Sais temple.

Strabon mentioned that the cityof Heliopolis was the source of theancient Egyptian religion and thecentre of the school which teachedtheology, philosophy, medicine, phar-macv ... etc. When King Ptolemios Iruled over Egypt in 320 Be, hetransferred by force most of thecelebrated professors and scientistsfrom the Heliopolis temple andannexed them to the Mauseion inAlexandria. which he made it thecapital of Eyypt.

The existence of special pharmacyschools since the early days ofancient Egypt, prior to the dvnasicera, could not therefore be denied atall, based on all the historicalevidences which were found in themedical p apvri and from the works ofancient historians.

Another medical and pharmace-utical schools, teaching all thescientific courses, built during thevarious dvnastic periods, were thePer Ankh or Houses of Life. Thesewere exclusive for the education ofchildren of the Royal family and ofpharmacists and physicians servingin the royal court These Per Ankhwere distributed in the major capit alsof the ED\'ptian k iriqdr.rns .

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Every House of l.ife contained adivision which was culled "House ofDrugs" or Pharmacy Institute, andwas dedicated for the education ofpharmacy sciences. It necessitatedthe study of medicinal herbs, chemi-cals, minerals, animal products. Abig botanical q arden was annexed,with all the known medicinal herbscultivated, with ware-houses for itsstorage. Many laboratories werefound for the preparation of all knownpharmaceutical preparations.

In the Per Ankh, pharmacy andmedicine were taught through booksexplaining them in drawings andsketches, with the use of Hieroglyphicand the more simplified Hieraticwritinqs. Later on, with the dimini-shed use of the Egyptian Ianquuqeduring the Ptolemaic and Romanperiods, these houses of life stuckstrongly to this lanquaqe and becameits protector, hence this was calledthe writing of the house of life.

These houses were usuallysituated inside the temples, butsometimes they were built outsidethem. They co.nprise d many studyinghalls and rooms with a big libraryand a statue of the God That, theGod of science and knowledge. Also,these houses contained operatingrooms for surgery, and adjacentclinics for the dentists.

Each Per Ankh was composed of3 number of schools for tile education

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of pharmacy, medicine, chemistry,engineering ..etc, together with theo-logical religious studies. WhenThebes became the capital of Egyptin the f-JewKingdom, it was famousby being the city of sciences andculture, due to the presence of thishouse of life.

Those students who wished tolearn medical and pharmaceuticalsciences in Per Ankh, were obligedto pass a series of hard examinationsafter completing their primary generaleducation. If they pass these tests,they gain admittance and beginstudying theology and other religioussciences for two more years, at theend of which, they have to passanother examination. Then theystart studvir q pharmacy or medicinefor 4-5 years When they pass thefinal examination, they were honouredin a big celebration and swear thegraduation oath before practisingtheir profession.

In late Pharaonic periods. thereexisted a very famous pharmaceuticalschool in the city of Sais (SaAI-Hagar), which remained active,carrying the torch of science till itwas ruined during a revolution andreconstructed by orders of the Persianinvadors of Egypt, (c. 4th centuryBC ). During the New Kingdom,Thebes became the centre for theworship of the God Amon (Amen tothe Greeks), and the houses of lifebecame strictly linked to Amontemples allover Egypt.

Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist . Med. Vol. XXiII

Many of the ki nqs of earlydynasties of ancient Egypt were veryinterested in medicine, pharmacy,surgery, anatomy ..etc. King Athothis,the 2nd Pharaoh of the 1st dynasty(c. 3160 B.C.) was a physician andwrote valuable books on drugs andanatomy, King Ozaphais (c. 3100B.C.) made a tremendous develop-ment in the science of arteries, KingSetnis 5th king of the 2nd dynastymade many modifications in themedical text-books, King Tosarthoros2nd king of the 3rd dynasty was veryskilled in medicaments and his bookswere dealt with great appreciationtill the end of the 1st century A.D"King Senda of the Old Kingdom, wasa genious physician. King Narmer(1st dynasty) grew many p s isonousmedicinal plants. All these booksand many others were copiedand recopied hundred of timeswith continuous modernisation anddevelopments throughout wholeof the Pharaonic periods, and weretaught in all pharmacy and medicalschools, while the original volumeswere kept hidden in g'eat secrecy inImhotep temple in Memphis andHeliopolis temple. Many of theGreek students came to these templesand copied all what they have foundof sciences, with previous permissionof the high priest, and took themback on their return home, wherethey used it in their schools. Themanagement of the temple was agreat honour and was exclusive tothe Royal family members. During

Pharmacy and Medicine Education-EI--Gammal

the Old Kingdom, the eldest pr inc :was chosen as the chief priest. whileduring the Middle Empire, certainfamilies monopolised this position byheredity. The chief judges were inthe same time, the chief priests ofthe Goddess Maet of justice, whilethe surgeons were the priests of theGoddess Sekhrnet.

