perceptions and expectations for learning and development …perceptions and expectations for...
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Perceptions and expectations for learning and development for older workers within Queensland Local Government Councils: A Case Study
Kathy A. Kelly
B.Ed, Adv.Dip Government, Dip.Bus, Dip.Project Mgt
A thesis submitted in fulfillment for the requirements of Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane
2012
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KEYWORDS
Adult learning Age management Ageism Human capital Interventions Learning and development Lifelong learning Local Government councils Older workers in the workplace Return on investment Strategic management Successful ageing Transitional employment Intergenerational working Workforce culture Workplace learning and development
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ABSTRACT
Current literature warns organisations about a global ageing phenomenon. Workplace
ageing is causing a diminishing work pool which has consequences for a sustainable
workforce in the future. This phenomenon continues to impact on local government councils
in Australia. Australia has one of the world’s most rapidly ageing populations, and there is
evidence that Australian local government councils are already resulting in an unsustainable
workforce. Consequently, this research program investigated the role of older workers in the
Queensland local government workplace in enabling them to extend their working lives
towards transitional employment and a sustainable workforce in the future. Transitional
Employment is intended as a strategy for enabling individuals to have greater control over
their employment options and their employability during the period leading to their final exit
from the workforce. There was no evidence of corporate support for older workers in
Queensland local government councils other than tokenistic government campaigns
encouraging organisations to “better value their older workers”. (Queensland Government,
2007d, p.6). TE is investigated as a possible intervention for older workers in the future.
The international and national literature review reflected a range of matters impacting
on current older workers in the workforce and barriers preventing them from accessing
services towards extending their employment beyond the traditional retirement age (60 years)
as defined by the Australian Government; an age when individuals can access their
superannuation. Learning and development services were identified as one of those barriers.
There was little evidence of investment in or consistent approaches to supporting older
workers by organisations. Learning and development services appeared at best to be ad hoc,
reactive to corporate productivity and outputs with little recognition of the ageing
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phenomenon (OECD, 2006, p.23) and looming skills and labour shortages (ALGA, 2006, p.
19). Themes from the literature review led to the establishment of three key research
questions:
1. What are the current local government workforce issues impacting on skills and labour
retention?
2. What are perceptions about the current workplace environment? And,
3. What are the expectations about learning and development towards extending
employability of older workers within the local government sector?
The research questions were explored by utilising three qualitative empirical studies,
using some numerical data for reporting and comparative analysis. Empirical Study One
investigated common themes for accessing transitional employment and comprised two
phases. A literature review and Study One data analysis enabled the construction of an initial
Transitional Employment Model which includes most frequent themes. Empirical Study Two
comprised focus groups to further consider those themes. This led to identification of issues
impacting the most on access to learning and development by older workers and towards a
revised TEM.
Findings presented majority support for transitional employment as a strategy for
supporting older workers to work beyond their traditional retirement age. Those findings are
presented as significant issues impacting on access to transitional employment within the final
3-dimensionsal TEM. The model is intended as a guide for responding to an ageing
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workforce by local government councils in the future. This study argued for increased and
improved corporate support, particularly for learning and development services for older
workers. Such support will enable older workers to maintain their employability and extend
their working lives; a sustainable workforce in the future.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Keywords.................................................................................................................................... i Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents..................................................................................................................... v Appendices............................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures........................................................................................................................... x List of Tables............................................................................................................................ xi Statement of Original Study ship.......................................................................................... xii Acknowledgements................................................................................................................ xiii Glossary of terms................................................................................................................... xiv
Chapter 1 Background to the Study 1.0 Context for research program .........................................................................................1 1.1 Background to the research program .............................................................2 1.1.1 Current international and national literature about population ageing ....... 4 1.1.2 Impact of an ageing workforce in Local Governments in Australia .............. 6 1.2 Transitional Employment ........................................................................................ 9 1.2.1 Transitional Employment; Older workers in the workplace ........................11 1.3 Purpose and significance of the research program...............................................13 1.3.1 Design of the research study ......................................................................15 1.4 Overview of the structure of the thesis.................................................................. 17 Chapter 2 Literature Review: Trends/Patterns for older workers in the labour market
2.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................21 2.1 Structure of the Chapter ........................................................................................ 22 2.2 Global ageing demographics ................................................................................. 23 2.3 Global contemporary notions of retirement.......................................................... 26 2.3.1 Ageism within the workplace.....................................................................31 2.3.2 Implications for local governments councils in Australia......................... 34 2.4 Successful Ageing ................................................................................................. 36 2.5 Transitional Retirement......................................................................................... 40 2.5.1 The role of management............................................................................. 43 2.6 Barriers to learning and development for older workers in the workplace ........... 46 2.7 Human Capital....................................................................................................... 55 2.7.1 Workforce Planning .................................................................................... 58
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2.7.2 Workforce demographics ............................................................................. 60 2.7.3 Performance management ...........................................................................62 2.8 Local Government Workforce.............................................................................. 64 2.8.1 The ageing landscape: The Local Government Sector ..............................65 2.9 Workforce Learning................................................................................................ 68 2.9.1 Adult learning in the workplace ..................................................................71 2.9.2 Costs of retraining older workers................................................................ 80 2.10 Summary................................................................................................................. 83 Chapter 3 Methodology and Research Design 3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 90 3.1 Structure of the Chapter ........................................................................................ 91 3.2 Constructivist Paradigm ........................................................................................ 92 3.3 Issues of Trustworthiness, Confirmability and Applicability .............................. 94 3.4 Processes undertaken within the Study ................................................................ 97 3.5 Case Study Methodology .................................................................................... 101 3.6 Study One ............................................................................................................ 108 3.6.1 Sub study (i) Queensland Local Government online questionnaire........ 108 3.6.1.1 Sub study (i) Purpose of the online questionnaire .................. 109 3.6.1.2 Sub study (i) Design of the questionnaire............................... 109 3.6.1.3 Sub study (i) Questionnaire respondents ................................ 114 3.6.1.4 Sub study (i) Procedure for administering questionnaire........ 117 3.6.1.5 Sub study (i) Ethics approval .................................................. 117 3.6.1.6 Sub study (i) Follow up procedures: online questionnaire ..... 118 3.6.1.7 Sub study (i) Online questionnaire data analysis..................... 119 3.6.2 Sub study (ii) Interviews ..........................................................................121 3.6.2.1 Sub study (ii) Interview representativeness ............................ 122 3.6.2.2 Sub study (ii) Interview study details ..................................... 123 3.6.2.3 Sub study (ii) Interview questions .......................................... 123 3.6.2.4 Sub study (ii) Council representativeness............................... 128 3.6.2.5 Sub study (ii) Procedure for conducting the interviews.......... 130 3.6.2.6 Sub study (ii) Ethics approval................................................. 131 3.6.2.7 Sub study (ii) Follow up procedures: Interviews................... 132 3.6.2.8 Sub study (ii) Interview data analysis ..................................... 132 3.6.3 Study One: A Summary...........................................................................134 3.7 Study Two ........................................................................................................... 135 3.7.1 Planning the focus groups ....................................................................... 137 Phase 1 – Initial project setup.................................................................137 Phase 2 – Selection of participants .........................................................138 Phase 3 – Invitation to selected personnel ..............................................139 Phase 4 – Engagement of the two focus groups .....................................139 3.7.2 Focus group stimulus questions ..............................................................141 3.7.3 Sample representativeness....................................................................... 144 3.7.4 Administering the focus groups ...............................................................145 3.7.5 Focus groups’ Ethics Approval ...............................................................145
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3.7.6 Focus group data analysis.......................................................................146 3.8 Summary: Methodology and Research Design .................................................148 Chapter 4 Empirical Study One: Data analysis, Interpretation and Findings 4.0. Introduction .................................................................................................................150 4.1 Structure of the Chapter......................................................................................151 4.2 Thematic Coding ................................................................................................. 151 4.3 Sub study (i) Online Questionnaire ..................................................................... 153 4.3.1 Results and findings of sub study (i)..........................................................155 4.4 Sub study (ii) Interviews ..................................................................................... 161 4.4.1 Questions 1 and 9 statistical responses.....................................................164 4.4.2 Questions 2, 3 and 4 statistical responses.................................................167 4.4.3 Questions 5 and 6 statistical responses.....................................................169 4.4.4 Questions 7 and 10 statistical responses...................................................171 4.4.5 Questions 8 statistical responses...............................................................173 4.5 Summary of Themes from Study One (sub studies i and ii) ............................... 174 4.6 Development of initial Transitional Employment Model ................................... 176 4.7 Four Quadrant Model .......................................................................................... 178 4.8 Summary: Empirical Study One......................................................................... 173 Chapter 5 Empirical Study Two: Validating the init ial Transitional Employment Model
5.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................184 5.1 Structure of the Chapter......................................................................................184 5.2 Thematic Coding ................................................................................................. 185 5.3 Focus Group questions attracting minimal or no responses................................ 189 5.3.1 Quadrant One............................................................................................190 5.3.2 Quadrant Two............................................................................................190 5.3.3 Quadrant Three .........................................................................................191 5.3.4 Quadrant Four ..........................................................................................191 5.4 Focus Groups Data Analysis ............................................................................... 191 5.5. Study Two Data Analysis.................................................................................... 194 5.5.1 Part One: Quadrant One (Employers) .....................................................195 5.5.1.1 Adult learner issues....................................................................... 195 5.5.1.2 Limited access to learning and development for older workers ... 201 5.5.1.3 Workforce undersupply ................................................................ 207 5.5.1.4 Intergenerational working relationships....................................... 209 5.5.1.5 Personal attitude/self development ............................................... 211 5.5.2 Part Two: Quadrant Two (Employees) .....................................................215 5.5.2.1 Leadership and Management ....................................................... 216 5.5.3 Part Three: Quadrant Three (Corporate Operations) .............................. 220 5.5.3.1 Workforce opportunities for learning and development............... 223
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5.5.3.2 Self esteem ................................................................................... 227 5.5.4 Part Four: Quadrant Four (Corporate Policies) .....................................230 5.5.4.1 Career pathways............................................................................. 231 5.5.4.2 Personal achievements................................................................... 235 5.5.4.3 Levels of support for access to learning and development ............ 238 5.5.4.4 Previous learning experiences........................................................ 240 5.5.4.5 Attitudes to learning and development .......................................... 245 5.6 Triangulation ....................................................................................................... 249 5.6.1 Retirement ..................................................................................................251 5.6.2 Performance Management ......................................................................... 251 5.6.3 Unfair Work Practices................................................................................252 5.6.4 Lifelong Learning....................................................................................... 253 5.7 Summary of Focus Group Data (Study Two) ..................................................... 253 5.8 Learning and Development Services: Transitional Employment ...................... 259 5.8.1 Evidence for learning and development towards TE.................................259 5.8.2 Capacity for learning and development services.......................................260 5.8.3 Education awareness of learning and development services ....................260 Chapter 6 Findings and Conclusions 6.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................264 6.1 Structure of the Chapter......................................................................................265 6.2 Transitional Employment: A Recruitment and Retention Strategy..................... 266 6.3 Trends within Local Government Sector ............................................................268 Quadrant One......................................................................................................272 Quadrant Two......................................................................................................274 Quadrant Three................................................................................................... 275 Quadrant Four ....................................................................................................276 6.4 Summary of Four Key Findings.......................................................................... 278 6.5 Limitations of the Research................................................................................. 281 6.6 Linking Findings to the Three Research Questions ............................................ 282 6.6.1 Research Question One..............................................................................283 6.6.2 Research Question Two .............................................................................283 6.6.3 Research Question Three...........................................................................284 6.7 Conclusion and future research ........................................................................... 285 References ............................................................................................................................. 287
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APPENDICES Appendix I: Transitional Employment Questionnaire ...................................................... 301 Appendix II: Sub study (ii) Interview Questions............................................................... 304 Appendix III: Participant Information Letter ...................................................................... 305 Appendix IV Research Protocols ....................................................................................... 306 Appendix V: Consent Form ............................................................................................... 308 Appendix VI: Human Ethics Approval Certificate ............................................................. 309
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Initial Transitional Employment Model ............................................................... 182 Figure 2: Revised Transitional Employment Model ............................................................ 263 Figure 3: Final (3-dimensional) Transitional Employment Model......................................270
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Model – Tokenistic Training in the Ineffective Organisation (Burns, 2000)........ 54
Table 2 Specific Learning Needs and Direct Learning Processes (Knowles, 1980).......... 76
Table 3 Literature Review – Themes and Research Questions: A Synthesis.................... 88
Table 4 Five Step Approach for undertaking the study...................................................... 99
Table 5 Data Collection Processes ................................................................................... 104
Table 6 Literature Review Themes aligned to Sub study (i) online Questionnaire ......... 113
Table 7a Sub study (i) Participants who responded to the Questionnaire.......................... 116
Table 7b Sub study (ii) Occupations of respondents who responded to Questionnaire..... 116
Table 8 Sub study (i) Questionnaire/Themes/aligned to Sub study (ii)
Interview questions: A Synthesis ....................................................................... 127
Table 9 Sample Representation: Study One, Sub study (ii) ........................................... 129
Table 10 Study Two: Focus Group Stimulus Questions...................................................143
Table 11 Representatives: Study Two Focus Groups........................................................ 144
Table 12 Coding Table for Sub study (i) online Questionnaire ......................................... 154
Table 13 Highest Scores from Sub study (i) online Questionnaire: A Synthesis.............. 157
Table 14 Coding Table for Study One, Sub study (ii) Interviews...................................... 162
Table 15 Emergent Themes from Study One: A Synthesis............................................... 176
Table 16 Four Quadrants: A Synthesis.............................................................................. 180
Table 17 Coding Table for Study Two: Focus Group Data .............................................. 188
Table 18 Study Two Data Analysis: A Synthesis ............................................................ 193
Table 19 Issues (Quadrant One: Employers)..................................................................... 194
Table 20 Issues (Quadrant Two: Employees) ................................................................... 215
Table 21 Issues (Quadrant Three: Corporate Operations)................................................. 220
Table 22 Issues (Quadrant Four: Corporate Policies) ....................................................... 230
Table 23 Triangulation: A Synthesis................................................................................. 250
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL STUDYSHIP The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for
an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and
belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person
except where due reference is made.
Signature: Date: 01 November, 2012
QUT Verified Signature
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to extend my gratitude to Dr Tricia Fox and Professor Wendy Patton for their
support in both a professional capacity and a personal level. Particular thanks are extended to
Professor Hitendra Pillay for his rigorous professional advice, support and guidance, all of
which have contributed to the successful completion of this thesis.
Acknowledgement and thanks is also extended to the Local Government Association of
Queensland (LGAQ) employees and colleagues Lesley Brogden, Laura Bowart and Penny
Bailey, and Kym Mills all of whom have given their time and themselves to enable this
research to be undertaken. My sincere thanks to our Chief Executive Officer (LGAQ)
Gregory Hallam, for his permission and generous support in enabling full access to all local
government services, databases and publications.
Finally, my thanks are extended to my Mother and two sisters who have always “valued” and
encouraged education and learning and my family for their continuous encouragement and
support throughout this research.
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics
AGPC Australian Government Productivity Commission
ALGA Australian Local Government Association
ANTA Australian National Training Authority
AARP American Association for Retired Persons
DETA Department of Employment Training and the Arts
DETYA Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs
EU European Union
HREOC Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
LGAQ Local Government Association of Queensland
OECD Organisation for Economic and Cooperation Development
RTO Registered Training Organisation
TAEN Third Age Employment Network
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Chapter 1
Background to the Study 1.0 Context for research program
The underpinnings of this research are the concerns and issues emerging regarding a
diminishing workforce; the result of an ageing population in local government councils in
Queensland. The Australian Government Productivity Commission Report (Australian
Government Productivity Commission [AGPC], 2005) warns that the economic growth and
development of any country is dependent on the supply and quality of its workforce in terms
of capacity and efficiency. Consequently, a primary concern of all spheres of government in
Australia is to ensure that the capacity of the labour market can support economic growth and
development and is sustainable. Local government is recognised as one of three spheres of
government in Australia which includes Commonwealth and State governments. This
research investigates local government councils (the third sphere) in Queensland and current
council services for supporting their older workers, over younger workers. International and
national literature reflects concerns and warns about the global ageing phenomenon and
consequences for organisations not retaining their workers. Local government councils are
currently recruiting overseas workers from US, Canada and UK; their strategy for responding
to skills and labour shortages in Australia. The literature review from those countries include
subsequent concerns for their own diminishing markets, a further warning that current
overseas recruitment approaches are limited.
Australia will experience substantial demographic changes over the coming decades.
The extent to which these changes will affect economic and social conditions will depend,
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among other factors, on the ability of older workers to continue working (Ryan & Sinning,
2010 p.39) beyond their traditional age, which this research investigates.
The AGPC (2005, p.14) research emphasised that diminished numbers in the
Australian workforce requires urgent attention by all organisations. Local government
councils are not heeding those warnings. Furthermore, the report suggests that a solution may
be the retention of older workers by investing in their development, and is investigated within
this study. It is reasonable to assert that there will be long-term negative economic
implications linked to growth and development (ALGA, 2006) for employers and employees
if future workforce planning is not urgently revised to include a range of new interventions.
Given the trends associated with the ageing population, it is logical to argue that the economic
implications for both employers and employees justifies the need to promote better skills
development and employment opportunities for their older workers. International and
national reports (AGPC, 2005; OECD, 2005a) have argued that the employability and
sustainability of older workers should be a key industry reform strategy, TE is considered as a
future strategy for organisations.
1.1 Background to the research program
Australian literature and some local government archival data reflect the current
absence of age management policies or corporate strategies in response to this global position.
Some Australian Government approaches exist as marketing campaigns evidenced for
promoting the value of older workers in the workforce (Queensland Government, 2007a,
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2007c, 2007d). However, there was no Australian local government evidence cited for
corporate policies or strategies to support approaches or interventions to engage older workers
beyond their traditional retirement age of 60 years as the time when individuals can access
their superannuation. Ryan (2010, p.12) reflects on some Australian workers extending their
working lives, and recognised two main cohorts, those who are most educated and retaining
their attractive remuneration or those who are least educated and seek to retain job
satisfaction.
There is other contemporary Australian evidence suggesting that both the Federal and
the State governments are attempting to address the “ageing” labour force crisis in policy
documents such as Experience pays (Queensland Government, 2007a); Barriers to learning
and development for older workers (Department of Employment, Education, Training and
Youth Affairs [DEETYA], 2006), and Valuing Australia’s older workers (Commonwealth
Government, 2006). This research investigates current practices in the workplace, strategies
and interventions or processes for retaining older workers across Australia which currently is
at best, tokenistic and minimal.
Whilst examining local government archival documents from Australian and
Queensland local government councils, there was no evidence of support for older workers to
access transitional employment options, other than to work part time/casual hours if it was
available. There were no consistent corporate plans or approaches for older workers to
maintain or build on their skills and yet skill building is recognised as a key national
investment for the future (Skills Australia, 2006). No strategies were cited reflecting on
engagement of older workers or services which enabled them to extend their future
employability. There is a paucity of data regarding current age cohorts, occupations and
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learning and development services available in local government councils in Queensland. In
light of global warnings about better managing population ageing, this study investigates
levels of commitment and willingness to access transitional employment options and
organisational support available.
1.1.1 Current international and national literature about population ageing
International literature has noted that there is a need to offset the negative impact of
population ageing on economic growth and public finances to help alleviate future labour
shortages. Australia has similar ageing demographic challenges which will impact on
economic sustainability (Jorgensen, 2004, AGPC, 2005). The reality of exclusion for people
who are still years from the ‘traditional’ retirement age sits very uneasily with some human
resource managers (Lyon, 2006, p.56) and this is further evidenced in local government
councils in Queensland. Several of the predicted effects of the ageing population, particularly
the decline in the number of people in the labour force, are the result of more workers moving
towards or seeking retirement (OECD, 2006, Ferris, 2008). Consequently, international
attention on “mature” or “older” workers and strategies for keeping them in the workforce for
as long as possible is a significant area of study (Ferrier, 2005, p.8). Skills development
raises the overall level of the workforce, and is a major factor driving Australian
organisations, according to Smith (2009, p. 19). This study investigates levels of commitment
and willingness to access transitional employment options and organisational support
available to support future employability of older workers. The OECD (2006) report
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challenges current services and employment policies, and stated that there was no evidence
for determining the needs of, or support for, older workers in the workforce. In considering
Australian workers’ future work plans, Ryan (2010, p.18) suggests that workers choose their
retirement age based on the discounted value of lifetime income (that is, the total present
value of the remaining lifetime); ultimately determined by their own retirement needs and
subsequent future pension incomes. Other evidence reveals significant workforce reductions
in Australia, a result of the global financial crisis and reactive and early exit from the
workforce by some older workers in response to diminishing superannuation funds. Cully
(2006, p.31) concurs that despite ongoing research about training and support by employers in
Australia and overseas, training activities for older workers in the workplace remain
“unplanned and devoid of any specific corporate policies”.
Some reasons for not engaging older workers were cited, and deemed to be more as a
result of stereotypical views held, and related to employment problems connected with the
average lower education of older persons in comparison with younger age groups (Fortuny,
Nesporova & Popova, 2003, Taylor, 2004). Other research reflected personal comments and
aspirations from some older workers to remain in or extend their permanent paid work
(Fuller, 2006, p.31), but barriers existed to any options. Two distinct and frequently referred
to barriers for older workers were the workforce structural elements such as work options and
opportunities available to them within the workplace. This study considers some attitudinal
forces which were referenced such as stereotypical views about capabilities of older workers
(Ranzijn, 2004, Figgis, 2012, p.28). The AGPC (2005) noted that in countries such as the
United Kingdom (UK) and the United States of America (USA), governments had
encouraged corporate management to accept more responsibility for the development and
supply of a qualified labour force now and in the future. This was reinforced by statements
6
from the Australian Local Government Association (2006) in pursuit of a sustainable
workforce in the future. This research investigates levels of responsibility and key
stakeholders involved in skills development of older workers within Queensland local
government councils.
The literature review noted that addressing labour market supply is based on changing
demographics of an ageing populace and warns of a decreasing availability of employees in
traditional labour markets (OECD, 2005a; Philipson & Smith, 2005) such as local government
councils where there are over 400 occupations in a range of traditional jobs (ALGA, 2006).
This includes qualified, professional and technical employees and outdoor workers.
Consequently, the ageing populace phenomenon has forced governments worldwide to
address the implications of these demographic trends for maintaining economic sustainability
and social cohesion (AGPC, 2005, ALGA, 2006). The ageing populace has also necessitated
an awareness of an ageing population which is leading to a diminished recruitment pool for
the future supply of skilled workers (OECD, 2006, ALGA, 2006) in Australia. This impacts
on local government as overseas workers are recruited to “fill current gaps” which has
implications for the future.
1.1.2 Impact of an ageing workforce in local governments in Australia
Drawing on the awareness of the ageing demographics in Australia (Australian
Government, 2007; OECD, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c), this research was situated within the local
government sector. Local governments are responsible for the planning, delivery and
7
maintenance of essential services to all communities throughout Australia, and are a
significant employer of approximately 160,000 or 1.3% of Australia’s labour force
(Australian Local Government Association [ALGA], 2006). In addition, local governments
are major contributors to local, state and national economies, with an approximate annual
expenditure of $18.3 billion, representing 2.3% of Australia’s gross domestic product
(ALGA, 2006). The local government sector employment figures and expenditure details lay
the foundation for recognising the diverse makeup of the industry. Local government
associations, through in-house research (ALGA, 2006; Local Government Association of
Queensland [LGAQ], 2006c) are aware of the implications of the ageing workforce for
sustaining the delivery of local government services, but no evidence exists of corporate
responses or strategies. While appreciating the depth and scope of local government services
and operations across Australia, for the purpose of this study the research is about local
government councils in Queensland only.
In 2007, the Queensland Government reformed local governments through the process
of council mergers across the State. Local councils comprising 125 urban and rural councils,
10 community councils and 22 indigenous councils were merged (Queensland Government,
2007b). The reform initiative had direct implications for workforce sustainability, economic
viability and corporate compliance (new Local Government Act, 2009). The reform resulted
in a decreased number of local government councils in Queensland from 157 to 73 and
changed political agendas and requirements for increased compliance for the LGAQ as the
peak body and representative association for workforce planning and development in these
local government councils. The local government industry in Queensland employed 32,685
people in 2003, 35,382 in 2005 a continued forecasted growth to 38,000 in 2007 (LGAQ,
8
2006c). Moreover, Queensland local councils employ over 400 different occupations
(LGAQ, 2006c).
The Queensland Government (2007b) reform urged local government councils to
adopt and promote a range of corporate imperatives, such as recognising the need for a
sustainable and competent workforce. These imperatives were supported by statements such
as: “future recruitment and retention are challenges in the current local governments, a result
of a rapidly ageing workforce” (ALGA, 2006, p.21). Despite the Queensland Government
purporting that the reform was aligned to “building capacity and stronger councils”
(Queensland Government, 2007b) the reform agenda lacked any reference to its older workers
or the current ageing population and ageing workforce issues emerging (Taylor, 2004).
Research studies from the AGPC (2005) and OECD (2006) research, a key to the success of
any reform is to “strengthen and build on organisational systems”. As a consequence, and
referring to international and national concerns regarding industries’ capacity to recruit and
retain older workers (AGPC, 2005; OECD, 2006), the current research drew on ageing
demographics and limited empirical data drawn from local government councils as the basis
for the case study. Moreover, the current study intends to develop a proactive transitional
employment strategy for the local government sector to consider interventions for the future.
This includes improved support for learning needs of older workers - a means for their future
employability; workforce sustainability.
The Workforce Questionnaire Census (LGAQ, 2006c) enabled the engagement of
local government workers to provide some statistical data and qualitative data for analysis
regarding current labour capacity. Under the current rapid demographic changes occurring in
Queensland, growth rates between 2.2% and 2.3% each year to 2011 and beyond are
9
predicted, with the median age of Queenslanders rising from 36 years to 44.6 years and the
majority of growth being in the older age groups, people aged 65 years or more (Queensland
Government, 2007c). Any workforce reforms within Queensland local councils must
consider and include issues for not only retaining older workers, but also associated
developmental and skills needs. This study complements concerns raised by the reports from
the AGPC (2005) and the OECD (2006) about the role of employers towards future workforce
sustainability (Queensland government, 2007b).
1.2 Transitional employment
Given the focus of this study is to investigate commitment and willingness to access
transitional employment options and subsequent organisational support available for older
workers, transitional employment is defined as giving individuals greater control over options
during the period leading to a final exit from the workforce. This includes a system for
learning and development where people enter and re-enter formal learning at many points
throughout their lives (Dimopoulos, 2007, Ferris, 2008). Options such as support services,
more employment flexibility, less demanding jobs and forward planning by organisations to
improve timing of retirement need to be urgently considered (Philipson & Smith, 2005).
Sirota, Meltzer and Mischkind (2006) suggest that there is a need for the consideration and
realisation of three key corporate goals in organisations for enabling any transitional
arrangements for their older workers and included:
10
(a) equity - to be respected and to be treated fairly in areas such as pay, benefits and job
security;
(b) achievement - to be proud of one’s job, accomplishments and employer; and
(c) camaraderie - to have good productive relationships with fellow employees and their
employers (pp. 11-12).
This study investigates the role and value of those goals for managers and their
workers. Arthur (2003) acknowledges the value of transitional employment and identifies the
need for more work options for older workers, arguing that those options will determine their
future retirement plans. As a first measure, according to Ilmarinen (2005), there is a need to
expedite the awareness level of all stakeholders about the facts of ageing and its positive and
negative consequences in work life and wellbeing. The UK, USA and European Union (EU)
have pioneered awareness campaigns and instituted programs for ageing workers to support
their sustainability in the workforce (AARP, 2003) as has Queensland Government which has
previously been noted (Queensland Government, 2007b). The details from these awareness
campaigns provided a basis to develop methods for organisations to overcome negative ageist
attitudes identified and to help address the issues contributing to a diminishing supply of a
skilled labour force. Individual commitment to and levels of organisational support in the
future are yet to be determined and will be considered in this study.
11
1.2.1 Transitional Employment; older workers in the workplace
There are advantages to having older workers in the workplace - their reliability,
conscientiousness, punctuality, politeness and wealth of experience and skills (McMurchie,
1999; Ranzijn, 1999, Ferris, 2008) results in corporate productive outputs. Others argue that
there are inherent challenges, and that some older workers themselves may not wish to pursue
an extension of their working lives (Taylor, 2004). Whilst those views are considered in this
study, there is also evidence to suggest that if no transitional options are available for older
workers (Lissenburgh & Smeaton, 2003) then no choices exist for them other than to retire.
This study attempts to identify currency for older workers. In reference to the local
government workforce, there is a need to better maintain and build up the current diminishing
work pool (ALGA, 2006). There is a paucity of data for and about the views and perceptions
of older workers about transitional employment options. This leads to concerns regarding
their direct engagement with their employers, to intervene and better meet future work
aspirations. Tikkanen (2006) reports on EU countries’ interventions being introduced for
ageing workers in the workplace and cites examples of new practices and improved
engagement with workers as pilot schemes. EU accession countries (Fortuny et al., 2003),
USA (AARP, 2003) and UK policies (TAEN, 2003) detail workplace trends, issues, and
potential strategies for improved skills development which is referenced as vocational
education by Billett (2012, p.15).
However, there is a paucity of data on specific strategies or processes for enabling
older workers to develop their competencies or skills for future employability which enable
12
them to remain in the workplace for longer. References to strategies for improving the quality
of the labour force, and recognition of consequences for investing in a person’s knowledge
and skills were reported to be scarce for a significant period during the 1960s (Becker, 1964)
and this study will investigate whether this still pervades today. Whilst Ranzijn (2004) noted
that there was a need to better recognise and value older workers, there is no evidence of
corporate strategies or processes to draw on about building or maintaining human capital,
older workers in Queensland local government councils. The current study investigates
corporate interventions for the future valuing of current human capital, their older workers.
Workers’ engagement and involvement about their future employability is critical to
developing an appreciation of older workers’ needs. Identifying these needs requires a
reflection on individual’s preferred learning styles to promote a willingness to undertake
learning and development (Burns, 2002). Corporate learning and development programs is
referenced as vocational education by Billett (2012, p.23). Whilst Harris et al (2009, p.42)
argues that vocational education is more about diplomas and academic learning than
vocational outcomes, the role of vocational education will be considered in this study.
Consequently, the purpose of the present study is to complement recommendations for
vocational education and competency building and the need to value and retain older workers
as social and economic drivers (AGPC, 2006; OECD, 2006) in the future. This is in addition
to offsetting the limited research about older workers’ retention and skills development
(TAEN, 2003, Ferrier, 2008) to enable more appropriate, relevant learning and development
services which enables employability in the future; a purpose of this study.
13
1.3 Purpose and significance of the research program
The purpose of the research program is situated against global warnings for
maintaining a sustainable workforce, a result of an ageing phenomenon. The resulting
diminishing work pool is currently impacting on local government councils in Queensland. In
addition, older workers are seeking to extend their working lives which is a result of reducing
pensions and superannuation funds but no options other than part time work is available. The
study investigates older workers in the Queensland local government workplace, towards
maintaining a sustainable workforce for the future, a response to the global ageing
phenomenon. The significance of this research is in its contribution to the wider literature on
issues impacting on the current ageing workforce and in particular, older workers. By
investigating matters impacting on older workers through the engagement of the key
stakeholders themselves, data is analysed to ascertain levels of support necessary to support
transitional employment. It is anticipated that the findings of this research will present a
model for conceptualising and understanding current processes, towards an initial Transitional
Employment Model (TEM). The TEM includes key findings for Queensland local
government councils to consider improved support services for their older workers in
extending their working lives and a suggested strategy for maintaining a sustainable
workforce. Consequently, findings may be used to develop policies for retaining older
workers which will benefit both employer and employees.
There is no evidence of approaches or processes in local government councils to
contribute to older workers continuing their employability in the workforce. Transitional
employment is supported in the literature review and this research program will investigate
14
current perceptions, expectations and value for such arrangements. The initial TEM, as a
conceptual framework was constructed by considering emerging themes from an intensive
literature review which focussed on older workers in the future. These emergent themes are
impacting on all workforces and particularly Queensland local government councils, who are
currently trying to establish new organisational structures in response to the imposed local
government reform “to build stronger councils” (Queensland Government, 2007b). Policy
makers need to consider policy trends with a focus on replacing current passive and tokenistic
approaches to the management of older workers. A TEM model is established to present
possible options for employers to delay retirement for their older workers. Older workers in
Queensland local government councils is an ageing cohort and have been identified as most
vulnerable for employment beyond their traditional retirement age of 60 years; extending their
working lives will lead to a more sustainable workforce in the future. This research is
significant in light of the recognised need to advance knowledge of how to enable and
encourage older workers’ employability over current practices through improved skills
learning and development services. Three research questions are posed:
1. What are the current local government workforce issues impacting on skills and labour
retention?
2. What are perceptions about the current workplace environment? And,
3. What are the expectations about learning and development towards extending
employability of older workers within the local government sector?
15
1.3.1 Design of the research study
In light of the three research questions, the research design included three empirical
studies which adopted a qualitative research approach.
Empirical Study One was an investigation which included two phases. This involved
(i) a qualitative questionnaire comprising 34 questions from a bigger ARC project, for which
responses to four open questions are presented and then (ii) interviews. The Queensland-
based local government online questionnaire (n=1,082) was designed to consider levels of
support for transitional employment in Queensland local government councils. The
questionnaire presented an explanation of the purpose and intent of the study and identified
the targeted group within local government councils. An initial definition and explanation of
the term “transitional employment” was stated to inform respondents. The term and
definition of transitional employment for local government was agreed to by regional
committees who comprised councils’ human resource managers and who contributed to and
supported the questionnaire design. All respondents and attendees were provided with
specific contact details and invited to seek further clarification or definition of any terms used
from their designated human resource managers or the author of the studies. The
questionnaire was designed around key themes from the literature review. The data from the
questionnaire either reinforced the identified themes or found new themes. The questionnaire
comprised 34 questions and focussed on perceptions about the current workplace (Research
Question 1). The responses enabled analysis and a presentation of emergent themes regarding
willingness to participate in transitional employment and opportunities within the local
16
government councils. The analysis provided key data reflecting majority of support for and
details about organisational support for transitional employment. For the purpose of this
research transitional employment included services which create and/or support work
opportunities to extend, change or enhance current work, jobs, skills or knowledge towards
maintaining or increasing employability of older workers. Questions were designed
specifically to attract responses about these terms and phrases.
The research considers current corporate services and levels of corporate commitment
to transitional employment options at work which includes pathways, access to learning and
development programs and support from managers. This was in light of the majority of
support for transitional employment from questionnaire respondents. Some emergent matters
were reflective of themes from the literature review and some local government empirical
data.
Sub study (ii) sought to probe and undertake deeper research to validate and elaborate
on emergent themes from sub study (i) data analysis. It involved three Queensland local
government councils and adopted a structured interview approach. This enabled participants
to provide richer data for more in-depth analysis of emerging patterns and trends and their
perceived value for transitional employment which had already been defined for respondents.
All interviewees were informed of the definition of the term transitional employment, and
were given contact details of the interviewer for further clarification, if required. The
interview data analysis presented more defined and extended themes impacting on older
workers. The data analysis enabled a further refinement of the initial Transitional
Employment Model as a framework to enable and guide further investigation with focus
groups towards identification of emerging issues. Limited representativeness of some cohorts
17
was noted, but respondents were a typical cross section of the local government workforce
who had voluntarily agreed to partake in the study. The engagement processes had previously
been agreed by the regional committees to invite attendees as volunteers. This was to enable
and encourage more honest and open views to be proffered, over prescribed requirements to
attend by their employers, which may have inhibited their contributions and sharing of
opinions.
Empirical Study Two comprised of two focus groups, to further probe the deeper
meanings of emergent themes from Empirical Study One analysis. The process further
validated emergent themes towards identification of key issues impacting the most on the two
stakeholders identified. Two stakeholders, (i) Employers and (ii) Employees were frequently
referenced in Study One data analysis as being the key drivers for enabling access to TE by
older workers. Identified issues are intended to be included in to the final Transitional
Employment Model as a guiding construct for local government councils to consider, if their
older workers are to be provided with access and opportunities to extending their working
lives.
1.4 Overview of the structure of the thesis
Chapter one provided an overview of the context of the research program from
underpinnings from the literature review about the role of older workers and transitional
employment.
18
The purpose and significance of the study for all Australian organisations and local
governments in the future is presented. The chapter presents three key research questions
derived from the literature review and some local government archival data. Chapter One
also provided an overview of the research program which included the development of an
initial Transitional Employment Model. The process led to the development of a final TEM
as a conceptual framework for local government councils and organisations in the future. The
research will help identify different factors for engaging older workers in TE and levels of
corporate support for TE; a synthesis as a model
Chapter Two is a more detailed review of literature pertaining to global ageing
demographics and local government councils in Australia. Global contemporary notions of
retirement are presented towards a discussion about ageism within the workplace and
implications for local government councils in Australia. Successful ageing is discussed in
light of the ageing population and current practices for accessing transitional retirement
options and the subsequent role of management in the workplace. Barriers to learning and
development are presented reflecting organisations’ human capital and the stakeholders
perceived to be responsible for subsequent leadership, councils’ human resource officers.
Issues about workforce planning are raised, reflecting current workforce demographics which
are impacting and forcing current changes in the workplace and the subsequent value of
corporate systems. The local government workforce landscape is presented with referenced
practices for workplace learning and subsequent adult learning principles leading to a
discussion about costs of retraining. This leads to a contextual overview of the current local
government workforce.
19
Chapter Three discusses the methodology and research design for empirical Studies
One and Two as two separate but complementary studies. The research adopted a
constructivist paradigm which is discussed with an overview of the case study methodology
adopted. Issues of applicability, replicability and trustworthiness are discussed and presented
and aligned to three different empirical studies undertaken. A rationale for the adopted
methodology includes an overview of the local government representativeness across three
different groups. They included questionnaire respondents, interviewees and then focus
group participants. Ethics approval, follow up procedures and data analyses are also
presented, culminating in a summary of the methodology and research designs for both Study
One and Study Two.
Chapter Four presents an overview of Study One and includes a presentation on
coding processes and an explanation of thematic coding applied to both phases of Study One
which are presented separately. The questionnaire analysis presents descriptive statistical
data and narrative data that articulate with emergent themes. Interview findings are presented
as additional and richer data impacting on transitional employment options and preferences
for older workers. The most frequently identified themes which also complemented the
literature review are presented. A conceptual framework in the form of a revised Transitional
Employment Model (refer Figure 2, p.263) is developed within a four quadrant construct.
Chapter Five presents an analysis of Study Two which sought richer data about
themes impacting on older workers from Study One data analysis. The data analysis is
presented in four parts, reflecting each of the four quadrants noted in the initial Transitional
Employment Model. The thematic coding processes applied to the data is discussed and
20
presented. The most dominant and frequently identified issues from Study Two within their
unique quadrant are presented separately with some quotations from the interviews.
A triangulation method imposed across four sets of data from the multiple
methodologies adopted is discussed. These included a literature review, questionnaire and
interviews (Study One) and then focus groups (Study Two) This further justified and reflected
the multiple realities of specific social relationships. A summary of the key findings and their
implication for the Transitional Employment Model, together with a revised TEM (refer
Figure 2, p.263) is presented.
Chapter Six presents a discussion of the research findings and conclusions for future
studies. There is an overview of transitional employment as a key industry reform strategy
which leads to identification of trends within the local government sector. Findings are then
detailed within their own pre-determined quadrant, reflecting on most significant impacts in
the future for enabling access to transitional employment. Limitations of the research are
identified and then outcomes of the three research questions in this study are presented. A
summary and conclusion is followed by the presentation of the final Transitional Employment
Model (refer Figure 3, p.270) including the four key findings.
21
Chapter Two
Literature Review: Trends/Patterns for older workers in the labour market
2.0 Introduction
The overall aim of the study was to investigate current patterns and trends for older
workers and their future role in the workplace. Their role is considered in light of an ageing
population resulting in a diminishing work pool. There is a need to extend older workers’
employment, a response to their reduced retirement and superannuation funds; the global
financial crisis. Given the extensive literature on older workers and emerging changes to
demographics, warnings pervade for employers to better support their ageing workforce. This
study investigates interventions for future support and engagement of older workers.
The literature review reveals the dominant paradigm influencing current human capital
and subsequent interventions to retain services of older workers. There are global warnings for
organisations to maintain a sustainable workforce. The global financial crisis has negatively
impacted on many older workers’ retirement plans; some older workers will consider extending
their working lives to supplement their retirement incomes which require corporate
interventions and support. Interventions will accommodate the needs of both employers
(ageing population and diminishing work pool) and employees (extended working lives to
supplement their reducing retirement funds). For any exploration of the role of older workers
now and in the future, an examination of the historical development and levels of support for
older workers requires investigation.
22
2.1 Structure of the Chapter
The chapter begins by presenting a literature review of global ageing demographics
which are impacting on all industries. This leads to a discussion on current trends and patterns
towards an investigation of willingness and commitment of employees for TE and the levels of
support considered necessary.
Implications for local government councils, given current global and national ageing
demographics, patterns and trends are discussed. The discussion is supported by Australian
statistical data which cites the need for improved approaches for supporting successful ageing,
by organisations. This includes improved access to work in the future. Transitional retirement
is discussed as a possible intervention for extending work options for older workers, where no
other choices exist. The role of management and levels of corporate commitment identifies
significant issues regarding inherent barriers for the two stakeholders identified, employers and
employees. Some of those barriers include levels of access to and support for learning and
development, a key focus for this study. To enable older workers to extend their working lives,
a partnership between employers and employees must be established to jointly pursue options
which enable maintenance of and improved skills towards future employability. Whilst the
extensive literature review realises themes impacting on older workers, there is no evidence of
corporate practices to respond to those emergent themes, which creates barriers. The chapter
presents those barriers and themes impacting on future interventions for further investigation
and development towards a Transitional Employment Model. A summary is presented,
resulting in the presentation of the underpinnings of this study within the Queensland local
government context, and subsequent establishment of three key research questions.
23
2.2 Global ageing demographics
Ferrier (2008, p.10) investigated personal experiences of older workers in the European
and Australian workplaces and four specific variations representing this cohort and their
employment status and retirement intentions of older workers. They were identified as either (i)
older workers already in employment, (ii) older people seeking work or more work (iii)
discouraged older workers and (iv) older workers who have voluntarily retired. This study
report focuses on (i) older workers already in Queensland local government employment. A
range of influences and environmental factors impact on individual access to support their
employability. This study in reference to OECD investigates emergent themes for
employability and factors in light of the current global ageing phenomenon and warnings of a
looming skills and labour shortages (OECD, 2006, p.36).
The United States of America (US), population 295 million (US Census Bureau
Estimate, 2005) is experiencing a diminishing working population. US, and other countries
are being targeted by local government councils and other Australian industries to recruit
workers to replace and add to their own diminishing work pool. Population ageing has been
referred to as a seismic demographic shift in the US called “global ageing” (Cheeseman-Day,
2000, p. 235) and which in Australian literature is reflected in both key coalition and labour
government policy “to encourage people to remain in the workforce past age 65 years”
(Figgis, 2012, p.23). There is global evidence of a skills and labour shortages phenomenon.