Every temple was considered asa small community, with employeespolicemen, prisons, craftsmen .etc. allworking for the temple and livingday and night inside, but were notpriests. The highly scientific boardwas composed of 12 persons, andtheir duties were to perform religiousceremonies day and night. Womenenchanters were very essential inevery temple, singing during thereligious ceremonies and used towork by day only then leave fortheir homes at night. Some of themwere living permanently in the templeunder the supervision of a womandirectress called the sacred wife ofthe God. The priests were sons ofpriests and usually started theirreligious education at the age of fiveThey were taught Hieroglyphic gram-mer and writing, memorise the namesof dieties ar:d their pictures togetherwith their origin, religious stories andfestivals, then have to pass anexamination at the end. It is worthnoting that all religious ceremonieswere performed in the darkest placeof the temple and the most sacredplace, without the presence of thepeople.

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Other religious education compri-sed memorising of sacred books andits rituals, together with civil education, because they might chose towork in Governmental departmentsor in the Royal palace (where the'!must know the religious songs to beperformed there).

Important temples of the OldKingdom constructed in Upper Egyptwere; in Keft city (for the worship ofGod Maen, comprising many educa-tional halls and a big library), inAswan, Esna, Toud, Edfu (all for theworship of God Khnoum), in Abydos(which was a sacred city before thedynastic periods because it was theburial site for all their kings and forthe worship of God Osiris, and manyEgyptians used to pay pilgrimage tohis temple), the Ramessium templeand its famous house of life, Hapotemple, Nefertari temple, Ehnasiatemple with a school for the educationof the Royal family members as wellas the Governor's children, also inAssiut and Thebes. King Akhnatonbuilt his capital Akhetaton (now TelAl-Arnama ) , a great temple with itshouse of life, wi h several hugedivisions and other small ones, withhalls for lecturing (Auditoria) and abig library.

Other famous temple -u n iversitiesduring the Pharaonic periods werefounded in Upper Egypt as in Philae,Khonsu temple in Karnak (Thebes),That temple in Horrnopo lis. Temples

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of Nit, Nekhbet. Ptah, Moen inPanopolis, in Edfu, and the verycelebrated one of Isis in Coptoscity ..etc.

EDUCATION INSIDE THE ROYALPALACES:

1- During the Old Kingdom; Specialschools were erected inside theRoyal palaces for the education ofthe Royal family children, thenobles and the court officials,both religious and civil types,comprising also all sorts ofsciences and arts. specially taughtin its own Per Ankh, as in Helio-polis and Memphis palaces. Thegraduates were granted the titleof "Royal Scribe" and of "GodScribe".

2·· During the Middle Empire; TheRoyal palaces comprised specialschools for the Royal familymembers' children and its gradua-tes were called "Children of theeducation Suite". The schoolswere composed of an interiordivision which was the importantpart, headed by a director. whilethe exterior part was occupied bythe employees, clerks, secretariesand guards.

3- During the New Empire; Newcollective boarding schools wereerected and were situated in mostof the provinces' capitals whichreplaced the Royal palace school.and was accepting as its students,

Bull. fnd. tnst . Hist. Med. Vol. XX;II

those pupils from the Royal family.higher officials and many AsianKings' children. Also many artschools were established forteaching sculpture. painting ..etc.

The Royal palace's schools werefull of teachers, of highest profes-sional training, directed with a seniorphilosopher. A1:30, there was aspecial school for the education ofthe female children of the Royalfamily, with a special system ateducation and professors.

Female education was encouragedthroughout all the Pharaonic periods,specially among the princesses andfemales of the court's high officials,and some of them became chief ofthe God Amon priestesses and wivesof the high chief priests.

SCIENTIFIC LIBRARIES: (PER MEZ)

Attached to each of the majortemples, which were distributedthroughout Egypt during all theDynastic periods, were a huge scien-tific library, containing all volumeson every branch of knowledge, suchas medicine, pharmacy, chemistry,astronomy, . etc. in the form of hugepapyrus rolls. which were used by allprofessors and students of differentschools of the institute in theireducation. Such libraries were inHeliopolis temple, Ptah temple, Edfutemple .etc. ALo there were wallpaintings (Fresco) and writings onmany of the temple walls showing

Pharmacy and Medicine Education-EI-Garrmal

the various successful ways oftreatment and formulae.