This phenomenon is changing economic, social and political assumptions. It is also
redefining the traditional concept of retirement for employers and employees to have a
24
planned retirement strategy or exit approach from full time work. Profound changes in the
demographic profiles of the population will need to be reflected in strategies for retaining
older workers, if a sustainable workforce is to exist (Cheeseman-Day, 2000; ALGA, 2006).
The United Kingdom’s (UK) national population projections indicate an increase of
60+ year olds from 16.5% in 2003 to 21.5% in 2028 and of 80+ year olds from 4.4% in 2003
to 6.9% of the population in 2028 (Office for National Statistics, 2003). As in the US, UK
demographers have indicated that by 2050, people living in the UK who are aged over 55
years of age will outnumber children for the first time in history (TAEN, 2003). At present
there is a “below replacement rate” which means that births are fewer than deaths, which
implies not only that the population will continue to age, but also that organisations will need
to reconsider workforce capability and sustainability in the future as the recruitment pool is
shrinking (TAEN, 2003; ALGA, 2006).
The relevance of international ageing demographics is considered as a significant
reflection on future impacts for the Australian workforce and industries. Queensland local
government councils and other industries, as previously noted, are currently and proactively
recruiting overseas workers from US, Canada and UK to respond to the diminution of
Australian skilled workers. Mining industries are poaching workers from local government
councils to meet their increasing demands and growth. Given the aggressive drive by mines
in Queensland, this increases levels of risk for all local government councils in Queensland to
apply interventions to respond to the maintenance of a sustainable workforce. They are losing
their workers to better remunerated positions within the mining industries, who are profit-
driven and can afford to pay lucrative salaries. Local government councils are not-for-profit
entities and cannot compete with these profit-driven financial incentives. This further
25
endorses the need for research in to corporate strategies for providing a range of options for
extending employability of older workers as a retention strategy in local government councils.
Interventions are required for workers whose retirement and superannuation funds have
decreased to a level where they now need to consider supplementing those savings by
extending their income and work options, their alternative option to full time retirement.
Some forms of protection for workers have been introduced, such as in the UK with
the introduction of legislation. This legislation proscribed age discrimination in employment
which was a consequence to the European Union’s Equal Treatment directive to make it
illegal for employers to discriminate against workers because of their age (Age Concern,
2006). Such responses emphasised the need to enable individuals to extend their working
lives, and to keep them in the workplace longer. This study investigates current corporate
interventions and practices in the local government workplace for creating and enabling
employment prospects, which includes learning and development support.
Improving employment prospects of older workers is being advocated through policies
championing “active ageing” within the workforce (European Commission, 2007).
Consideration of such policies recognises and promotes strategies for investment in older
workers as a means to better deal with the ageing of the European society and communities.
Walker (1998) reaffirms key issues for the current ageing structure of the population and
states that the numbers of young people (15-19 yrs) will decline by over 1 million (5%) whilst
the numbers of people (60-64 years) will grow by 1 million within the next decade. Walker
(1998) warns that this new and increasingly urgent paradox of an ageing population requires
attention and needs to be addressed at both macro- and micro-levels, by policy makers and
26
within individual organisations. This study investigates current policies and responses, if
any, by local government councils.
ABS data presents statistics and trends for a declining Australian labour force
participation among the population aged 55 years and above, and cites the labour force
participation rates of older persons steadily increasing, reflecting the overall increase in life
expectancy (ABS, 2007). In further Australian literature about older workers, Ferrier (2008,
p.13) explains that the Australian ageing population is the result of many Australians living
longer and having fewer children; resulting in a diminishing working population in the future.
There is a paucity of data regarding current local government workers in local
government. At current levels, it is forecasted that 40% of current workers in local
government councils in Australia will be eligible for retirement in the next five years (LGAQ,
2006b, p. 4). There are currently 41,000 workers in Queensland working in over 400
occupations and disciplines within 73 local government councils in Queensland (LGAQ,
2007b, p.5). This research investigates the current local government ageing demographics
and most significant themes impacting on this ageing cohort for their future employability.
2.3 Global contemporary notions of retirement
Feldman (1994) defined retirement as departing from one’s career job from middle
age onwards with the view that psychological attachment to paid work decreases. Figgis
(2012, p.32) argues that retirement has been determined by several factors which include
government policies that abolished compulsory retirement in Australia. The state of
27
retirement should not be identified as a cessation of work altogether, rather it could involve a
progressive and planned reduction in time at work. Changes that can make a difference to
older workers within their working life have to take place in the workplace and be supported
by employers (Buck & Dworschak, 2003; Ilmarinen, 2005; Linkola, 2003; Rocco, Stein &
Less, 2003). In an effort to better understand the value of and how to progress learning and
development strategies for supporting extended working lives, studies have focussed on
bridged employment opportunities for skilled white collar occupations, typically in university
settings (Davies, 2003; Kim & Devaney, 2005; Kim & Feldman, 1998). There is little
literature emerging from other industry settings such as local governments or trades
organisations. Findings from a report on baseline benchmarking for future employment by
the Australian Centre for Excellence in Local Government in local government councils
referenced concerns about working teams in light of current retirement rates. This included
concerns for a sustainable workforce with a statement that “our biggest challenge is to educate
our diverse teams and skill leaders in how to attract, lead and manage their teams” (ACELG,
2012, p. 6) in the current work environment. This study investigates the make-up of some
teams which will include older workers and the subsequent role and perceived responsibilities
of their managers for future development support services.
Workers within the EU are seeking an extension of their employment arrangements
and engagement, albeit in different, more flexible forms (Heikkinen & Tuomi, 2001;
Ilmarinen, 2005; Thomi & Klockers, 1997). Employers are being forced to provide more
responsive actions to reflect the current needs of older workers (Greengross, 2007; Hatchuel,
2005), and to break down the psychological barriers to workforce participation by older
adults. The European Commission (2007, p.28) advocate improved practices for increased
job opportunities for older workers by maintaining and building on their employment choices.
28
Some organisations are considering policy development which includes skills development
for older workers to sustain their working lives (Hirsch, 2005, p.34). Moreover, Gelade, Catts
and Gerber (2003, p.52) cite the value of good practices in training people “in order to secure
their services in the future”. Workplace learning initiatives and the role vocational education
plays in Australia workplaces raises the issue of the role of partnerships (Waterhouse et al,
2006) between employers and employees in industries in the future. This study investigates
the role and value of vocational education as an intervention in the local government
workforce and any evidence of that working partnership. Vocational education is referenced
as a means to building on and improving skills which should increase employment prospects
and subsequent remuneration (Billet, 2012, p.12), a possible response to diminishing
retirement funds for older workers.
There is a general realisation that pensions and superannuation will not be sufficient to
retain current or desired standards of living. Declining share market values for individuals as
a basis for earnings-related pension systems have encouraged individuals to investigate
alternative and improved employment options and aspirations (Third Age Employment
Network [TAEN], 2003). According to Noon & Blyton (2002) sustaining employability and
occupational competency will result in significant workplace changes for employers and
employees. Australia will require its workers to further develop their work-related capacities
to ensure ongoing competence across their working lives (Barley & Batt 1995; Noon &
Blyton, 2002), towards enabling their future employability.
The promotion of anti-discriminatory measures and improved access to competency
building could influence older workers’ future engagement (Figgis, 2012, AARP, 2006;
TAEN, 2003). This further challenges the contemporary perception and expectations for
retirement in the future. Moreover, terms and eligibility for pensions have been changed in an
29
effort to reduce the incidence of premature withdrawal from the labour market.
Unemployment pensions and early retirement pensions will gradually cease to exist (TAEN,
2003); retirees will become more dependant on their self-managed pensions. The Australian
taxation system actively encourages workers to continue to work, particularly beyond 60
years, by enabling them to claim a portion of their superannuation on a tax free arrangement.
As previously noted, this has been a major initiative to retain and support older workers in the
workforce longer (Australian Taxation Office, 2006). In an Australian report about working
beyond retirement, Ryan et al (2010, p.11) cited some reasons for early retirement and stated
that most workers who did select to retire early in Australia did so in response to warnings
about decreasing superannuation payouts. This cohort may need to return to the workforce at
some time in the future, to supplement their reducing pension incomes.
In Australia, some initiatives to retain older workers appear to be tokenistic and have
been evidenced from government campaigns promoting “the value of older workers.” The
campaigns promoted awareness of the benefits for retaining older workers. The values and
benefits of older workers are their lifetime experiences, time served, work ethics, work
commitments and reliability (Jorgensen, 2004). There are mixed views about the extent to
which the ageing of populations is problematic to organisations and future workforce
capacities. Ferrier (2008, p.24) focuses on the ageing process itself and argues that ageing is
more about “transition” rather than a crisis, however such statements to do not reflect the
challenges or concerns for older workers towards their successful ageing and inevitable
challenges for them.
In referencing responsibilities of the workforce, recognition is frequently given to the
role of human resource management to plan and deliver corporate training to meet corporate
skills needs. The role of human resource management is becoming more important to
30
organisations as they seek to capitalise on the skills of their workers which must be both
integrated and complementary (Smith et al, 2009, p.17). Some employers demonstrate
stereotypical views of older workers (Billett et al, 2012, p.15), by questioning the value of
their investment in the workplace against their reducing time to be worked. They remain
reserved in seeing the benefits for investing in an older workforce (Queensland Government,
2007d). For many older people there is a marked absence of employment and skills
development opportunities for their age level (Patrickson & Hartmann, 1998), as against their
younger counterparts. Apprenticeships and traineeships are pathways for skills development
and lead to careers which are frequently available and supported by local government
employers. However, evidence suggests that those pathways are biased towards younger
people, whilst being recognised as arrangements for specifically skilling workers in industries
(Smith et al, 2009, p.23). Evidence suggests that old workers are neither encouraged or
enabled access to such arrangements, which further challenges levels of equity and access for
valuing and investing in older workers for the future.
Part time work becomes increasingly common after the age of 60 years for both men
and women (Loretto, Vickerstaff & White, 2007). However, access and availability appears
to be for older adults who have formal qualifications and who traditionally, undertake less
physically demanding work. There is a substantial part of the labour force population without
post-school qualifications who remain employed beyond 65 years of age (Ryan, 2010, p.15),
who are also required to undertake physically demanding work. This is evidenced in
workforce statistics for traditional outdoor local government workers (LGAQ, 2007b) who are
predominantly male and employed in a full time capacity. Their levels of school education
are low which appear to hinder access and opportunities to learning and development within
the workplace, a result of limited confidence or absence of core skills to undertake programs.
31
Whilst learning and development is often concentrated at the beginning of careers as a pre-
entry requirement (Livingstone & Lowe, 2007), continuous learning or learning and
development has become increasingly important for workers to remain marketable throughout
their working life (Armstrong-Stassen, 2008). Levels of access and support from employers
for a planned development program will determine their future employability. The stimulus
for continuous improvement and subsequent lifelong learning is a desire to prevent
obsolescence, according to Ilmarinen (2005). Lifelong learning enables individuals to keep
up to date in using work tools and accessing corporate knowledge and contemporary
employment which is currently reflected in ever changing technological advancements within
the workplace. A broader definition of lifelong learning is the extensive spectrum of formal
and informal learning throughout life (OECD, 2001), and further explained in Australian
literature as “a core concept of modern careers which is supported by the notion of active
ageing” (Brooke, 2011, p.13). This leads to the need for improved recognition and
understanding of ageism in the current workforce, and is discussed as ageism within the
workplace (p.30), with particular reference to local government councils in Queensland.
2.3.1 Ageism within the workplace
The term ageism is defined as an unfair or unequal treatment of older persons
(Nicolini, 2006) and appears evident in levels of access to support services in comparison
with their younger counterparts. Ferrier (2008, p.14) asserts that a decline in the number of
people available to the labour force raises further issues for policy makers to find ways to
encourage “mature” or “older” workers to remain in the workforce for longer, combating
32
ageism. Ageism has been linked to individuals being marginalised because of their age
(Burns, 2002) and it prevails as a negative stereotypical attitude towards an ageing workforce
(Billett et al, 2012, p.9). Whilst it can be argued that ageism may have contributed to the
inability or limited performance of some workers (Ferrier, 2005; Tikkanen, 2006), it is also
opportunistic for investigating new ways of working by older workers, given today’s
technological advancements for mobility, self development and access to information.
Corporate commitment or lack of commitment by managers to ageism, or an ageing
workforce creates age-unfriendly workplaces (Germov, 2005; Van Gamberg & Teicher,
2000). The lack of investment or engagement can disengage workers from pursuing or
engaging in achievement of corporate goals. Age friendly employment policies to encourage
older people to remain longer require employers to end discrimination and adapt their work
practices (Ferrier, 2008, p.29) accordingly. Typically, organisations have demonstrated their
commitment to, and support for workplace efficiencies towards reducing their costs without
due consideration for their workers, their capabilities and commitment to change; corporate
policies and strategies. Changes are implemented at the cost of reduced worker numbers and
more rigid workforce controls. Consequently, these workplaces are less likely to have
strategies that reflect consideration for the needs, capabilities, competencies or levels of
engagement of their workers, resulting in inevitable increased work demands and unworkable
changes for their older workers (Australian Government, 2007; OECD, 2006), more than any
other cohort.
Ageism is traditionally linked to general and incorrect assumptions about the
capabilities of older workers. This includes the negative aspects about ageism in the
workplace, and does not consider or support those competent older workers who seek to
33
extend their working lives beyond the traditional retirement age (Arthur, 2003) and who are
deemed to be productive by their own peers. This is especially evident where no such options
to extend their working lives are readily available to them. There is a need to drive national
policies associated with an ageing population (Tikkanen, 2006) towards recognising and
reviewing the role of older workers. As key contributors (Ferrier, 2005, p. 9), older workers
contribute to achieving and sustaining productivity and services for organisations; if such
recognition is given in the first place.
Researchers (Maurer & Rafuse, 2001; Rocco et al., 2003) have demonstrated the
growing need to generate increased support in organisations for better managing ageism.
Strategies to enable increased advocacy; especially where no such choices are currently
evident, is required. The literature review frequently cites the role of managers in not
recognising or building on the value and contributions of their older workers. Any improved
corporate resources or access to skills development will be governed by the behaviour of
those managers.
A number of reports have warned governments and organisations of the importance
and urgency of developing strategies to retain older workers (AGPC, 2005; OECD, 2005a,
2005c); towards managing ageism in the workplace. There is a paucity of research about the
levels of retention of older workers and support services, enabling them to remain. Older
workers’ perceptions and expectations for learning and development access and opportunities
are sought, a focus of this study. A “better understanding of and the urgency of developing
strategies” to manage older workers to enable their continued active participation in the
workforce (Jorgensen, 2004; OECD, 2005a, p. 19; 2005b, p.29; 2005c, p.4) remains a
priority. Billett et al. (2012, p.7) suggests that changes are required for future education
systems and needs to be reflected in a range of models, as constructs for future use by
34
organisations. This study proposes one TE model. Ryan (2009, p.12) states that training
needs to be broadened to meet ever-changing skill requirements of all Australian workplaces,
whilst reflecting the changing learning environments impacting on current workers; ageism in
the workplace. There is a need for interventions for improved awareness and management of
ageism which has implications for all organisations, particularly local government councils in
Queensland; the focus of this research.
2.3.2 Implications for local government councils in Australia
In consideration of strategies and interventions for maintaining a sustainable
workforce (Australian Government, 2007), improved management of ageism and skilling
older workers for the future is required. Key data was produced which forecasts and
highlights the Australian “ageing” population to be addressed in the future:
• There were 3 million people over 65 years in 1976 (9% of the population);
• There were 3.7 million people over 65 years in 2006 (12% of the population);
• There will be 4.2 million people over 65 years by 2021 (18% of the
population);
• There will be 5.9 million people over 65 years by 2041 (25% of the
population). This reflects the forecasted levels of growth for our ageing cohort.
Later Australian data reflects the workforce as representing the median age of council
employees as 45 years (ABS, 2010) and the median age of the general population from 41.9
to 45.2 years for the same period (ABS, 2011). There are some 565 councils in Australia,
35
with a workforce of 185,400 which is approximately 10% of all public servants (ABS, 2009-
2010).
This data show that Australia, as in other countries, is experiencing an ageing society
and current trends will impact on the workforce, if this has not already done so (Australian
Government, 2007). Australian industries need to consider retention of their ageing
workforce or recruitment of older employees (Council on the Ageing, 2006) if it is to survive
this “ageing” phenomenon. This is in light of being cognisant that not all older workers will
want or need to pursue extended working lives. The study investigated interventions for
improving access to transitional employment in local government councils, where older
workers are seeking alternatives to retirement options. Pillay et al argues that “an ageing
population in itself is not the problem; it is how this ageing population participates in the
future workforce and how organisations intend to plan and manage this sector” in the future
(Pillay et al., 2010, p.71). This leads to the need for improved future workforce planning by
organisations.
Effective workforce planning of current human capital should reflect responses to
current and emerging vacancies or skills gaps. For this research, the role of older workers for
filling those gaps is considered and investigated through the provision of support services. In
reference to older workers and the absence of any succession planning for them, Figgis (2012,
p.14) warns organisations of the consequences for their “journey without maps”, which is
typically described as life in those later decades by some social researchers. Some would
argue that a corporate plan without inclusion of a workforce plan to reflect changing
demographics and global warnings will inevitably result in an unsustainable workforce.
Effective and timely workforce plans include policies for the ageing workforce which will
enable employers to retain a capable workforce to maintain the delivery of current services
36
(Council on the Ageing, 2006). There are increasing demands for a broader scope and higher
standard of community services by local government councils. Such delivery will be
determined by and reflected in human resources services, if delivery of services and quality is
to be maintained (ALGA, 2006). Empirical evidence reaffirms a wide range of factors which
are likely to affect the supply of, and demand for workers in Australia (Borland, 2005). These
include new and emerging skills markets, responses to increasing technological tools and
equipment and increasing demands on organisations to be more efficient and responsive
whilst maintaining strong and economical growth. The ageing phenomenon remains a
concern for all organisations and particularly local government councils. Implications for the
workforce reflect on the need for urgent interventions. Ageism in the workforce is impacting
now and there is a paucity of data regarding interventions for older workers, towards
contributing to their successful ageing.
2.4 Successful Ageing
To encourage continued workforce participation by older workers, organisations
should better identify and focus on “successful ageing”. This is defined as the ability to adapt
to age-related changes, and for this study, the adaptation to the changing work environment.
The measure of successful ageing is related to the maintenance of psychological and physical
well-being (Ranzijn, 1999) and identified further in references to future education and
training, to sustain employability in the future for learners (Billet, 2012, p.27).
For many older people, maintaining some form of formal, recognised and valued paid
work is an important contributor to their own self-esteem and well-being; part of their
37
successful ageing. Given that people are living longer, and are seeking to maintain a high
level of lifestyle in retirement, recognition of their post-retirement income is among other
matters, recognised as a key determinant factor in pursuing a longer working life. However,
Ranzijn (2004) notes that given that the workplace is changing so rapidly, and in order to
support successful ageing, older people need to be able to adapt to changes if they are to
“survive” and age successfully as active workers. In reference to the different types of work
available to older workers, Figgis (2012, p.30) investigated possible options for older workers
and defined their future careers as “work which is designed to be flexible and challenging,
and intended to lead to full time retirement”. This reflected on equal responsibility on the part
of older workers to change and align their skills, knowledge and capabilities to new types of
work and subsequent requirements.
There is increasing evidence that workers are being marginalised because of their age
and stereotypical views held by some younger workers and some managers that older workers
are unwilling to adapt to workplace changes (Tikkanen, 2006). These stereotypical views can
have underlying barriers for older workers in organisations in accessing or being included in
development of new skills. Tikkanen argues that there is a need to identify older workers as a
specific cohort, a new phenomenon with an inherent requirement for improved consideration
and management in the future.
Older workers who seek to remain in local government employment and have been
able to access extended employability will need to commit to and undertake ongoing
workplace changes, reflecting different job needs. The notion of lifelong learning again
emerges and is recognised as an approach to engaging workers in their development of
contemporary work skills (Delahaye, 2005; Tikkanen, 2006). There is an urgency or need for
38
realising that older, competent workers are one solution to the skills shortages in Australia
(Jorgensen, 2004). Some older workers are viewed as “likely to retire before too long”, and
are offered much less training than younger ones (Greller et al. 1999). The lack of
participation in training could be a result of employer behaviour and attitude rather than a lack
of interest on the part of workers (Taylor & Urwin, 2001, Ferrier, 2008) and needs further
investigation.
In Europe attempts have been made to provide increased access by workers, to work
options and one example cited is Programme on Ageing Workers (1998-2002) in Finland.
This program implemented a range of labour market measures aimed at increasing the
attractiveness of working life, and promoting the employment of older workers (Tikkanen,
2006). The programme included a range of activities such as training of employees in
entrepreneurial skills, specific training for the lower skilled, and opportunities for older
people to attain a professional qualification and training in computer literacy. The value of
this strategy is that it promotes new work, and reviews human resource management
strategies to engage older workers in new patterns of working. Such approaches will reflect
corporate commitment and efforts for accommodating the changing needs of the older
workers (Taylor, 2011, p.49).
New patterns of working for older workers are a critical issue since the innovative
capacity of the economy will need to be sustained (Auer & Fortuny, 2003; Naegele, 1999;
OECD, 2005b) Similarly, local governments in Queensland have been charged to review
ways of working in response to the State Government-led Reform Strategy in that sector
(Queensland Government, 2007b) “to build stronger councils.” As a result, local councils
have initiated new merged infrastructures that have introduced new roles and responsibilities
39
to meet new corporate demands and increasing compliance. Initiatives such as work
diversification and flexible work arrangements appear to have been introduced as part of the
reform. However, evidence suggests that some older workers have been disadvantaged in that
some younger local government workers were guaranteed employment for a period of time, a
move to reduce the exiting of staff from the industry. There is a paucity of data regarding
current local government workers, a result of the amalgamations and inconsistent transfer of
some records within some amalgamated councils. The merger forced compliance with new
legislation, and established new organisational structures to reflect newly established regional
councils. The merger did not reflect or take in to account global warnings about the
diminishing work pool or ageing workers. Whilst workers were re-engaged under new
industrial agreements, a result of the reform “to retain their workers” for a period not
exceeding three years, consideration of the future role of older workers was not evidenced.
Stimulated by Walker’s (1998) “age/employment paradox” argument there is an
emerging case for combating age stereotyping and barriers in job training, on the grounds of
pragmatism, commercialism, good human resource practices and in the interests of justice and
fairness and in this case, the local government reform. The value of working in itself and the
effects it has on long-term commitments for workers and the expectations of their employers,
according to Tikkanen (2006), justifies the notion of transitional employment. The aim must
surely be to share and balance the gains in life expectancy between the employment and
retirement phases of life. This is a realistic option as generally, people are healthier and fitter
now and the working conditions and the quality and management of work and jobs are such
that the people are no longer ‘worn out’ by their jobs and subsequently forced to quit their
employment early (Quintin, 2001). This position fosters considerations of problems
associated with stereotyping of older workers, and global issues impacting on the current
40
Australian local government workforce and its support services in the future towards
accessing transitional retirement options towards TE.
2.5 Transitional Retirement
Transitional retirement for the purpose of the present study, is described as a process by
which older workers are enabled to move from traditional career and work jobs to one that
enables them to adapt, according to their own preferred working lifestyle, capability and work
capacity (Fuller, 2006) towards a progressive approach to retirement. Transitional
employment options do not currently exist in some workplaces and can be attributed to age
discrimination, which Taylor (2011, p.13) considers to be a result of ongoing ageist attitudes
and assumptions about an individual’s motivation and capabilities. Ferrier (2008, p.19)
suggests that the overwhelming majority of Australian workers will expect to retire before
they reach the age of 70 years. However, Ryan (2010, p.9) concurs that workers will also
choose their retirement age based on the discounted value of lifetime income and therefore
some will seek out more transitional options to permanent retirement. Barriers to such
options exist which require new corporate policies and approaches. Transitional retirement
plans reflecting both the aspirations of workers and needs of organisations will enable and
encourage older workers to progressively exit from the full time workforce. Transitioning
work arrangements to a permanent and final exit requires ongoing skills development and was
initially introduced by Kim and Feldman (1998), based on beliefs that employability was
underpinned by adult learning principles applied within the workplace. Often this manifests
in forms requiring the development of corporate interventions that advances corporate
41
policies towards learning and development options for older workers, to enable them to
gradually switch from full time to more flexible working arrangements (Delahaye, 2005).
The rapidly global ageing workforce and local government ageing workforce has led
to an uncertain future in terms of the availability of a skilled recruitment pool (ALGA, 2006).
Transitional employment has been posed as an alternative to ceasing work and a solution to
enable employers to retain their mature aged workers for a longer period of time (Adams &
Rau, 2004). Several researchers (Buck & Dworschak, 2003; Ilmarinen, 2006; Linkola, 2003;
Rocco et al., 2003) have noted that changes that make a difference to older workers’
situations within their working lives have to take place in the workplace and be supported by
their employers (Delahaye, 2005). However, as previously discussed, Tikkanen (2006)
reminds us that discriminatory attitudes and practices prevail in the workplace and continue to
be part of the challenges for retaining and enabling any re-learning by older workers, and
subsequently reflected in corporate processes for their recruitment. This study will consider
corporate processes, current attitudes, practices and interrelationships reflective of both
employer and employees’ perspective.
Transitional retirement arrangements will require employers to better manage the
process for empowering workers towards career and work progression. Such arrangements
will need to consider motivational factors for extending their working lives and levels of
positivity in being valued as an employee in the workplace. Levels of skills development
services and processes for promoting and enabling access will be considered as will any
inherent biases that exist across councils for accessing information. This in turn requires a
greater investment in the range of learning and development opportunities available for older
workers (Tikkanen, 2006), reflecting their vocational education for the future. Vocational
42
education is recognised as a pathway for skills development (Billett et al, 2012, p.14)
adopting key adult learning principles which are embedded and underpin general
psychological principles. Burns’ (2002) model reflects on a working adult’s:
• readiness to learn
• intrinsic motivation
• positive reinforcement
• skills development through systematic repletion
• meaningful material
• active rather than passive participation
• teaching practices that raise self esteem and positive expectations.
•
Burns (2002, p.49) conceives that learning is a relatively permanent change in
behaviour experiences. Kolby (1984, p.33) argues that any direct involvement in learning
reflects on critical elements which impact on the learner’s internal processes and this includes
thinking, attitudes and emotions. Brooks (1995, p.66) concurs that there are many different
“theories” of how adults learn, and these will be considered within the context of the value
for, and engagement of employees as learners in the workplace.
Key principles of lifelong learning are considered in that empowered learners are also
empowered workers and managers of the future. Transitional employment is associated with
and intended for older workers who have lived longer and have experienced more; resulting in
greater applications for those older individuals (Greller et al., 1999, Ferrier 2008). Older
workers however, react negatively to learning opportunities when the selection criteria is pre-
determined for them and selected in accordance with occupational status, orientations to work
43
and learning and labour market influences (Fuller, 2006). Mutually agreed and identified
needs between employers and employees towards delivery of key outcomes will be
determined by the role of management in councils.
2.5.1 The role of management
Current work practices of some managers lead to concerns regarding the role of
corporate management. Management and strategic HR leadership in organisations enable
workplace learning and development services and the creation of learning opportunities for
workers.
Some emerging issues reflect negative and stereotypical behaviours of some managers
when considering levels of access to development and support services available in the
workforce for older workers (Tikkanen, 2006). According to Ilmarinen (2006), managers and
supervisors need to more accurately reflect the learner’s needs towards improved corporate
productivity and efficiencies, and will be a key driver in concluding and actioning inclusivity.
Ilmarinen (2006) further argues that it is paramount for workers to be better supported in the
future and has noted that a positive attitude and goal setting towards ageing and an
understanding of older adults’ learning needs is necessary knowledge for supervisors and co-
workers. Organisations have a social and economic role to play in changing negative
attitudes and beliefs about older workers, for which managers have a key lead role. Positive
action to accommodate the changing workforce demographics involves motivating older
workers (Australian Government, 2007) to extend their working life and future employability.
According to Jorgensen (2004), motivation is synonymous with a person’s drive and goal-
44
seeking behaviour and reflected in how one is valued and supported by leaders and managers.
As a result, the levels of older workers’ motivation towards the concept of learning and
development, and whether access and corporate policies are a support or hindrance will be
determined by the attitudes and behaviours of lead managers. The study considers aspects of
motivation and commitment for transitional employment, and the role and responsibilities of
managers.
Conditions to optimise personal and skills development of older workers derive from
learning and development programs which according to Goldstein and Goldstein (1990),
Sterns (1986) and Sterns and Dovespike (1989) should enable all employers to take actions
through strategies and processes that assist and facilitate individuals to:
• overcome apprehension,
• use and undertake relevant tasks with sufficient feedback,
• build on current knowledge and abilities, skills and interests, and
• organise learning material to facilitate recall and support new learning, whilst
varying the amount and distribution of work time to accommodate individual
needs within a learning environment.
Current actions for older workers about their competencies to achieve the above will
be investigated. Social and organisational constructs within the different occupational,
hierarchical and levels within local government sectors are split between managerial and
labourers (outdoor workers). Pillay et al. (2004, p.13) recognised this split as a hindrance for
participation and take up of learning and development by the different groups of workers.
Some older workers have minimal or no histories of formal or informal learning, limited
45
personal commitment to skills development and personal challenges for learning which make
them less able to capitalise on any potential benefits of training (AARP, 2006; Pillay, Tones
& Kelly, 2008; Taylor, 2004); a result of previous experiences.
Tikkanen (2006) raised concerns about the value of some investments in workforce
development for older workers. This over-emphasised the need for and value of learning
formats to better meet individual needs rather than the current group-style and traditional,
lecture type presentations. Such approaches appeared to complement current corporate
budgets to “achieve maximum attendance”. Other researchers Maurer (2001), Weiss and
Barbeite (2003) and Rocco et al. (2003) noted the need for a broader definition of learning
and development and presentations in the workforce, and highlighted the absence of any
advocacy concerning the management of and collaboration with older workers about their
learning preferences. Such absences are frequently noted as being reflective of senior
management who do not identify with the need to adopt a more sensitive and responsive
approach to managing or engaging with older workers (Encel, 2003). This includes
supporting a broader range of learning and development services which are inclusive of older
workers’ identified needs. In addition, current human resource planning and management
approaches in the majority of organisations do not have any strategies to target or better
manage these emerging issues (Carmeli, 2004). Despite the recognised need for improved
age management approaches, which are intended as policies to reflect a more proactive and
reflective corporate approach to their older workers, managing older workers is a new
workforce phenomenon (Ilmarinen, 2005; Rix, 1996; Tikkanen, 2006). To enable access to
more flexible retirement arrangements, currency of skills and competencies is a critical
investment for any organisation for retaining the services and skills of older workers. This in
turn needs to reflect contemporary principles and preferences which include consideration of
46
their learning environment, goals for their learning and active participation reflecting learner’s
experiences (Knowles, 1980) and their subsequent application in the workplace. Whilst there
are arguments against the simplicity of the principles proscribed by Knowles, others continue
to challenge the need for an expansion of the current repertoire of teaching and learning
activities for adult learners; based on the application of adult learning principles (Magennis,
2005, p. 31). This study investigates current learning and development practices and its
relevance to individual learners. Current corporate learning programs and levels of
engagement of learners are among those barriers identified and are discussed in the next
section.
2.6 Barriers to learning and development for older workers in the workplace
Learning and development support is identified as critical for enabling extended
employability of older workers. Referenced as vocational education for workforce teaching
(Billett et al, 2012, p.17), this study investigates current practices and inherent challenges for
both learners and facilitators. Whilst some current Australian workforce learning practices
are referenced and raise significant issues for subsequent responsibilities of employers, ageist
attitudes pervade and remain a barrier for future, older learners. Barriers exist for workers to
access learning and development programs, a result of the lack of corporate information, and
their own attitudes to participation (Ferrier, 2008) which is investigated in this study. Whilst
gender-related differences are evidenced, the study relies on the responses from representation
of responding cohorts, all of whom participated on a voluntary basis in this study. Jorgensen
(2004) emphasises the need for employees to be autonomous and self-motivated learners in
any learning environment. Self-motivation is defined as the phenomenon that involves a
47
person’s drive and goal-seeking behaviour, which relies on levels of services available to
them and is dependent on two key elements according to Hall (2002, p.31). These elements
are adaptability, a generalised state of readiness to respond to any new situation and
adaptation, the process of applying adaptability in response to a specific altered situation. For
the purpose of this study, those elements contribute to achieving career aspirations through
skills development and towards extending their working lives.
Hall (2002) provides the model for reflecting on key components of adaptability and
adaptation of workers in the workplace and argues that key drivers of such elements are
determined more by unique demographics and environmental factors of an organisation, in
this case, Queensland local government councils. In one Australian case study of local
government councils, different and diverse styles of management were recognised as
significant inhibitors for some employees (Waterhouse, 2006, p.7) in accessing and sharing
information about training courses available, resulting in a range of challenges for all
workers. Based on Hall’s model it is plausible to argue that whilst adaptability, competence
and motivation are key determining factors for learning and development, the demographic
location of each Queensland local government council presents its own unique challenges in
the nature of the work delivered and the employees engaged. Local government councils
engage both highly and lower educated employees. Ryan (2010, p. 33) recognised that a key
attraction for learning by those highly educated workers over less educated workers; they are
considered to have more challenges for learning and subsequently less of an incentive to
learn, to extend their employability.
The diverse and remote locations of councils in Queensland, unique demands placed
on each of them by their different rural, farming, industry and agricultural communities that
48
they serve are evident. Each council is subjected to several and diverse funding regimes, such
as roads which provide high levels of employment but funded by Commonwealth
Government. Local government employment opportunities in Australia are subject to
regional differences, which have implications for older workers who tend to be less mobile
and thus more reliant on local labour markets than younger people (Ferrier, 2009, p. 18).
Local government councils undertake special projects in environmental management and
statutory planning, each requiring initial government funding leading towards a user-pays
approach to skills development. It also includes indigenous local government councils which
have no main source or rates revenue sources and are solely dependant on funding directly
from Commonwealth and State governments. These unique factors often lead to different
workforces within different management regimes to deliver outputs within complex funding
arrangements. The different funding regimes reflect the diverse and reactive demands by
local government managers and their workforces to acquit secured funding, ensure
compliance and good governance towards “building stronger councils” (State Government,
2007b). These challenges resulted in a range of different approaches to the training services
available.
Adaptability of older workers (Hall, 2002) in the workplace is determined by their
own level of competence and adaptive motivation and relevant to cognitive capabilities.
Local Government workers are recruited on a “Merit Principle” (Queensland Government,
2009) requiring key skills, knowledge and attributes for each work position. Such
requirements are predetermined and recorded in individual position descriptions, established
by Human Resource officers in councils. Accordingly, current local government councils
manage individual performance appraisal systems - an annual and mandated attempt to assess
and evaluate individual competencies and work performance in the workplace, supposedly
49
towards identifying skills and development gaps for future interventions. An individual’s
employability would appear therefore to be reliant on meeting key skills and competencies
towards achieving corporate standards and key outputs. To further understand the above
assertion, it is important for the present study to consider employees’ past educational
experiences and achievements and subsequent barriers for initially securing and then retaining
their own employment. Levels of access to maintain and build on those skills by older
workers will present inherent barriers in levels of services available and support for accessing
programs or courses, particularly in those remote and rural areas of Queensland.
Some older manual workers are aligned to having limited literacy and numeracy skills
(Pillay et al., 2006) and other limitations, workers who have completed lower levels of
education. This has resulted in a range of challenges for engaging in training and
development in the future. Pillay’s (2004, p.21) local government research about outdoor
workers presented some barriers for these workers to stay in the workforce longer. Their
willingness and ability to remain in the workforce frequently reflected their abilities to work,
and their levels of commitment to skills development. Such issues act as an antecedent to
some older workers seeking out or wanting to extend their working lives and employability.
For the current research program, Hall’s (2002) theoretical model which considers
workers’ capability and adaptability within the workforce environment provided a useful
framework. Identification and exploration of the role of older workers is considered in terms
of their response to learning and self-development and competencies to meet corporate
requirements and the potential for corporate support to be provided within the work
environment for them. Such an approach where end users’ (older workers’) views are used to
shape the provision of corporate learning and development opportunities is laudable and has a
50
greater prospect for gaining participation by them. In a similar vein, the present research will
investigate levels of councils’ corporate commitment to their older workers and if evidence
exists, levels for recognising or valuing them as key employees for the future in the
workplace. Some Government campaigns are cited for employers to pursue the retention of
older workers and their experience as a valuable corporate asset. Examples of Australian
Government campaigns and reports include Experience Pays (Queensland Government,
2007a); a marketing campaign directly targeting employers to better realise the value of their
older workers, the experience and commitment that they contribute to the workforce, and the
increasing number of older workers who remain unemployed as a result of organisations not
engaging or re-engaging them. Barriers to learning and development for older workers
(DEETYA, 2006) is another marketing campaign targeting employers to review current
learning and development systems and encouraging reviews to better reflect planned and
relevant workforce learning and development within individualised learning plans. Valuing
Australia’s older workers (Commonwealth Government, 2006) was an initiative to encourage
employers to identify benefits for retraining, retaining and engaging older workers in response
to the ageing phenomenon and Australian workforce statistics reflecting concerns for a
sustainable workforce. This study investigates awareness of corporate commitment and their
responses to such government-funded and led initiatives and campaigns.
There are differences in the nature of workers engaged and employed in the separate
local government locations, reflecting their different sizes of authorities and communities,
community profiles and nature of regional work and industries that operate in the different
regions. If the demographics of councils determine the nature of the work that is carried out
(ALGA, 2006) which include roads and rural services, funeral services, sale yard management
and animal control services (as exists within current, smaller rural councils), they will employ
51
predominantly outdoor manual workers. Bigger urban councils that rely heavily on the
development and provision of information technology and major infrastructure-led services
create a different working environment and require a different range of skills, knowledge and
workers. These council roles each provide a unique framework for interventions needed for
older workers. If such differences exist, then employers cannot rely on current standard
learning and development services which represent generic skills and capabilities as reactive
measures to supporting the retention of older workers across the whole local government
industry.
McNair, Flynn, Owen, Humphreys and Woodfield (2004) found in the UK that
education qualifications affected most workers’ willingness to consider work after retirement
from their principal career. The study found that workers with formal qualifications were
most likely to consider work of some kind post-retirement as a continuance of their
professional memberships to organisations and ongoing commitment, whilst those without
formal qualifications were least likely to do so. This is supported by Pillay et al.’s (2004)
Australian study which investigated the different levels of education of local government
workers and how this impacted on their continuing ability to remain in the workforce beyond
the official retirement age. People with higher education levels tend to want to seek continued
employment, albeit the majority were opting for part-time employment only. Nevertheless,
the pattern confirms the significance of associated occupations when aligned with levels of
education have different attractions for adopting any transition employment.
Lissenburgh and Smeaton (2003) determined that actions to help older workers
maintain their position in the occupational hierarchy are likely to encourage them to enter
flexible employment as a bridge to retirement rather than completely moving out of the
52
workforce. However, this may be limited for non-qualified individuals in occupations where
such hierarchical levels do not exist. A new conceptualisation of job roles may be needed to
provide the recognition and flexibility for older workers to participate longer in their
employment (Johnson & Karachi, 2007). If older workers are to be retained within the
workforce, then the range of learning and development services currently available may have
to be overhauled to be more strategic, timely and relevant to their needs, a notion supported
by both AARP (2006) and TAEN (2003) and reflected in the role of vocational education in
the work force (Billett et al, 2012, p.14). The different educational backgrounds, range of
occupations and levels of experiences of older workers in local government as in other
industries will have a profound effect on the nature and types of skills development and
learning delivery methods. Learning and development opportunities for older workers are
limited in most countries (Philipson & Smith, 2005) and there is little trustworthy and
systematic evidence as to the reasons why (Nicolini, 2006), although there are extensive
arguments regarding vocational education (Karmel, 2012) but limited evidence within
industries, other than for formal qualifications. The limited evidence about ageing workers
coupled with contemporary demographic evidence noting the ageing phenomenon depicts a
limited level of education, particularly amongst trades assistants or unskilled workers, as a
hindering factor to their learning and development (ABS, 2003a, ABS 2003b; Pillay et al.,
2004) towards future employability.
Learning and development programs can be seen by an employer as maximising
individual potential to bring long-term benefits to the organisation with strategies to include
the promotion of motivation, flexibility, creativity and commitment (Burns, 2000). Burns
argues that organisational cultures that identify employees as assets will provide the
competitive edge in the future if they can develop and invest in both their specific and generic
53
work and personal skills. Organisations will have to embrace the notion of quality learning
and development as one strategy for engaging, re-engaging and enabling older workers to
sustain their working lives. Burns also notes that if learning and development is disconnected
from the structural and strategic changes within an organisation, or if no commitment from
the corporate sector is evident, then a continuous negative cycle of low status, under
resourcing and marginal contribution ensues. This study investigates the levels of learning
and development and alignment if any, to the organisational structures and strategies. Instead
of becoming a strategy to enable individuals or being a dynamic source of new ideas and a
custodian of best practice, learning or development often risks representing only a
supermarket of offerings (Burns, 2002) unrelated to future needs of individuals or their
organisation (Billett et al, 2012, p.15).
Burns (2000) model reflected on tokenistic approaches to training evident in what was
perceived to be ineffective organisations and is reflected in current practices in some local
government councils. This model is used as a guide to consider current practices, towards the
recognition of barriers for older workers to access learning and development. Learners are
not adequately prepared for learning programs made available to them; they are not sure of
the purpose of their attendance and deem it as randomly selective as a reactive approach to
new work requirements. Any role of the learner within the learning organisation appears to
be more dependent on the biased attitudes of the manager or supervisor, more than any other
matter which is raised and discussed. The tokenistic training model recognises the role of
learner, the training department within the organisational context and processes that currently
exists, with poor and inconsistent systems or procedures to reflect the organisational context
of such an investment. The study investigates current corporate approaches to learning and
development and procedures in local government councils. Limitations and cultural issues
54
in ineffective organisations (Burns, 2000) are considered against the unrelated strategic
objectives established in the absence of any training needs analysis of workers, or
commitment to corporate learning and development. The model (refer Table 1) is used as a
construct for investigating current local government council practices and human capital and
subsequent workforce planning. This is discussed later as a critical element for organisations
to consider and respond to in the future, in order to maintain a sustainable workforce.
Table 1: Model - Tokenistic Training in the Ineffective Organisation (Burns, 2000)
Learners Training Department Unprepared, sceptical anxious Marginalised as the poor relation within
HR Unsure why they have been sent Early targets for cutbacks in hard times Unmotivated, happy for a few days out of the office
Out of touch with line management
Randomly composed groups
Supermarket approach to internal customers
Low investment in own development
Vicious circle of low expectations and under-resourcing
Consumer attitude to training
Ineffective tokenistic training
Good intentions
Organisational context
Training Process
Little encouragement or opportunity to employ learning
Transfer of learning not addressed
No clear link between training and career progress
No reinforcement of learning or follow up course evaluations based on immediate reactions
Systems, procedures and structures unaffected
No or inadequate training needs analysis
Peers, subordinates, customers and suppliers uninvolved
Undemanding exercises
Managers or learners uninvolved, unable to support
Separated from the work situation – content not seen as relevant or useful
Courses unrelated to strategic objectives of the organisation
55
Cognitive abilities and general health of older workers is another key consideration for
their workability in the future and will be a key determinant factor for future employability.