Also there were numerous papyriin these libraries, each bearing thename of a medicinal plant or drug forthe preparation of medicaments.

Every library had its own staff ofscribes, inspectors, directors ..etc.Some libraries were exclusive forreligious sciences while others forscientific ones.

Some of these libraries were veryfamous such as those attached to thetemples of Heliopolis, Memphis,Abydos, Bobastes. Tannis, Thebes,Ramessium (situated in the main hallof 8 huge pillars), Edfu, Philae ..etc.

All the papyri were kept understrong supervision of well trainedpharmacists. These medicamentswere prepared in special laboratorieswithin the campus of the temples anddispenced through the in-patient andout-patient cli nics.

These pharmacists were alsoassiqned to prepare many expensiveperfumes for the exclusive use inholy places of the temples in spccia Ifestivals.

The ancient Egyptian pharmacistsusedto prepare standard medicamentsaccording to certain formulae writtenin prescription forms on papyrussheets which were suspended on the

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temple, walls and columns near thephysicians' quarters, so as they cancopy from these sheets and prescribethem for treatment of the sick people.

Each hospital had specialisedlaboratories for the mixing of drugs,preparing mixtures and extracts andstraining them through clean sievesmade of linen. They used only boilingwater in their preparation, whilewine, beer, milk, oils, honey ..etc.were currently used in specificproportions. Laxatives were preparedwith great care from decoctions ofdifferent medicinal herbs. Pills wereprepared with skill as well as topicalointments ..etc.

The medical prescriptions of theancient Egyptians do not differgreatly from the present ones whichare used all over the world, thanks tothe glorious heritage of the Eqvptians.These prescriptions used to containnames of the ingredients, with nomention of their proportions (for thesake of secrecy) but bears thepatient's name and certain symbols,through which, the pharmacists wereable to prepare them according tothis code, known only between themand the physicians.

Every big hospital contained aspecial research division annexed toit, in which both pharmacists andphysicians could get all the availablehelp they required during their dailypractice, in order to solve any problem

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they faced, through its highly qualifiedresearch professors. After the pro-blem had been solved, the pharmacistincharge files it separately, so as tobe easily found whenever a similarcase needed solving. Through thisfantastic way, each generation addedvaluable scientific informations to beused by the next one, all for thebenefit of Egypt.

These exquisite research text-

Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XXIII

books, were kept separately incompletely safe boxes, dipped inholes on the walls of the libraries ofthe temple-institutes. Many of theseboxes dating to the period of the OldKingdom, were found to containseveral written papyrus rolls, with fullscientific informations on nearly allknown sciences, thus showing howkeen the ancient Egyptians were inpreserving all sorts of knowledge andculture as hard as they could.

Pharmacy and Medicine Education-El-Gammal 47

REFERENCES

1. The Technical Sciences of the Ancients; by Albert Newsberger (1930).

2. The Devine Origin of the Herbalists; by Budge.

3. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus; by Breasted (1940).

4. The Four Thousand Years of Pharmacy; by Charles H. Lawall;

5. Un Papyrus Medical Copte; by E. Chassinat.

6. W. R. Dawson.

7. The Papyrus Ebers; by Ebfell.

8. Egyptian Mumies; By Eliot Smith.

9. Lectures in the History of Medicine; by Georgy Sobhy.

10. Lectures in the Book Of Simple Drugs; by Georgy Soghy.

11. Die Garten Pflanzen im Alten Aegypten; by L. Keimer (1924).

12. All Medical Papyrus; by Wreszinski.

13. Die Flora das Juden, 5 vols.; by Law (1924).

14. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries; by Lucas (1948).

15. The Ancient Botany; by P. E. Newberry.

16. Origins and Development of Applied Chemistry; by Partington.

17. The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides; Robert T. Gunther.

18. De La Flora Pharmaceutique; by Schwein Fusth. (1982).

19. Les Vegetaux Antiques; by Victor Loret,

20. Chronicles of Pharmacy, 2 vols., by Wooten.

21. A History of Medicine, by A. Castigloni, (1947).

22. Drugs of Ancient Egypt; by Saber Gabra (1951).

48 Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XXIII

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