Individuals operate in different work environments which determine both physical and mental
health and wellbeing, as well as the job itself and its unique demands. There are general
assumptions made about subsequent links to age and decline in productivity. However,
ageing has wide-ranging effects on functional capacity which is not uniform because of
individual differences in lifestyle, nutrition, fitness, genetic predisposition, education level,
and work and other environments (Barnett et al, 2008). All of these differences determine
eligibility for extended working lives beyond the traditional retirement age and towards future
workability – an investment in human capital by organisations in the future.
2.7 Human Capital
The importance of investing in human capital has been identified and defined as the
process for improving the quality of the human resource (labour force); the consequences and
significance for organisations to invest in the development of individual worker’s knowledge
and skills (Becker, 1964, Billett et al, 2012, Burns, 2000) and is evidenced. Human capital
theory focuses on the educational level of employees as a source of labour productivity and
economic growth (Carmeli, 2004, Skinner, 2009). Human capital is considered to be one of
the most important assets of a country; education and training is identified as one of the most
important elements of investment in that human capital (Wei, 2004; Skinner, 2009). As an
56
increasing percentage of the population is projected to be over 60 years in the next five years;
the source of much of the potential human capital will necessarily be this pool of older
workers. Drawing further on the importance of the tenets of human capital theory
(Hollinshead et al., 2003, Ryan, 2010), the present study applies its underpinnings to a
specific age cohort - older workers. It advances the working role of adults and in particular,
as human capital in terms of work experience, their work commitment and corporate
knowledge and how this may be stimulated through a revised culture of workplace learning
and development opportunities. It recognises that both employers and employees need to act
in order to retain older workers’ skills, knowledge and attributes (Ferrier, 2005). Without this
action, there is a real risk of rising labour shortages, a pronounced slowdown in economic
growth, and worsening public finances through reduced productivity (ALGA, 2006, OECD,
2005a, 2005b).
Human capital is the sum of resources, actual or virtual, which accrue to an individual,
group or organisation by virtue of possessing a durable network or less institutionalised
relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992; Burns,
2000). Those relationships and their workforce environment are key and driving elements for
older workers to stay in the workforce. These relationships form a key determining factor for
many older workers as to whether there is value in investing in their skills development for
future work and employability. These factors will ultimately be determined by older workers’
individual financial status and their needs and future life plans and priorities as a determinant
factor in choosing full time retirement, partial employment or retirement. Investing in human
capital includes the recognition of other, more personalised elements such as individual
recognition, personal value, self worth (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992) and perceived symbolic
value of their own contributions within the workforce. The symbolic value or capital in this
57
study refers to the amount of honour, recognition and prestige that an individual possesses,
which has the effects of legitimising differences in social class and social importance between
individuals within the current workforce, such as younger and older workers (Webb et al.,
2002), and hierarchical roles held within organisations. In seeking options to mitigate against
stereotypes and assumptions about human capital, it may be logical to investigate
consideration of a range of concepts such as knowledge, skills, education, resources and
experiences which has been acquired and accumulated through employees’ working lives; and
all relevant to their perceived notion of human capital within their organisation.
The literature review reflected on European organisations embracing and leading in
strategies to engage with their human capital by retaining the services of their older workers.
Some projects recognised a range of workforce issues for employers in the future in order to
promote and encourage good practices in the employment of their older workers (Walker,
1998; Taylor, 2011). It was determined that, instead of the reactive stance adopted by many
employers, an integrated age management interventionist strategy would be more effective for
both employers and employees by considering key primary elements and practices in this
study such as:
• an emphasis on older worker retention practices
• a focus on the entirety of working life, not solely on older workers
• a holistic approach to workforce management
• improved provision for older workers, who missed out on specific skills
training.
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The problem for older workers is that any human capital investment by organisations
derives from the comparison and realisation of their need to secure a tangible and measurable
return on their investment (Webb et al., 2002). General assumptions made about any such
returns is that younger people have a longer working life and will be able to support the
organisation for a longer period of time, and provide a greater return. This assumption
however, does not take into consideration that the highest worker mobility is also found
among the younger workers (Handy, 2006), referred to as the “portfolio worker” concept and
revealing significant changes in workforce commitment and engagement by those workers.
Assumptions about “return on investment” and subsequent timeframes for such a return are
rather simplistic and need to be re-theorised. This has been argued by Lyon et al (2006, p.57)
as a contradiction in terms as either an investment or divestment for organisations. For this
research any return on investment is defined as a return that adds value to organisations. This
study investigates levels of investment in learning and development services for the future to
acquire a sustainable workforce in light of a diminishing work pool.
2.7.1 Workforce Planning
In further referencing the issues about effective workforce planning, a more
collaborative approach with employees is sought. There is an absence of engagement
between employers and employees for retaining and supporting older workers and enabling
them to retain and build on their skills and employment. Risks for not investing in skills
building are identified, “for once they are out of the workplace they are liable to experience a
59
loss of their social capital and lose their working capabilities” (Becker, 1964) which may lead
to future unemployment. This may also contribute to greater difficulties for being re-
employed if they choose to re-enter the workforce after initial retirement. Human Resource
management is charged with the responsibility of workforce planning and recognised for
providing an involuntary divestment of older workers, sometimes legitimising age-base
stereotypes (Lyon, 2006, p.56). Becker (1964) argues that the provision of training of
narrowly defined specific skills to reactively respond to contemporary and changing needs of
organisations yields neither an increased “market value” for the employer or any discernible
increase or improved in employability for the older worker. According to some policies cited,
human resource policy makers advocate a long-term investment in the workforce while, at the
same time, questioning the loyalty and commitment to older and long-service workers (Lyon,
2006, p.56).
The US literature frequently refers to “neo-institutional economics” which assumes
that firm-specific environmental factors define and shape individual perceptions and
behaviours within organisations (Hurd, 1996; Straka, 1997; Hall, 2003). Neo-institutional
economists share the neo-classical assumption that older workers place greater value on
leisure than work, and their preferences for future leisure pursuits through more flexible work
arrangements are considered in this research. Consequently, the notion of transitional
employment enabling individuals to transition into full time retirement is questioned
regarding the nature of organisations and the nature and purpose of their work (Tikkanen,
2006). Older employees would obtain higher levels of lifetime utility and quality if they were
free to gradually disengage from the labour force through a reduction of work hours prior to
complete withdrawal, thereby matching the shift in traditional preference curves (Ruhm,
1990), to one of increased and more future flexibility in employment. However, there are
60
many disincentives to such gradual disengagement arrangements for older workers. A
reduction of work hours is simply not possible where high fixed costs and productivity
constraints discourage flexibility in work scheduling (Hurd, 1996; Straka, 1997). As
previously discussed, this remains an issue in some local government sectors in light of the
range of and complex funding regimes to be restructured to ever changing projects, outcomes,
targets and subsequent workforce demographics changes.
2.7.2 Workforce demographics
While the effects of shedding labour in Australia have been felt by all age groups,
older people have been more likely than their younger counterparts to be selected for
redundancy in the past (Lyon, 2006, p.58), In attempting to define the kind of work
undertaken by older workers, the term “third age” is recognised and defined as “after years of
working to earn a livelihood, an individual might change direction in their third age and find a
new meaningful line of work” (Figgis, 2012). Some younger, incoming employees are
engaged as trainees or apprentices assigned mentors, coaches or trainers who are older
workers in local government councils. This inhibits opportunities for some older workers to
gradually disengage from the workforce or seek development opportunities for themselves to
extend their own employability, a result of increased engagement of their time. Their skills
and experience is identified as a significant and economical value by organisations to train
and enable other, younger employees; but limits their opportunities for the future.
61
In an Australian study of older workers about meaningful work in the 21st century
(Pocock, 2009) identified four key areas and values for older workers in post-retirement,
which included their (i) sense of efficacy (contribution) and identity, (ii) an opportunity to
learn, (iii) social connection and (iv) a positive spill over from work to home. These areas are
further investigated within the current local government workplace and further perceived
values within this study towards initial key findings.
International literature also warns of the “new demographics” emerging and
intergenerational workforce challenges reflecting an extended representation of generations
working together which has not previously been experienced within the workforce. The
ageing workforce and extended age groups are currently challenging all organisations
regarding future capacity and capabilities. These new demographics recognise that there are
only a few models that exist to specifically meet skills shortages by using the potential of the
older worker (Walker, 1998); any corporate age management polices must reflect those needs
(Taylor, 2004). Ensuring access to training and customising training to promote age
awareness requires immediate attention and recognition (Armstrong-Stassen, 2008).
Education and training reflecting workforce skills determines output growth and ultimate
individual welfare (OECD 2005a, 2005b, 2005c) factors, in terms of remuneration, place in
an organisation and career aspirations. Any skills development undertaken by individuals
after starting their working life is critical to their output growth as well as individual career
prospects in the future (Bassanini, 2003). As previously argued in this study, career prospects
appear to be determined more by the employer and employee relationship and any subsequent
performance management systems applied about work outputs.
62
2.7.3 Performance management
Work outputs and training plans for individuals were frequently referenced as an
outcome of performance assessments, if those assessments were undertaken. Performance
management reflected on agreement between employer and employee (contract), to evaluate
and assess (performance assessment) on at least, an annual basis (performance appraisal)
according to corporate human resource policies cited. This process is regularly referred to as
performance management systems. However, performance management for older workers is
frequently raised with key concerns regarding what would constitute key performance
outcomes (Schwoerer & May, 1996) and what is the role of human resource management
(Ryan, 2009, p.27) for implementing lifelong learning practices for skills building. The lack
of communication and trust between older workers and their employers remains a significant
barrier (Figgis, 2012, p.14) which is inevitably reflected in performance assessment outcomes
which reports against corporate productivity measures. Performance outcomes are not
consistently reported or assessed, albeit a corporate process in all local government councils
for all workers. Industrial relations reforms and requirements on managers to manage their
workers, their outputs, workloads and lifestyle balances is evidenced and reflected in some
corporate enterprise bargaining agreements. This research considers those agreements in light
of current practices for workers and the frequency of such processes, particularly for older
workers as it has relevance to future work options. Some human resource strategies are
reflective of, and recognise the need to better recognise and support managers in managing
their workers’ performance; the goal for improving individual and organisational
effectiveness (Schwoerer & May, 1996). Schwoerer and May note that work experience, time
63
served and the ability to extend working lives reflects the quality and essential suite of
attributes of the older worker, but circumstances can support or undermine these. Those
circumstances reflected inconsistent approaches to performance management or mutually
agreed strategies to be implemented which are of value to both employer and employee. This
study considers different approaches taken by management.
Whilst chronological ageing brings some credits it has been generally acknowledged
that older workers do have deficits within their performance as with any other sectors of the
workforce, according to Sterns and McDaniel (1994). However, those deficits have not been
shown to be specifically substantial and organisations will need to build on other aspects of
performance which compensate for these deficits or deficiencies (McEvoy & Cascio, 1989;
Sterns & McDaniel, 1994). Organisations which create a discouraging job climate and do not
offer prospects for advancement are effectively reducing the likelihood that workers will
maintain their skills (Sterns & Miklos, 1995) whilst in the workforce. The location of
councils and their unique demographic factors greatly affect the nature of the work
undertaken and the makeup of that workforce itself. Effective performance management
systems can reflect on different jobs and emergent development issues, a proactive approach
to workforce investment and planning towards increased work capability and competencies.
Where organisations appear to be spending less on the development of their older workers,
this appears to be more reflective of typical stereotyping about capabilities and their perceived
unwillingness to extend their skills base (Ryan, 2009, Schwoerer & May, 1996; Sterns &
Miklos, 1995). This in turn can disadvantage older workers in meeting corporate
performance management targets. Performance planning for an ageing workforce should
reflect work changes towards the establishment of new policies (Greller & Stroh, 1999).
Performance management systems evaluate capabilities, this study argues for a review of
64
those systems to reflect changing physical work demands placed on older workers,
particularly in local government given its diversity of services and unique, remote locations.
2.8 Local Government Workforce
Local government councils employ over 38,000 employees across more than four
hundred occupations with an annual turnover of 4.2 billion dollars (LGAQ, 2007b). The
Local Government Act 1993 took effect from 1994 and was developed over a period of time
which significantly changed the system of local government in Queensland. The basic theme
of the 1993 Act was to increase Local Government autonomy and flexibility to act as a true
third level of government, rather than a mere delegate of the State (LGAQ, 2007b). As a
major contributor to local, state and national economics, local government is a significant
employer and consideration of retaining older employees is a critical factor (ALGA, 2006;
LGAQ Workforce Census, 2007b). The combination of the local government reform process
where new councils were established (Queensland Government, 2007b) with its specific
intention of “building stronger councils” by merging 157 councils into 73 councils and the
revised Local Government Act 2009 to “build stronger councils” (Queensland Government,
2009). However, this has done nothing to accommodate or respond to what Jorgensen (2004)
refers to as critical factors for proactively responding to organisations’ skills deficits and
labour shortages. It is projected that the ageing population and current status will exacerbate
the skills and labour shortages within the local government councils (ALGA, 2006). The
ageing population is inevitable, and there is no doubt that the ageing demographic is having
profound effects on individuals across global and national locations. All Australian
65
communities rely on the delivery of essential services from their local governments (ALGA,
2006). A demographic challenge for Australia and all local governments is its diminishing
workforce numbers, and councils’ capability to sustain services for critical infrastructure
(water, roads, environmental and planning services) which are the responsibility of the local
government councils across Australia (ALGA, 2006). This is a major consideration within
the present research program, which is focussed on strategies for organisations to better
enable older workers to extend their employability at a time of great changes (AGPC, 2005;
Queensland Government, 2009). The LGAQ (2006c) has acknowledged that ageing
population communities will demand a continued increase in service delivery at a time when
workforce capacity must be maintained and be sustainable in the future. Moreover, the
LGAQ (2007b) has identified that there is a need to seek out and collate relevant data about
the workforce, in particular the current status of older workers, and to link this information to
Federal, State and Local Government strategies in the future.
Planning for the retention of older workers cannot be undertaken until more
contemporary data is available about retirement intentions and plans of older workers.
Consequently, any future workforce planning in response to those intentions will need to
consider the development of relevant and appropriate services. The diverse and changing
needs of older workers to respond to ever increasing demands for service delivery by local
governments (ALGA, 2006), reflects its current ageing landscape.
2.8.1 The ageing landscape: The Local Government Sector
Currently the Queensland local government workforce data shows that 11% of
employees are aged over 58 years, 54% aged 37-57 years and 35% aged 16-36 years (LGAQ,
66
2007b) and approximately 45% of the Queensland local government current working
population is eligible for what has been traditionally known as permanent retirement within
the next three to four years (LGAQ, 2007b). Furthermore, the LGAQ (2007b) forecasts that
at least 35% have shared and voiced their intentions to managers that they are actively
planning an exit from full time, permanent employment within the next five years. These
figures do not include promotions or transfers to other industries and is reflective of the levels
of risk for employee sustainability in the future.
Local government councils are required to deliver essential services to the community
(ALGA, 2006), services often funded by Commonwealth or State Governments with specific
time frames for delivery. These include regulated services such as rubbish collections,
landfill management, environmental protection, statutory planning and development, building
inspections, animal management and community health. Additional services can be imposed
at any time on councils by State Government in response to changing legislative demands and
responsibilities to serve communities. These additional legislative work requirements have
recently included swimming pool inspections, flood mitigation services, networking with
disaster management agencies. Proactive responses to health risks have been sought for local
government councils to respond with strategies for dealing with emergent issues such as
outbreaks of dengue fever, bat controls and other pest control measures, as well as ongoing
commitment to road and transport improvements and maintenance where no other services
providers exist. According to Rix (1996) and Pillay, Tones and Kelly (2009), older workers
are more hesitant to enrol in off-site, learning and development activities where it cuts into
work output hours and demands. This issue raises the question of equity for wage-paid
workers (remuneration which can attract overtime options) against salaried officers (fixed
67
remuneration, which attracts no overtime remuneration); a distinct disadvantage for some
older workers.
To meet increasing requirements for adapting to new technologies, skills development
will gain greater importance for older workers and their employers (Jorgensen, 2004; Taylor,
2011). It could be argued that with the pressure for older workers to stay economically active,
and the fact that there is a paucity of empirical research about how to assist in this process, the
significance of this study is to identify corporate interventions for workers, in the future.
Taylor (2011, p.49) suggests that whilst there is a general shift in attitudes in favour of older
workers, it is more the result of the economic cycle and emerging labour shortages, more than
any other matter.
The absence of careers in local government for older workers has previously been
discussed and is recognised as only being relevant to younger and educated people. It is well
established that older workers are less likely to engage in formal, highly structured learning
and development than their younger peers (Tikkanen, 2006). This is supported in the
literature review. Some employers assume that since older workers are less likely to change
jobs and are settled into and experienced in their role, they are less in need of workplace skills
development (Bailey & Hansson, 1995). However, the reasons for the decline in learning and
development of older workers have yet to be empirically established. Given that there is an
identified need for and value of ageing older workers (Pillay at al., 2006), key characteristics
are emerging which provide a strong justification for concerns regarding workforce capacity
in the future (OECD, 2006) and particularly for the study in local government councils in
Queensland.
68
Smeaton and McKay (2003) argue that the intensification of work is emerging as a
considerable problem and that the notion of encouraging older workers to remain in
employment is a major challenge. Enabling older workers to have a greater control and more
flexibility towards retirement (Philipson & Smith, 2005) will provide greater choice of
possibilities, towards extending their working lives. Local government engages and trains
workers with work responsibilities ranging from manual outdoor work to the traditional
technical and professional roles. Some older, outdoor workers appear to be taking up
retirement at a greater rate than their younger counterparts, a result of their work over many
years, and their increasing labour-intensive jobs (Pillay at al., 2006). Workforce learning for
them has very different connotations which need to be considered in future workforce
learning programs in local government councils.
2.9 Workforce Learning
During the 1980s - 1990s Australia’s record inflation, high unemployment and a lack
of global competitiveness led to a refocus by the Australian government on the role of
education in relation to the national economy. This has led to an economy-centred,
vocationally-oriented education and training agenda (Billet et al. 2012; Stromquist &
Monkman, 2000). It was seen as a response to the economic recession, widespread
unemployment and a shift towards conservative policies (Figgis, 2012; Haynes, 1997). By
the late 1980s, demands for increased training to meet the changing needs of Australian
society led to the Deveson Report in 1990 (Moodie, 2002). In this report the focus was on
69
industry to play a fundamental role in improving the quality and relevance of education and
training and towards increased participation. This study investigates the changes if any,
which have been implemented.
The Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) was created with the mandate to
plan and fund (Moodie, 2002) the national vocational training system (Billett et al, 2012,
p.16). During the late 1990s, national training packages were introduced to reinforce the
Commonwealth Government’s vocation and skills expectations for increased qualifications
for Australian workers (Australian National Training Authority [ANTA], 1999b). Despite the
rapid expansion of registered training organisations and private providers, most approaches
and styles of delivery were financed for and concerned with youth learning and development,
people returning to the workforce or persons with some form of disability (Commonwealth
Government, 2007). In 2005, a major change was implemented by the Commonwealth
Government by the dissolution of ANTA as a separate and discrete government authority; it
was subsumed at this time within the national Department of Employment, Education,
Science and Technology (DEST). An absence of effective and co-ordinated national plans for
training older workers is evidenced.
The Australian approach to workforce learning would appear to have evolved as a
strategy for skills development and education, based on economic underpinnings (ALGA,
2006, Moodie, 2002). Appreciating that most workers may be classified as adult, adult
learning principles should underpin workplace learning and development. The need for
alternative modes for learning and development delivery to better accommodate older
workers’ needs has been proposed. Workplace development opportunities should include
new ways of learning for adults; adult education.
70
Tikkanen (2006) argues that adult education and work life remains contradictory;
experience-based knowledge is largely attributed to adult learning engagement which has
increased in past years (Council on Ageing, 2006). Paradoxically, adult learning and
engagement is occurring at a time when the recognition of the value and contribution of older
workers in the workplace has not been substantially, empirically researched. Perceptions and
attitudes of employers and employees about the value of learning in the workplace was
investigated by Kilpatrick (2000) who presented five key strategies for promoting and
encouraging a learning community at work. These strategies included the need to (i) create
opportunities for interaction, (ii) determine communication sites, (iii) develop leadership
skills and confidence, and (iv) foster externality by (v) building ties with other groups. It can
be seen that from an organisational perspective, Kilpatrick’s (2000) strategies provided an
alternative model for local councils. Such a model provided a more humanistic and
experiential and planned learning approach, in partnership with employers to adult learning,
as opposed to the current traditional unplanned approaches by managers. The external factors
can be readily adopted by the local councils by working with their employees and improving
consultation and collaboration processes with the potential learners.
Workforce sustainability in the future as previously discussed is critical; interventions
for creating a path for the education and the learning and development of all workers towards
employability and extending their working lives (LGAQ, 2006b). Considering the stage of
life these older worker are at, Fuller (2006) reminds us that lifelong learning is a viable
framework for embracing an investment in the capabilities and skills of all older workers,
regardless of their occupational status. In a study of local government councils, Waterhouse
(2006, p.8) reaffirmed the ever-changing nature of the work undertaken by councils and the
71
prevalence of short-term employment contracts which significantly impacted on access to
lifelong training by some older workers.
Current workforce learning services within the local government workforce is
investigated in the study, towards consideration of more contemporary notions of adults
learning in the workplace and the role of managers. Whilst some vocational education
practices are evidenced, support services in the workplace should be more proactive to focus
on the need for meeting “demand”, not the current reactive supply driven system
(Waterhouse, 2006, p.30). A planned and contemporary approach to learning towards future
employability through application of adult learning in the workplace is considered.
2.9.1 Adult learning in the workplace
Diversity among older workers has been recognised and is important, Ferrier (2008,
p.9) states that the recognition, training and employment experiences of sub-groups of older
workers vary substantially. Burns’ (2002) empirical model has been useful with regards to
validating current approaches, levels of recognition of diversity and corporate commitment to
learning services in light of what has previously been described as vocational education
approaches (Billett et al, 2012, p.19). Training services in the ineffective organisations
(Burns, 2000) reveals tokenistic and inconsistent approaches to learning delivery and no
collaboration with workers, which this study investigates. The model provided a framework
for discussions about the learner, the learning environment within an organisational context
and specifically in local government councils in Queensland. References to the perceived
72
typical corporate tokenistic approach for learning and development strategies within
organisations (refer Table 1, p.54) are considered. Smith (2009, p. 9) challenged current
processes for making decisions about training in organisations, which is recognised as
complex and influenced by a wide variety of factors which are considered in this study. Some
current approaches combined with the good intentions of the organisation, more accurately
reflects a “supermarket” approach to offering everything that is possible for the worker being
trained “to get them through the door”, without any due consideration of the outcomes or
value for either the employees or employers. Billet (2012) proscribes that any continuing
education system must be responsive to individuals, their work requirements and their
increasing longer working life. For many local government councils, their remote location
determines what development services are accessible and available to workers and in itself,
may result more as an economical corporate response, as opposed to any long term planned
commitment to meeting the needs of their workers to meet corporate outputs and self
development for the future. A higher level of engagement by Australian workplaces across
workers’ lives is needed (Billett, et al 2012). Some current approaches are the result of
reactive and ineffective training and staff development planning; thus challenging the value of
training and development within the workforce, which this study investigates. Any
investment should at the very least improve levels of motivation, corporate knowledge and
skills currency or competencies for the organisation and the individual employee, towards
sustainability and employability in the future.
Australia’s national strategy for vocational education and learning and development
(Australian Government, 2007; AGPC, 2005) recognised the need to develop a learning and
development culture which embraces the notion of adult learning and lifelong learning within
the workplace. Karmel (2004, p.62) stated that older people in employment who have
73
undertaken training are more likely to retain their employment status, relative to their
employed peers not receiving training. The need to create and strengthen the workforce
learning culture ethic within Australia led to the development of a National Marketing
Strategy (ANTA, 1999a) which focussed on skills and lifelong learning. This strategy can be
seen to be moving towards improved productivity and economic development for industries
across Australia. This position is supported by Coffield (1999), who noted that the National
Marketing Strategy embraced the argument that the nation’s competitiveness depended on the
skills of its people, and that learning and development needs to be modernised and be more
responsive to the needs of employers. While the intention may be good, there are specific
elements of industries, such as managers and white collar workers who appear to be the only
cohorts who have access to relevant learning services (Ashton, 2001). This recognises a
privileged and biased approach and access to vocational education which undermines fair
representation and equity for all workers. Adults’ readiness to learn is frequently affected by
their need to know or do something, so that they tend to have a life-, task- or problem-centred
orientation to learning (Ferrier, 2008).
Adult learning in the workforce is determined by an individual’s previous learning
experiences, biases and levels of engagement. Individual learning preferences, preferred
learning styles and recognition of their experience is not evidenced in current workforce
development strategies in the workforce (TAEN, 2003). Modern or contemporary elements
of adult learning are traditionally attributed to responding to the needs of learners (Knowles
1980). However, whilst this has been refuted by some researchers it is referenced in this
study to further consider direct learning preferences of working adults today, as opposed to
classroom learning and tokenistic approaches reflecting group learning and standardised
curriculum. Ferrier (2008, p.15) argues that whilst workforce policy development is ongoing
74
in Australia, the need to improve training delivery and training opportunities for older
workers and their subsequent levels of motivation remains. Knowles (1980) recognised the
impact of an individual’s life experiences as influencing their adult status and their motives
for participating in learning and yet this is not evidenced from current ranges of workplace
learning programs. As a consequence, specific adult learning principles and practices need to
be investigated as a benchmark towards further study of andragogy and adult learning. Table
3 highlights learning needs (principles) and direct learning processes (practices) advocated by
Knowles (1980) for adult learning practitioners. The key underpinning attribute is the need to
be more responsive to the needs of the learner, in this case the older worker. The first column
(refer Table 2) illustrates issues confronting the learner (employee) which pervade today.
Employees’ work aspirations are not being considered, nor is their active participation in
course design or the relevance of experiential learning. Some of these matters are reflective
of emergent themes for learners, from Study One analysis. The sense of progress and
achievement for individuals is a key driver to commitment and learning. The second column
notes the development issues for consideration by both employers and employees and is a
reminder that to plan, prepare and deliver a range of learning applications and approaches
requires the direct involvement of the learner. This study argues for improved engagement
and collaboration with potential learners in local government today. Any corporate approach
to supporting older workers’ competencies towards meeting their needs and enabling future
employability will result in transitional employment. Predictors for future participation of
learning and development has been determined within higher paid occupations (Skinner,
2009, p.32), who represent a minority population in local government councils (LGAQ,
2006c). There is an absence of data about lesser paid occupations, they are usually manual
workers, with lower levels of skills and qualifications and not usually afforded or identified as
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a priority for future skills development, other than their mandatory tickets and licenses. The
following table presents specific learning (Employee) needs which this study argues pervade
today. Current practices to respond to meeting learners’ needs (Facilitator) appear to be
tokenistic and will be investigated. Table 2 is useful as a framework to research current
learning processes in light of current needs.
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Table 2: Specific Learning Needs and Direct Learning Processes (Knowles, 1980)
Learning (employee)
Development (facilitator)
Feel a need to learn Expose learners to new responsibilities and fulfilment
Helps the learners to clarify their aspirations Assist learner to recognise the gap between
their aspirations and present level Help the learners identify the problems they
experience because of the gaps Learning environment is characterised by comfort and trust
Provide physical conditions that are comfortable and conducive to learning
Accept the learner as a person of worth and respect their feelings and ideas
Enable learner to build relationships on trust and helpfulness
Encourage cooperative activities Contributes resources as a co-learner for
mutual enquiry Learners perceive the goals of learning to be theirs
Involves the learner in mutual process in formulating learning objectives
Learners accept a share of responsibility for planning and operating learning experience
Shares thinking about options in designing of learning and selection of materials and methods that involves the learner
Learners actively participate Facilitator helps the learners to organise themselves for sharing mutual enquiry
Learning is related to the learner’s experience
Help the learners to use their own experiences as resources for learning
Gears presentations to the experience levels of the learners
Helps the learners to apply new learning to their experiences
Learners have a sense of progress toward their goals for evaluation
Involves the learners in mutually determined measures for evaluation
Helps the learners develop and apply self-evaluation based on these criteria
Principles of Adult Learning and Development (adapted from Knowles, 1980, pp. 57-58)
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Different perspectives and views on adult education are evidenced. Foley (2004)
notes that much of adult education theory has been dominated by literature which has an
overemphasis on educational techniques, is asocial, decontextualised and abstract. Billett et
al (2012) considers contemporary adult education to be more about the workplace strategies
applied reflecting on the role of vocational education, whilst Encel (2003) emphasises the
need for improved understanding of the interrelationships of adult education as a policy-
driven approach by employers. The common and diverse links in adult education by
researchers is useful for the current study as it highlights the value of learning and
development which attracts ongoing national and international arguments for workforce
sustainability in the future (OECD, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c) and strategies for engagement.
Fenwick and Tennant (2004) have determined that there is no best way for adult learning
because learners and facilitators are different and constantly changing. As a result of this
paradox, they nominate four ways for viewing adult learning processes which include:
• learning as acquisition – knowledge as a substantive thing, skill, concept;
• learning as reflection – learners use active constructors of knowledge, creating new
meaning;
• practice-based community – learning focuses on people’s ability to participate
meaningfully; and
• learning as embodied co-emergent processes – challenges people-centred notions to
portray learning as merging in the relationships that develop among all people
(Fenwick & Tennant, 2004, p. 56).
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These learning processes are significant in that current practices within organisations
for selecting and managing courses and programs would appear to be focussed on corporate
productivity outputs than qualitative outcomes for learners. Fenwick and Tennant, (2004,
p.22) recognised the needs of the individual to be considered in the future, which could
further break down prevailing stereotypical ageist attitudes towards older workers ability and
willingness to learn which still exist in Australian organisations (Smith, 2009, p.15).
Guided by contemporary adult learning principles, the present research reviews
specific aspects of learning for employers and employees as they relate to the well established
need for recognising, advancing and valuing older workers in the workplace (Ilmarinen, 2006;
Jorgensen, 2004; Tikkanen, 2006).
Individuals have a set of intentions concerning their participation in any adult
education or learning and that consists of the satisfaction of some “felt need” (Rogers, 2002).
An individual’s intentions may be based on a spectrum: at one end are persons attempting to
satisfy some vague and ill-articulated sense of need, while at the other end are those
individuals who participate in adult education to solve an identified problem or to undertake a
particular learning task. Knox (1986) cites that motivation to initiate and continue with adult
learning is both personal and situational, suggesting that these motivations are aligned to
aspirations and confidence which may be perceived as lacking in older workers (Figgis, 2012,
p.17). Situational or external motivational factors are elements which include opportunities
that enable them to undertake adult learning towards achieving aspirations. These individual
aspirations can also be determined by the expectations of other significant people in the lives
of the learner (Knox, 1986) in this case, the local government employer (ALGA, 2006).
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Motivation for learning for the adult learner is either goal-oriented, activity-oriented or
learning-oriented (Houle, 1961; Burns, 2000, 2002). The goal-oriented individual uses
learning to achieve a clearly identified external objective such as a certificate or qualification
(vocational education) and once this has been achieved their interest or motivation to learn
tends to cease. The activity-oriented individual finds that the learning environment itself,
rather than the content matter, satisfies some personal or social needs: “They attend because
they get something out of the group apart from the subject-matter involved” (Rogers, 1993, p.
30; Burns, 2002). The learning-oriented person has an internal or intrinsic motivation and
seeks knowledge or skills for their own sake, pursuing these out of personal interest (Rogers,
1993). Yet, Maslow (1987) warned that “even the explicitly apparent goal objects or effects
sought for are not a sound foundation on which to base a dynamic classification of the
motivation of the human being” (Maslow, 1987, p. 9) in this case, employability in the future.
Maslow argued that the explicit goals and needs of individuals are usually a means to an end
rather than an end in itself. This challenges current organisations about the contemporary and
perceived value of their workers now and in the future. Their “return on investment” will be
reflected in future interventions by employers to retain their older workers (employees), and
the longer term value of direct costs to be incurred. Training has a key role to play in
extending working lives (ALGA, 2006). Older workers’ willingness to undertake training
will depend on perceived relevance, time commitment and methods of delivery towards
building self-confidence for new skills in the future and employability, which is proscribed as
vocational education by Billet (2012). If such commitment is secured, then levels of
responsibility for delivery and subsequent costs for retraining emerge.
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2.9.2 Costs of retraining older workers
Many concerns raised within the literature have reflected on the responsibility for
corporate workforce development and inevitable costs to be incurred for retraining older
workers; a progressive realisation of the value of older workers by labour markets. Costs to
employers for retraining older workers raises additional concerns about the limited payback
period the older workers may have. Rix (1996) argued that older workers have fewer work
years left (even when the gap is smaller than some perceived stereotypes of older workers).
The cost of retraining older workers is a deterrent in the scheme of organisational priority, and
could be a barrier to engaging older workers at all levels of work and will also be considered
in this study. The value of some older workers is being realised with the increasing number
of self employed workers who have exited the mainstream workforce in Europe and made the
transition to self-employment later in their careers (OECD, 2006). For many older workers
this is the only option available to them for maintaining their employability (AARP, 2006).
Ferrier (2008, p.12) reflects on investment of older workers and states that so long as good
practices are in place, which are learner-centred and have an inclusive approach, there should
only be small adjustments to training programs and activities for older participants. Whilst
assumptions are made about those adjustments, costs are incurred which leads to questions
about responsibility for training within organisations. AARP (2003) argues that there is a
need for all organisations to reinvest in their workers and create new and alternative work
opportunities, and that any such arrangements or investment will have a positive influence on
the health and well-being of older workers in the future, a return on their investment. There is
a need to consider not only the cost issues of training more holistically, but also hidden and
indirect costs such as salaries, capabilities and work commitment that may not be readily
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appreciated and unknowingly create more challenges and barriers for access to learning and
development for older workers.
The AARP (2006) complements the significance of the research in that it warns of
increasing costs and responsibility for sustaining a workforce in the face of an ageing
population. The OECD (2005a) identifies the need for organisations to consider a range of
direct interventions, reflecting and including recognition of financial investment and the
creation of incentives for older workers (OECD, 2005b). These responses will inevitably
result in direct costs, for all organisations. In the study of some Australian local government
councils, Waterhouse (2006) argues that for any learning opportunities to be created they
must be aligned to federal, state and local government policy to ensure financial support and
funding is available. Such funding was also recognised as being significantly difficult to
access or achieve. In a further Australian study of work-life issues, concerns were raised
about direct costs for participation in education or training (Skinner, 2009, p.9). Those
concerns were most prevalent for those in low–paid occupations.
On the positive side, international research noted productivity gains from retraining
older workers. Barron, Berger and Black (1999) estimated that productivity gains after
training of older workers can be as much as seven times larger than retraining investments
costs, suggesting that firms will reap most of the returns from training over longer periods of
time. This is supported by Lengermann (1999) who notes that the effects of providing regular
and appropriate training to current employees increases productivity and improves practices
over time as the working life is extended - a return on their financial investment. In line with
the above findings, this study investigated the perceptions of older workers regarding
extending their working lives, and the perceptions of their employers in realising the value of
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investing in learning and development towards providing and supporting a sustainable
workforce. However, Taylor (2004) states that there is a particular bias against training for
older workers, especially when the enterprise is facing cost pressures. Skinner (2009, p.24)
asserts that time and money are recognised as two factors that influence our capacity to
undertake most of life’s activities. Learning and development is identified as one of those
activities, a future financial challenge for both employer and employees.
The general assumption is that the costs of retraining older workers are comparatively
higher than for training younger employees and concerns are raised regarding the rate of
return of investment for organisations. It is generally perceived that investing in older
workers is more limited than for their younger workers (Straka, 1997). This is because the
issue of productivity levels of older workers and their ability to maintain an employable level
within organisations continues to be questioned (Rix, 1996), with typical stereotyped attitudes
reflecting old, and traditional viewpoints. However, if organisations make productive use of
older workers and specifically recognise and build on individuals’ strengths, then the returns
will be evident (Greller et al., 1999). Population ageing is bringing pressure to bear at a time
when businesses are facing major challenges for remaining competitive in global markets
(Roach, 2004). Local government councils have insufficient data about their older workers,
their required levels of training for extending their employability beyond retirement age or
their learning preferences or inherent costs for retraining them. Implications are also evident
for organisations to consider the occupational health, safety and risk management
(McGovern, Smeaton & Hill, 2004; Quinlan & Bohle, 2003) of older workers. It can be
argued that there are impediments for retraining or investing in older workers in the
workforce. However, until contemporary data is available about older workers’ future work
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intentions and their preferences for skills development in the future, their value may not be
realised; this research investigates that value towards a sustainable workforce.
2.10 Summary
The literature review presented a range of emergent themes affecting older workers
from both international and national perspectives in response to looming skills and labour
shortages. The current workplace environment is creating challenges for all organisations
against current warnings for improved management of older workers. Older workers’
reducing superannuation and retirement funds is leading to a review of their current retirement
plans and extended working lives which if supported, is a strategy for a future sustainable
workforce. The role of employer and employee is changing; there is an absence of policies
reflecting changes particularly for older workers which warrant further investigation. This
study argues for a review of current corporate support in the provision of learning and
development services, towards enabling older workers to build on their future employability.
A paucity of data exists in local government councils about transitional employment options
for older workers. Emergent themes were then juxtaposed against three key research
questions:
1. What are the current local government workforce issues impacting on skills and labour
retention?
2. What are perceptions about the current workplace environment? And,
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3. What are the expectations about learning and development towards extending
employability of older workers within the local government sector?
Global and Australian references were made to ageing demographics which are
impacting on all organisations including Australian industries and local government councils.
There are differences for what is identified as the traditional retirement age. Australian
Government policy has determined 60 years when individuals can access their superannuation
funds whilst different legislative changes have been introduced to make it illegal for
employers to discriminate against older workers of any age.
Financial incentives from UK and Australian governments as a strategy were introduced
to retain services of older workers for longer. Local government councils continue to recruit
in UK, USA and Europe for workers to fill current workforce gaps. These approaches have
implications for local government and are reflected in the literature presented over viewing
the current worldwide situation for skills and labour shortages.
There is no evidence of strategies for engagement or retention of older workers. What
appeared to be responses to effectively managing older workers were also tokenistic in
approaches which reflected ongoing stereotypical views, hindering needed cultural change
and recognition of the value of older workers in the future, if options are available.
The value of lifelong learning is recognised within a vocational education context, and
evidenced in some government campaigns about the “value of older workers”. Contemporary
notions of retirement are discussed, in light of changing demands and expectations of both
employers and employees towards improved approaches to ageism. Changing workplace
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trends and patterns and implications for ageism led to further recognition of the impacts of the
current global phenomenon and current management approaches. Implications for industries
are yet to be realised as there is limited evidence reflecting commitment by management to
ageism in the workplace, a result of unfair assumptions about the capabilities and work
aspirations of older workers. Warnings abound for all industries regarding sustainability and
productivity and yet little evidence is available regarding future strategies or actions.
There are key implications for local government councils in Australia in light of global
warnings of an ageing population and a diminishing work pool in local government.
Tokenistic approaches to older workers pervade, with views that quality skills development
programs are not accessible or available to them, for many reasons and that includes poor and
inconsistent communications about access to services. The value of older workers as human
capital was frequently cited with some current European projects presented reflecting
proactive approaches to combating age barriers; better recognising the value of older workers
as valued human capital.
The most common and dominant themes impacting on older workers from the
literature review were collapsed into eight sections which were identified as significantly
impacting on either the (i) Employer or the (ii) Employee, for interventions or levels of
access. These are the two identified key stakeholders in this study. Each theme was then
considered in light of terms used, their frequency and levels of concern for actions required by
organisations for their older workers towards a sustainable workforce in the future. Themes
were aligned to one of three established key research questions, to enable further investigation
and gather richer data about older workers in the future and responses to global and national
warnings about the looming skills and labour shortage. Most frequent and impacting themes
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included global contemporary matters for employers for sustaining a workforce (ageing
demographics and contemporary notions of retirement towards successful ageing),
operational matters (human capital and transitional retirement options) and emerging
workforce challenges for Australia (the local government workforce, workforce learning and
barriers to accessing learning and development); the focus of this investigative research. A
synthesis of the literature review themes aligned to the research questions is presented in
Table 4.
The notion of successful ageing included the need for improved engagement of older
workers and further recognition of their value in the workplace. Transitional retirement is
discussed and evident barriers identified for changing current workplace cultures. This
included the role of management in supporting, leading and enabling workers to access
learning and development services. Some barriers are cited towards the need for a revised
approach to engaging with and presenting learning and development services that best meet
the needs of the learner, more reflective of their past experiences. Older workers as valuable
human capital requiring corporate commitment and investment in the future is presented.
Personal and financial concerns for older workers are raised, particularly their
diminishing pensions and superannuation, all of which are impacting on their future
retirement plans. The effects of the global financial crisis are raised with concerns that some
workers may not wish to pursue extended working lives, but may have to. Anti-
discriminatory measures through the removal of mandatory retirement age is presented, but
questions raised regarding current industry practices to support or retain their older workers.
Tokenistic approaches and inability to access or undertake learning and development by older
workers are recognised as key barriers. Industries have inflexible and limited support for
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their older workers. Whilst the value of learning and development and vocational education
is discussed and recognised, there is a paucity of data regarding actual practices.
Transitional retirement is discussed as a future intervention for organisations towards
enabling older workers to move from traditional career and work jobs to one that enables
them to adapt. Adults learning principles in the workplace are presented in a range of models
and views reflecting the need of learners and preferred models for learning. The themes were
aligned to one of the three research questions in this study and are presented as a synthesis in
Table 3.
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Table 3: Literature Review – Themes and Research Questions: A Synthesis
Literature review themes (8)
Alignment to research questions
Ageing demographics
Contemporary notions of retirement
Local Government Workforce
(i) What are the current local government
workforce issues impacting on
skills/labour retention?
Successful ageing
Human Capital
(ii) What are the perceptions about the current
workplace environment?
Transitional Retirement
Barriers to learning and development
Workforce learning and development
(iii) What are the expectations about learning
and development towards extending
employability of older workers within the
local government sector?
The ageing phenomenon, increasing needs of older workers to extend their employment
to enhance their pensions and superannuation funds against warnings for organisations to
maintain a sustainable workforce is presented. Transitional employment is cited as a possible
strategy and intervention for all organisations to consider in the future. Concerns for both
employers and employees are raised and the paucity of data about local government workers
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evidenced. The role of learning and development or vocational education is discussed in light
of support services which could be made available to older workers, a strategy for extending
their employability in the future. Stereotypical views in some organisations pervade towards
tokenistic approaches in ineffective organisations, and considered in this study. The most
significant and frequently referenced matters and themes impacting on organisations for
enabling access to transitional employment in the future are presented.
Themes were further considered in light of local government councils’ concerns about
their ageing populations (ALGA, 2006; LGAQ, 2007b) to enable three key areas for
investigative research to be identified. The three research areas sought to investigate (i)
current workforce issues impacting on skills and labour retention in light of the ageing
phenomenon, (ii) current perceptions about the workplace environment and (iii) learning and
development for older workers in the local government towards recognition of current
patterns and trends for older workers and their future role in the workplace.
The research design focussed on engagement of both employers and employees about
contemporary findings about transitional employment options for older workers. The study
undertook three methodologies with different groups in local government councils, towards
realisation of issues. The study methodology and research design is presented in Chapter 3.
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Chapter 3
Methodology and Research Design
3.0 Introduction
The purpose of this research was to investigate common themes from the literature
review by engaging directly with representatives (employers and employees) within local
government councils in Queensland. This in-depth qualitative investigation of local
government workers was a means to initially identify emergent themes from the literature
review about the current workplace environment (Research Question 2) and issues impacting
on skills and labour (Research Question 1) Study One data analysis led to the establishment
of an initial TEM to be used as a guide to investigate issues for older workers in the
workforce. Findings from Study Two data analysis reflected expectations about learning and
development (Research Question 3) which led to a revised TEM. A final TEM includes four
key findings. The research explored three key research questions. The intent of this chapter
is to detail the methodology selected for the research project and to provide a rationale as to
why the particular methodological approaches taken were deemed to be the most appropriate.
Where there are limitations or inequity in representativeness of some cohorts, these are noted
and discussed.
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3.1 Structure of the Chapter
The chapter first presents the rationale for adopting a qualitative research paradigm and
discusses the epistemological philosophy adopted, constructivism. The trustworthiness and
confirmability of the methodologies used leads to an overview of the key processes
undertaken and a synthesis of the five steps applied in this study. The case study
methodology also includes details of the data collection processes.
An overview of Study One included an investigation of perceptions about the current
workplace environment and workforce issues impacting on skills and labour retention
(Research Questions 1 and 2). This leads to a detailed presentation of each process applied in
sub study (i) and (ii). A summary of Study One is then presented.
Following on from themes presented in Study One, Study two undertook to gather
richer data about expectations for learning and development towards extending
employability of older workers (Research Question 3). Four steps were undertaken and
are presented. This is then followed with a presentation of processes applied which are
discussed separately. This section concludes with a summary of both the methodology
and research design of both studies.
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3.2 Constructivist Paradigm
The qualitative research approach is based on an epistemology which assumes certain
things about knowledge. Understanding is required to be interpreted and is context-dependent
(see Babbie, 1995, p.36; Hatchuel, 2005, p.58). Given the nature of the research
investigation, based on some global and national data, assumptions are made about older
workers and possible future interventions towards transitional employment. The initial
questionnaire included questions to be posed to gather data about the current work force
population and perceived value for transitional employment. The data enabled analysis and
interpretation of the views of the participants, employers and employees in light of the global
ageing phenomenon now impacting on local government councils in Queensland. For the
purposes of this research program, the epistemological philosophy adopted is constructivism
(Bryman, 1988, p.5; Crotty, 1998, p.22; Denzin, 1989, p.43) which focuses on explaining
phenomena, such as the ageing workforce, role of older workers in the workplace – a
response to diminishing work pools. This approach enabled consideration and discovery of a
range of emerging categories and relationships and levels of support considered necessary for
TE in the future. These interpretations included and considered the humanistic, qualitative
and personalised perceptions of transitional employment for older workers and the value of
learning and development services for extending their employability in the local government
sector. Unlike quantitative research where the epistemology of objectivism and positivism
which has as its focus on prediction and the control of phenomena (Guba & Lincoln, 2004),
this study is seeking to understand global ageing and its subsequent impacts on organisations.
Whilst some of the data collated in this study is numerical, it is used as descriptive data for
interpreting trends and patterns only, towards investigating possible interventions. This fits
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with the constructivist epistemology of focusing on understanding the relationship in this
study (employer and employee) which is embedded in individual expressions of a
phenomenon and shared views and opinions. Expressions about the different, emerging
relationship of employer and employee in the workplace and subsequent responses to their
working relationship and environmental changes emerged from the contributions of the
follow-up interviews. The interview groups responded to questions which were designed and
aligned to themes from the literature review. Themes were further considered towards
identification of most significant matters impacting on the current work environment. Focus
group attendees shared their opinions and views about themes towards emerging issues for
them in accessing transitional employment, with some suggestions for possible interventions
in the future. The respondents in this research are the active practitioners of the local
government workforce; different ages, genders and all with vested interests in their future
employability. The nature of the study focussed on enabling voluntary participation.
Recognition was given that any participation should be free of any perceived expectations
from employers, and would realise more honest responses in that no corporate requirement
was perceived to be placed on them. Qualitative research (Guba & Lincoln, 2004)
acknowledges that truth can only be interpreted on the basis of the data collected from
individuals and their shared beliefs and recognised biases. In this case, their shared beliefs in
their future employment and inherent barriers and biases were identified. Their construction
and interpretation of reality (what is happening in the workplace today) was based on their
opinions, their views and work experiences which were collated. Constructivism does not
accept that there is an objective truth or knowledge that exists independently of participants
(Bryman, 1988), but is in itself a reflection of contemporary data collated about a concept at
any given time.
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The qualitative approach presented data which required interpretation to make
meaning of initially identified matters impacting on workers and the workforce towards
themes emerging from both phases of empirical study one, for local government workers.
Further investigation led to significant issues pertinent to local government employers and
employees (empirical Study Two). The three empirical studies also generated subjective
textual data which required interpretation and meaning making, given the broad
representation of diverse levels of workers. There was limited representativeness of some
cohorts within the organisations which is noted, but the approach adopted enabled a reflection
of a cross section of typical employee groups within local government. This constructivist
paradigm method acknowledged and appreciated that different people have different views
and perspectives on all aspects of life and work; respecting and acknowledging those
perspectives enabled more in-depth discussions, resulting in the sharing of views and opinions
that might not have been secured from quantitative research.
3.3 Issues of Trustworthiness, Confirmability and Applicability
In qualitative research reliability and validity is judged through the trustworthiness of
the methodology and its processes. Qualitative researchers establish the trustworthiness of
their research by addressing the credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability
of their studies and findings (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2009, p. 375). In this study, three
empirical studies were undertaken each using different methodologies (questionnaire,
interviews and then focus groups). The methodologies were applied through engagement of
three different cohorts who represented typical cross sections of local government workers.
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To enable understanding of the processes being undertaken, terms and phrases used in each of
the three empirical studies were fully explained and presented to all respondents prior to their
engagement. These included a detailed explanation of the purpose of each of the studies, a
description of the methodology being applied and then contact details of the author and their
HR officer for clarification or seeking out further information. All processes were approved
by two regional committees. To respond to any ethical issues, all respondents were informed
prior to each empirical study of due processes for engaging with their HR officer or the author
or university contact for any issues or concerns that may have been raised.
The research program presented in this thesis considered the complexities of the
research and addressed problems such as ensuring fair and equal representation of all local
government cohorts in the three empirical studies. The focus of the study was to enable
honest and open opinions through voluntary engagement and participation about matters
impacting on access to transitional employment.
The trustworthiness of the research program is supported by the dependability of the
data and triangulating different sets of data which is discussed in chapter five and leads to the
realisation that issues are impacting on both employers and employees from across several
data sources. The gathering of data from various working groups, using different methods
allowed for examination of the internal trustworthiness including the adequacy of the
inferences and the convergence of the evidence (Yin, 2003), older workers in the local
government workplace and the notion of transitional employment. However, limited
representativeness from some cohorts, a result of encouraging voluntary input, is noted.
To enhance confirmability of the research, a “pattern-matching logic” analytical
process was adopted by identifying common key phrases, words and concepts frequently cited
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in both studies so that any emergent patterns from the data analysis were evidenced
separately. The strategy enabled a comparison to be undertaken with those themes initially
from the literature review, through Study One and then Study Two. The literature review
realised two key stakeholders impacting on transitional employment of older workers. Key
global themes enabled the construct of two categories for stakeholders identified, employers
and employees. The literature review identified two significant impacts on that relationship
which led to two further categories (iii) Corporate Operations and (iv) Corporate Policies.
These led to the establishment of four key elements in a four quadrant model. Patterns within
each quadrant were then matched with other characteristics, phrases, terms, words and
concepts from the focus group data analysis, with no discernible or significant changes.
According to Burns (2000), “if there is no pattern to fit rival alternative theories, then the case
study can claim confirmability.” This logic was established to ascertain that assumptions
made from the merged literature themes were pertinent with the three empirical studies. The
themes were further considered through a range of interview questions to three separate
cohorts, to ensure that those themes identified thus far were consistent with common concerns
for employers and employees in local government. The emerging themes aggregated around
four key functions of local government councils. These four functions were each considered
a key aspect of the pattern matching logic approach undertaken and reflected in studies one
and two.
In undertaking the data analysis for Study One and then Study Two, codes were
established. The codes imposed in Study One enabled a data sorting process for the most
frequent themes (Study One). The codes were aligned to focus on research questions 1 and 2
reflecting the current workforce and impacts for skills and labour retention and perceptions
about current workplace environment.
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The codes applied in Study Two were aligned to research question 3 about
expectations for learning and development towards identification of most significant issues
impacting on expectations for accessing TE. The codes imposed a data sorting process to
enable the most relevant themes (Study One) and then issues (Study Two) for individual
workers in the workplace to be identified. The literature review led to the research questions
which guided the research program.
3.4 Processes undertaken within the Study
To enable extensive and honest input from all respondents within a safe environment
across the three empirical studies, different processes were undertaken. Study One was a case
study methodology designed from literature review findings. Two phases (sub study I and
sub study ii) were included and are presented separately. Sub study (i) was an online
questionnaire distributed to all local government councils in Queensland to gather data in a
short period of time about perceptions of the current workplace environment (Research
Question 2).
Sub study (ii) comprised three interview sets representing three different councils, to
enable responses to questions designed from sub study (i) data analysis. The purpose of this
study was to validate previous findings and to gather further data about workforce issues
impacting on skills and labour retention (Research Question 1). Interviews were deemed to
be an approach that enabled participants from local government councils to share opinions
and views about a range of themes, including themes from sub study (i). The process
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concluded with a presentation of most frequent themes which were included in the initial
TEM, and used to design questions for Study Two.
Study Two comprised two focus groups from two different councils to validate themes
from Study One. Questions were designed from those themes to identify expectations about
learning and development (Research Question 3), towards key findings and a final TEM.
Finally, all participants were invited to confirm that their involvement and the conduct
of the research had been fair, equitable and understood by them All processes were pre-
approved by the regional committees prior to commencement of any of the study approaches.
All processes are fully discussed and presented within their own empirical study section. A
synthesis of the five step process applied is presented in Table 4.
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Table 4: Five Step Approach for undertaking the study
(1) Literature Review (older worker/TE) and Local Government archival data
Research Program: Three key research questions
(2) Empirical Study One (two phases)
(i) Queensland-based online questionnaire, and
(ii) Interview sets
Initial Transitional Employment Model
(3) Empirical Study Two (two focus groups)
(4) Revised Transitional Employment Model
(5) Final Transitional Employment Model
Whilst future studies may seek to increase representativeness of some cohorts, groups
in this study represented a typical cross section of local government council employers and
employees who had access to information about and support for participating in the study.
The voluntary participation was sought to limit any perceptions for respondents of
requirements from their employing organisation. The processes across three empirical studies
enabled and ensured the transferability of information in the data towards most common
themes and then issues impacting on access to transitional employment. A further analysis
through a triangulation process of the literature review themes and three empirical studies
justified the use of different viewpoints which are presented as key findings.
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A comparative analysis of all data was undertaken to compare emergent themes
(Study One) against those identified within the literature review. These were further
considered, enabling views and opinions to focus on (Study Two) impacting the most on
either employer or employee. The confirmability of the data analysis was realised in the
processes undertaken by using different paradigm constructs, with different representative
groups. Firstly the online questionnaire was established to provide data at a particular point in
time about matters from the literature review data analysis. The data analysis presented key
and common themes which enabled questions to be designed to seek responses from
subsequent interview groups. Interviews (Study One) were organised and questions designed
to further supplement and elaborate on initial data analysis with a focus on most emergent
themes. The establishment of two focus groups (Study Two) sought to further investigate
those themes towards issues for organisations in the future towards interventions for the
retention of older workers.
An initial Transitional Employment Model was developed reflecting most frequently
identified themes about older workers from the literature review and Study One data analysis.
Findings included older workers in the workforce, levels of training access, current workforce
learning, adult learning preferences, ageing workforce trends, wellbeing factors and notions of
retirement. Those themes were then used in Study Two, towards identification of key and
emerging issues for older workers and impacting the most on employers and employees
towards enabling transitional employment. This led to the establishment of a revised
Transitional Employment Model. In consideration of issues presented and reflecting on
suggestions, strategies and options shared by focus groups, a final Transitional Employment
Model is presented with some key findings. The model is intended as a framework for future
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interventions by local government councils as a key industry reform strategy to retain older
workers. It is intended as a strategy for responding to looming skills and labour shortages and
providing options for older workers, other than a permanent exit from the workforce as the
only alternative.
3.5 Case Study Methodology
The overarching methodological approach for this research program was a case
study of one industry, the local government sector. A case study methodology was
selected as the most appropriate for several reasons. The complexity of the factors
inherent in this contemporary workplace context offered a unique opportunity for
gathering data. This data enabled a reasonably holistic view of the ageing phenomenon
and the role of older workers in the future, through an in-depth description of one
employment sector. As Merriam (1988) contends, a case study methodology is suitable
when an “intensive, holistic description and analysis of a bounded phenomenon” (p. xiv)
is required and in this case, where the ageing phenomenon in light of maintaining a
sustainable workforce in the future requires closer exploration for subsequent
interpretation and evaluation by organisations in the immediate future.
Research can consist of a single case or use several cases that may have
interrelated and complex elements embedded in a large context with established
boundaries. By “bounding” a system, case study research provides a meaningful and
manageable scope for the field of study, which in turn may provide rich and deep
descriptions of context and operations of a case or cases (McGrath & Johnson, 2003;
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Mertens 2004). For the purpose of this study, the boundaries are limited to local
government. The focus is older workers’ future employability within local government
and levels of access to learning and development services to support the notion of
transitional employment. Furthermore, the constructs considered will include themes
noted in the initial Transitional Employment Model which will be explored and refined to
enhance our understanding of those themes. By placing boundaries, both physically (local
government workers) and conceptually (four quadrant model in the initial transition
model) the research is manageable and applicable to current workforce challenges in local
government councils in Queensland.
In a case study, the data collection can combine qualitative and quantitative
procedures to complement the results and corroborate the findings, as noted by Creswell
(2005) and Mertens (2004). Given the diverse and interrelated nature of the variables in
the context of this research, such comprehensive data sources allow more detailed
analysis for understanding the research problem (Burns, 2000; Creswell, 2005). Such rich
data also allowed the researcher to undertake a comparative analysis to extract any
commonalities and differences that emerge. The capacity to adopt a complex process to
collect and synthesise a number of different sets of data from different sources is a
significant strength of case study methodology. Another strength is that it can “represent
a process of consisting of a series of steps that form a sequence of activities” (Creswell,
2005, p. 485).
A case study approach was selected as appropriate for this research and for the local
government industry, based on the following features of the methodology. Firstly, it
encourages developing a holistic understanding of the phenomenon and considers the range of
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factors influencing the current global ageing workforce phenomenon that is being experienced
within all organisations and in local government in particular. Secondly, it allows a unique
opportunity for collating data during a certain period of time. The case study methodology
enabled a more concentrated inquiry in this case, of older workers’ current perceptions and
expectations for extending their working lives and where the complex situation required a
closer understanding than could not have been achieved through an interventionist study
(Crotty, 1998). It was more suitable for undertaking an intensive, holistic description and
analysis (Crotty, 1998) of the local government workforce and in particular, the current
ageing phenomenon for all organisations.
This methodology enabled identification and examination of emerging issues for older
workers in the workforce regarding their skills development and employability in the future.
The limitations of case-study research include not being able to generalise results to other
populations, or in this case, other industries and employment sectors.
The research adopted various evidence collection processes and an overview is
presented in Table 5. Case studies are widely used as a learning method and what makes it
most useful within this study is its reality, its relevance to emerging problems faced by the
groups and the completeness of available data. The significance of values at issue are
identified within a learning environment (Burns, 2000); for this research, within the local
government workplace.
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Table 5: Data Collection Processes
Literature Review:
Most frequent and impacting themes
for older workers/notion of transitional employment, collapsed in to 8 most
dominant themes aligned to one of two key stakeholders
(Establishment of three key research questions)
1. What are the current local government
workforce issues impacting on skills and labour retention?
2. What are perceptions about the current
workplace environment? And,
3. What are the expectations about learning and development towards extending employability of older workers within the local government sector?
Study One: Questionnaire and then personal Interviews
(i) Queensland-based online Questionnaire. 34 questions (n=1,082) and
(ii) Three local government councils’ interviews (n=21)
Study Two: Focus Groups (n=17)
Sixteen stimulus questions designed to further investigate Study One themes (within an established four quadrant model)
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Qualitative research is vulnerable to becoming overly subjective and thus compromise
the value of the research findings. One way to mitigate against this over subjectivity is to
consider consistency of the research methodology. Three key research questions were
explored by utilising the three qualitative empirical studies, using some numerical data for
comparative analysis. This particular research study considered and applied a consistent
approach, initially through undertaking a literature review and empirical study one towards a
presentation of themes. Themes were validated with identification of issues impacting the
most on employers and employees for accessing transitional employment. Silverman (2005)
states that consistency in qualitative research, with reference to the notion of reliability, is
about the quality of field notes and transcripts of the audio-recorded discussions collected
during the data collection process. To achieve a high level of consistency between the various
data sets, Silverman (2001) recommends the use of low-inference descriptors. The low-
inference descriptors are tape-recordings of interviews (Study One) and then two focus groups
(Study Two) with careful, standardised, transcription of tapes resulting in the research data.
An analysis of dependability and confirmability matters related to qualitative research has
enabled the present research program to ensure a rigorous approach to develop a rich and
deeper level of understanding of the role of workers. The employer/ employee relationship is
considered and matters impacting on access for learning and development. Reflections on
personal and group work experiences were shared with views and opinions about the actual
workplace today. This was conducted in a safe and supportive environment which is not so
easily available in quantitative research (Bryman, 1988). By adopting a qualitative approach,
the current research has complemented similar studies which have focussed on the
interpretation of policies within organisations (Brooke & Taylor, 2005).
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Construct validity is the most complex and rigorous form of validity (McGrath &
Johnson, 2003; Yin, 2003). According to Yin (2003), in a qualitative approach and in a case
study the construct validity can be increased by adopting three key measures:
(i) using multiple sources of data to demonstrate the convergence of data from different
sources, the research comprised literature review and then three empirical studies.
(ii) establishing a chain or evidence to link each stage of evidentiary collection processes
(refer Table 5, p.104). The evidentiary links were further pursued by using the initial
TEM as a guiding paradigm construct, and
(iii) having key participants review their interpretations drawn from their responses as a
tactic to enhance the accuracy of the study was adopted. In this case, Study One
enabled respondents to present levels of support for and emerging themes impacting
on transitional employment. Interview participants were then invited to respond to
specifically designed questions to gather more specific emerging themes about older
workers. Study Two enabled two focus groups to respond to questions designed to
further elicit responses for recognising most significant issues for older workers in the
workplace, towards a revised TEM (refer Figure 2, p.263).
A five step approach enabled an investigation towards the presentation of key
findings. The application of different methodologies is recommended for use in design
methodology for case studies (Yin, 2003):
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(i) Assumptions made from global themes from the literature review led to three key
research questions which were presented in Chapter 1 (p.14), and then Study One
(p.81). Study Two validated those emergent themes.
(ii) Identifying the research themes – making assumptions to highlight something
important to be examined within the research.
(iii) Specify research unit(s), and codes for analysis, defining the units of analysis from the
literature review.
(iv) Logical linking of data to the assumptions – establishing a logic by proving that
several pieces of information from the literature review are linked to the empirical data
(Study One) which is then validated and expanded through to the two focus groups
(Study Two) as a second part of the research.
(v) Determine the criteria and interpret the findings, setting up a general analytic strategy
to interpret the findings. This resulted in majority levels of support for transitional
employment and key themes towards a presentation of the most frequently identified
issues impacting on older workers in the workforce in accessing transitional
employment.
The application of these methodologies led to a general data analysis being adopted
across three empirical studies which is discussed in detail within its separate section.
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3.6 Study One
Study One was a case study methodology designed from literature review
findings. Themes were sorted according to frequency and levels of impact on either
employers or employees (stakeholders) and collapsed in to eight most dominant
themes. It was intended to identify levels of support for transitional employment
and emergent themes impacting on older workers in the local government
workforce, towards the accessing transitional employment options.
3.6.1 Sub study (i) Queensland Local Government online Questionnaire
An online questionnaire was developed to gather data at a particular point in
time about a particular matter, transitional employment within the Queensland Local
Government workforce. The planning of the questionnaire considered the three
research questions established and reflected the eight most frequent themes
identified from the literature review (refer Table 3, p.88), a synthesis. The questions
were also considered for levels of responsibility for either employers or employees.
The identified stakeholders enabled two categories to be established which assisted
with the sorting of data. The drafted questionnaire questions were designed in
collaboration with two separate local government regional committees representing
local government human resource officers who had previously agreed to promote
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and distribute the questionnaire to their staff. The committee was invited to
contribute to and comment on and approve its design for content validity.
3.6.1.1 Sub study (i) Purpose of the online questionnaire
The research questions sought to collate data about perceptions of the current
workplace environment (Research Question 2). The intent of the online questionnaire was to
gather initial data at a particular point in time within the Queensland Local Government
regarding levels of support for transitional employment and themes impacting on access. The
identification of stakeholders and themes impacting on them would better inform and enable
sorting of data, to establish a paradigm construct and framework for the research and clarify
levels of support for transitional employment in the future.
3.6.1.2 Sub study (i) Design of the questionnaire
The online questionnaire method is that it is identified as an efficient way of
collecting data in large amounts at low cost in a short period of time (Babbie, 1995,
p. 255), across large geographical areas which is pertinent to the broad spectrum
local government councils serve in Queensland. Structured questionnaires are
amenable to statistical analysis (Burns, 2000); however for the purpose of this study
the questionnaire is used as a qualitative research tool. It will not involve statistical
computations but frequencies which are presented and used as descriptive statistics.
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It involved descriptive data and identification of emergent patterns. The
questionnaire comprised a total of 34 questions. 24 closed questions (sections one
and two), 4 open questions enabling limited responses (section three) which are
presented as quotes and then 6 open questions (section four) for unlimited
responses. The closed questions were designed in two separate sections; first
section was the identification of key demographics, respondents’ intended
retirement timeframes, formal qualifications (if any) achieved and field of
employment engaged in. This enabled the establishment of key categories for data
sorting and analysis. The second section presented closed questions regarding levels
of support for transitional employment, individual perceptions of age in the
workforce and preferred modes of employment in the future. The third and fourth
section posed open questions to enable more flexibility in their deliberations and to
elaborate on matters impacting on older workers in the workplace. The
establishment of interviews in sub-study one enabled further and richer data and
some clarification on emergent themes from another cohort.
Against the literature review discussed in Chapter 2, key themes impacting on older
workers and their levels of access to learning and development services towards transitional
employment were identified. The design of the questionnaire questions reflected on the
notion of transitional employment as a strategy for extending employment beyond the
traditional retirement age. A synthesis of some of those closed questions is presented (refer
Table 6, p.113). Participants within the local government context can attach different
meanings as well as different cause and effect to the meanings. For this reason, the terms and
phrases used in the design of the questionnaire questions were those that were deemed
appropriate and most relevant to the majority of local government workers and were endorsed
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by the regional committees after the questionnaire had been trialled by a representative
selected from each of their councils. This enabled queries or questions to be posed about
terms or phrases used. No changes or amendments were required or made to the initial
questionnaire prior to distribution.
Questions were designed to reflect three key research questions about matters
currently impacting on skills and labour, the current workplace environment and levels of
services available and finally, expectations about learning and development for extending
employability of older workers. Key themes from the literature review specifically about
transitional employment were key drivers for this questionnaire. A statement defining the
term transitional employment with contact details if further clarification/information was
sought or required by respondents was presented. In addition, contact details of HR officers
had been previously provided through invitations to partake in the study, with a clearly
defined statement about transitional employment and the purpose of the study.
A synthesis of most relevant questions is presented in Table 6 (p.107).
Acknowledging the paucity of and inconsistent data about current workforce
demographics in local government, initial questions were posed to gather statistics
for later use and reporting purposes. Other questions were designed to enable
responses to reflect on knowledge, views and opinions towards realisation of themes
impacting on individuals. The questions were designed in collaboration with two
regional committees representing human resource officers from councils. The
intention was to design questions that, at the very least, enabled responses from all
participants that would lead to further general discussions within the interview
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groups. This approach enabled responses to all questions from all respondents and
enabled identification of levels of support for TE.
As a result of the paucity of data about local government workers, and their
current views and opinions about transitional employment and work options, this
study sought to initially identify levels of support for transitional employment and
views and opinions about future interventions. Terms and phrases used in questions
were designed and posed in light of findings of most common themes from the
literature review. Whilst it can be argued that this limited some responses and
introduced different words and terms that the respondent may not have previously
considered, assistance and further clarification was offered through contact details
provided. In addition, section three provided for individual and richer answers. This
enabled the researcher to identify any further interpretations, views or opinions that
had not already been considered from the literature review findings. Those
additional responses elicited minimal terms, phrases or opinions to those already
included in the design of questionnaire. Those collated and sorted responses
questions, led to establishment of questions for interviews, to further consider
findings and align them to levels of responsibility for accessing TE. All questions
were considered and approved by the Regional Committee who confirmed that they
reflected emergent themes in the workplace which required further investigation.
Any additional comments or statements to open questions that reflected and
supported the highest scoring responses to closed questions enabled some quotes
that are presented in the data analysis. The most relevant questions designed and
aligned to the literature review themes are presented as a synthesis in Table 6.
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Table 6 Literature Review Themes/Sub study (i) online Questionnaire Questions
Themes from
literature review
Most relevant questionnaire questions posed aligned to literature review themes
Transitional Employment A statement defining “Transitional Employment” and providing contact details if further clarification/information was sought or required by respondents was presented.
The purpose of the questionnaire had been discussed and approved by two local government regional committees, together with question design, timeframes for responses; towards a presentation of findings.
Ageing demographics
Contemporary notions of retirement
Local government workforce
(No question number assigned)
When could you officially retire from full-time permanent work?
Ageism within the workforce
Successful ageing
05. What is “ageism” within the workforce?
Transitional Employment
(statement/definition already provided)
Workforce learning and development
Human Capital
25. *What should Council Management do to support you in to transitional employment?
26. *What would you be prepared to commit to, for transitional employment?
27. *What would you personally undertaken to do more of in transitional employment?
29. *What are the main benefits to your for transitional employment?
Performance management
Workforce planning
17. Who should be responsible for training/development and support for transitional employment?
Workforce learning
Barriers to l & d
14. Would you be prepared to undertake some form of training/development to prepare for transitional employment?
16. When should skills training/development for transitional employment be available?
Successful Ageing
06. What is meant by “ageing” within your executive/Senior management teams?
07. How do you value your own “work related learning and life skills?
*denotes four (open) questions attracting quotes presented in 4.3.1 Findings, Sub study (i)
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Closed questions sought a response to options presented and designed to reflect
literature review themes previously identified and discussed. Open-ended questions (sections
three and four) enabled respondents to provide more extended responses about a number of
concepts and to elaborate on matters about their workplace and current practices, including
access to transitional employment. The questionnaire instrument presented in Appendix 1
comprised four sections. Each section focused on separate elements of transitional
employment from the literature review. Section one comprised closed questions about key
demographics which were used for comparative analysis. Section two provided a range of
questions about perceptions and preferences using terms and phrases from the literature
review. Section three presented closed and open questions about preferences and biases for
accessing learning and skills development. Section four included open-ended questions
regarding expectations and benefits for employment of older workers and enabled responses
about the role of management for assisting and supporting those workers for the future.
3.6.1.3 Sub study (i) Questionnaire respondents
One thousand and eighty-two participants from 41 local government councils in the
State of Queensland responded to the questionnaire and those responses were considered
further by interview groups to increase external validity. Voluntary participation was
encouraged through invitations and notices about online access which was distributed to all
councils through emails and direct contact with Human Resource officers. As noted by Burns
(2004), voluntary participation is not likely to be a random sample of the population and can
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reduce the external validity and confidence to generalise to the population. For this reason,
individual interviews were established later in Sub study (ii) to encourage and enable those
respondents who had not already contributed to the questionnaire to participate in and share
their views and opinions about transitional employment for older workers. In addition, where
access to the online questionnaire was not possible or proved to be difficult given the nature
of the work and limited or absence of access to computers (such as outdoor workers), hard
copies were distributed to the different sections and depots in councils. Individual requests
from councils were received and these were responded to by the posting out of hard copies of
the questionnaire to managers who were requested to distribute, collate in confidence and
return back to the researcher. The questionnaire participants included males and females, all
age ranges with either formal or no qualifications representing all occupations in local
government councils. The cross sectional representativeness of local government employees
in Queensland to this study is presented in Tables 7(a) representing 562 females (52%) and
520 males (48%) in Sub study (i). and 7(b) occupational representativeness. Limited
representations from some cohorts such as females and indigenous workers were noted. The
study sought a typical cross section of local government workers who voluntarily responded
to invitations to contribute to the research about future transitional employment options and
had access to either the questionnaire online or their human resource officers for access to
hard copies. Table 7(a) presents the number of participants who completed the questionnaire
and 7(b) their occupations.
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Table 7a Sub study (i) Participants who responded to Questionnaire
Age Qualifications
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56+ University Trade/
Technical:
TAFE
School
Certificate
(Grade 10)
Other
Females
(n=562)
(52%)
3 62 102 277 118 82 298 164 18
Males
(n=520)
(48%)
4 49 108 254 105 182 204 108 26
Table 7b Sub study (ii) Occupations of participants who responded to Questionnaire
(n=1,082)
Technical Trade Professional Management Operations Labour Administration Other
108 22 320 216 108 14 280 14
It is also noted that the majority of responses were from occupations that would have
had access to the online questionnaire through computers, a tool for their work. For this
reason, a further process was implemented to distribute the questionnaires as hard copies to
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council depots by their human resource managers, where those workers would not have had
access.
3.6.1.4 Sub study (i) Procedure for administering online questionnaire
The questionnaire instrument and its contents were agreed to by the regional
committees. It was loaded on to the LGAQ website server and made available to all online
users, local government employees across Queensland. Some printed copies were distributed
to human resource officers in councils for response by employees who did not have access to
a computer. The questionnaire enabled a qualitative method to be applied as an efficient way
of collecting data in large amounts at low cost in a short period of times and the structure
enabled some statistical analysis (Burns, 2004).
3.6.1.5 Sub study (i) Ethics approval
Research ethics for the initial investigation, the questionnaire was approved under a
Queensland University of Technology administered Australian Research Council project. All
online questionnaire respondents were initially informed of the process for completing the
questionnaire, its purpose and a definition of the term transitional employment was presented.
All respondents were provided with contact details of the questionnaire author and invited to
make contact/communicate if any clarification or advice was required prior to completion of
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the Questionnaire. This was again confirmed at the conclusion of the questionnaire, in an
acknowledgement statement to the respondent prior to officially submitting their responses.
A further statement required the respondent to confirm that they (i) had fully understood the
purpose and intention of the questionnaire as a data collecting process, (ii) that all questions
had been clearly presented and understood (iii) only local government employees in
Queensland were invited to respond (iv) acknowledged their satisfaction of the completion of
the process (v) were fully aware of contact details of the author at any time, and time frames
of up to one month to submit responses or to raise any ethical issues. No ethical issues were
raised within this study. All respondents were also informed of the process for collating the
data in confidence, and agreed period for presenting feedback/final responses as outcomes of
the questionnaire.
3.6.1.6 Sub study (i) Follow up procedures: online questionnaire
The data analysis resulted in an overview of themes and outcomes which were
distributed to the Human Resource officers of those councils that had participated. Human
Resource officers from all councils were notified about the themes and were invited to
contribute any additional information or comments back to the researcher. Two comments
were received about an increasing need for more responsive training for local government
workers and another about limited support from TAFE, identified as the only public provider
of training. No new concepts were shared, but officers concurred with general findings
presented in this study; high levels of commitment to and majority of support for TE. No
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further enquiries or requests for information were received from any of the respondents
although contact details had been provided at the commencement of the online questionnaire.
3.6.1.7 Sub study (i) online questionnaire qualitative data analysis
Descriptive statistics provided percentages of responses for each item. These were
considered and calculated to identify the patterns of responses across the questionnaire
respondents as previously noted. The questionnaire was designed around key ideas from the
literature review about the role of transitional employment arrangements and some of its
features. How these features were understood by this group through responses enabled a
presentation of significant patterns and trends and levels of support. The definition of data
analysis is “the process of examining, categorising, tabulating, testing, or otherwise
recombining both quantitative and qualitative evidence to address the initial propositions of a
study (Yin, 2003, p. 109). The strategy used in this study reflected the above characteristic by
designing the questionnaire questions based on assumptions made regarding themes from the
literature review and some archival data. A specific technique called “a pattern matching
logic” (Yin, 2003) was applied. “If there is a comparison between an empirically based
pattern and a predicted one is identical, the result can help enhance its internal validity” (Yin,
2003, p.116). Thus, the analytical process was assisted by pre-identifying possible emergent
themes from the literature review. All responses were recorded in to a spreadsheet and was
analysed towards the presentation of frequency of responses with some additional terms and
phrases being shared.
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In the study, all raw data was initially collated as completed responses to closed and
open questions. The data was grouped according to the various sections in the questionnaire.
The first phase of sorting was undertaken by placing key data within each of the pre-
determined four sections. All responses were counted up in line with responses to each
question posed and entered in to a spreadsheet. The use of such a process was appropriate
since the research yielded an extensive and considerable volume of data and enabled the
process of analysis to be efficient. The next step was to examine the aggregated data with
regards to demographic variables to establish an understanding about the entire data set as a
whole until significant patterns were noted and developed from the segments of the coded
data (Johnston & Christensen, 2004; Silverman, 2005). This made it useful for
operationalising the findings as themes impacting on the notion of transitional employment in
local government with an alignment to one of the two stakeholders identified in this study.
Frequency of responses by employment type, education level and ages were also
analysed to identify any key differences between responses and evident patterns or trends.
Key themes identified and not in any particular order, included ageing demographics,
workforce learning, transitional retirement, and adult learner preferences, barriers to learning
and development, workforce learning and development. A synthesis of themes aligned to
interview questions designed is presented in Table 8 (p.121).
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3.6.2 Sub study (ii) Interviews
A second investigative method, interview groups were established to gather data about
workforce issues impacting on skills and labour retention (research question 1), in light of
findings from the questionnaire data analysis. Interviews enable the researcher to collect
additional data to supplement and elaborate on initial findings. In this case, the interview data
is intended to supplement and validate themes from Sub study (i) questionnaire data analysis.
Data from interview participants can be observed and recorded thus, inflections such as
passion and emotions, and opinions, and views can be captured about themes already shared
within the group. In the course of an interview, the researcher can investigate in more detail
an informant’s typification of persons and events (Burns, 2000 p. 410) - in this case their
experiences, views and opinions about current matters. All interviewees were given the
opportunity to respond to ten questions which were designed in collaboration with the
regional committees to elaborate on findings from sub study (i) and to provide additional
statements and opinions leading to richer and unstructured data and content.
At commencement of interviews, all respondents were informed of the interview
processes, and the purpose of the interviews. Key terms and phrases were shared and
interviewees invited to seek clarification or definition if required. The ten questions were
presented in a document format for each interviewee. Interviewees were informed that the
questions had been designed to reflect findings from the questionnaire data analysis. The
interviewer advised interviewees of the structure for “recording” their responses. Time
frames were determined and all interviewees were advised that at any time if they wished to
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terminate or change their responses, the interview process allowed for this. At no time was
identification of the individual realised, other than unique identity code issued to each
individual prior to the interview and then recorded in the database with key demographics
regarding employment, age range and gender. Prior to the interview, key information
regarding processes for recording, maintaining confidentiality and strategies for posting key
findings and outcomes was presented. Clarification and approval of the interview questions
was sought and agreed to by the regional committees prior to the establishment of the
interviews.
3.6.2.1 Sub study (ii) interview representativeness
Twenty-one participants were recruited from three separate councils to provide equal
representation from one urban, one rural and one regional council. This enabled a broad cross
section of local government workers to contribute their opinions and views regarding the
findings derived from the Queensland-based (i) questionnaire. The interviews were intended
for individual workers who had not already responded to the online questionnaire to enable
and encourage a wider participation rate and additional and richer data about the notion of
transitional employment. Invitations to attend interviews on a voluntary basis were
distributed by councils’ human resource officers, with the intention that honest and open
discussions could be held with no anticipated expectations from their employers.
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3.6.2.2 Sub study (ii) Interview study details
The key advantage of an interview is its flexibility. The process provides the
interviewer with the opportunity to observe the subject and the total situation in which they
are responding. Interviews, according to Burns (2004), enables more people who are willing
to talk face to face, to interact which assists in establishing rapport and is a particularly useful
method when extensive data is required on a number of complex topics. Probing can be
undertaken which elicits more complete responses and the interviewer is able to control the
sequence of the items. Questions can be repeated or their meanings pursued. All
interviewees were invited to make comments about the process and their confirmation that a
fair, equitable and confidential approach had been applied at conclusion of their interview.
All interviewees presented positive responses with no negative comments or concerns
recorded.
3.6.2.3 Sub study (ii) Interview questions
Ten questions were designed (refer Appendix II) and selected to reflect themes from
Sub study (i) questionnaire data analysis (refer Table 6, p.113). These questions were posed
to interviewees and were preceded by an invitation to seek clarification or definitions from the
interviewer. The questions led to different matters being raised and personal explanations and
references regarding previous experiences. The questions led to personal views, opinions and
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topics about current policies, corporate values of older workers, and incentives for older
workers to seek out transitional employment. Design of the questions and terms used were
approved by the Regional Committees to reflect and enable a range of themes to be presented.
Ageing demographics reflected an ageing workforce which was impacting on all
organisations from the literature review. This was also strongly supported and evidenced by
study (i) respondents. As a result of the above interview questions were designed to seek out
further details about perceptions about the current the workplace environment (Research
Question 1). in light of the ageing workforce and subsequent impacts for maintaining a
sustainable workforce. Interview Question 1: What policies exist to support older workers?
Retirement goals appeared to be more reflective of an absence of value for older
workers’ skills and knowledge in organisations. In reference to the perceived value of older
workers, an interview question was designed to reflect on the impact of the loss of older
workers from the workforce and subsequent value to organisations. Interview Question 9:
Does loss of skills/knowledge of older workers impact on the workforce?
Successful ageing was a key aspiration of all workers, and this was reflected in shared
commitments to workforce learning for future employability. An interview question to enable
responses about whether older workers are valued in organisations was designed. Interview
Question 2: How does Council “value” their older workers?
In referencing current workforce learning, questionnaire responses reflected some
biases or preferences for younger workers to learn in their early recruitment years which also
created incentives for them. Two interview questions were designed to enable responses
about equity and current practices for recruiting and managing older workers in the workplace
and subsequent incentives available. Interview Question 3: How is Council
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recruiting/managing their older workers? Interview Question 4: What options or incentives
exist to keep older workers in the workforce?
Whilst transitional retirement options were referenced in the literature review,
responses from the questionnaire highlighted that no options were available to older workers.
This appeared to reflect on levels of access to different work options or opportunities
available which subsequently enabled them to maintain or build on their skills. Interview
Question 5: Are different jobs/roles available to older workers?
Adult learner preferences were identified as a key driver for accessing information
about learning and development by workers. Interview question 6 sought out levels of
communications available about current corporate learning services available. Interview
question 6: Are current communications keeping older workers informed of services
available to them?
Barriers to learning (for a range of reasons) included inconsistent levels of access to
learning services which when available, did not appear to reflect learning needs of some
individuals. Whilst the value of older workers in the workplace was evidenced, some
concerns regarding council’s appraisal systems for accessing development services were
cited. Interview question 7 was designed to reflect on the productivity of older workers and
support services to support them. Interview question 7: Are older workers productive? If
yes, do they have learning and development programs to support them? In addition, question
10 attempted to attract responses about current corporate evaluation measures in place for
older workers. Interview question 10: What productivity measures are in place to evaluate
input of older workers e older workers?
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The value of workforce learning and development in the future was supported by
majority of respondents. Concerns about the procurement of some learning programs were
evidenced and interview question 8 sought out responses about corporate planning processes
in light of the agreed value of learning and development. Interview question 8: Is Council
planning for the future workforce?
All interview questions were designed to gather data about the role and purpose of the
current learning and development services in councils and levels of access and services
available to older workers. A synthesis of Sub study (i) questionnaire themes aligned to
interview questions is presented in Table 8.
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Table 8 Sub study (i) Themes aligned to Sub study (ii) Interview Questions: A Synthesis
Sub study (i) Themes
Sub study (ii) Interview Questions
Ageing demographics
Contemporary notions of retirement
1. What policies exist to support older workers?
9. Does loss of skills/knowledge of older workers impact on the workforce?
Successful ageing
Workforce learning
2. How does Council “value” their older workers?
3. How is Council recruiting/managing their older workers?
4. What options or incentives exist to keep older workers in the workforce?
Transitional Retirement
Adult learner preferences
5. Are different jobs/roles available to older workers?
6. Are current communications keeping older workers informed of services available to them?
Barriers to learning and development
7. Are older workers productive? If yes, do they have learning and development programs to support them?
10. What productivity measures are in place to evaluate input of older workers?
Workforce learning and development 8. Is Council planning for the future workforce?
All questions were posed to each interviewee, recorded and noted by the interviewer.
Other questions were posed and responses elaborated on where individual matters were raised
or discussed in addition to the key responses provided by individuals. Additional notes were
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taken and considered in line of the frequency of terms, phrases or inflection in responses to
the interviewer.
3.6.2.4 Sub study (ii) Council representativeness
Councils were identified to represent one urban, one rural and one regional council
each representing one of the three types of councils which operate in Queensland. Each of the
three selected councils were identified and agreed to by the two local government committees
representing Queensland local government councils and who had supported the promotion of
Sub study (i) online questionnaire. The three councils were invited to nominate seven
workers who represented a cross section of their workforce. Human Resource officers were
requested to invite those selected individuals to attend personal interviews, as a voluntary
participant. Councils were advised that the purpose of interviews were to collate responses to
ten key questions which had been designed from previous research findings. A copy of those
findings had previously been made available to HR officers in Councils. A request put to all
three councils was that equal representation of males and females and older and younger
workers was preferred, to provide equitable representation of local government council
employers and employees. The three councils identified were those deemed to have reported
higher than average levels of eligible retirees in their annual local government workforce
census (LGAQ, 2007b) and had been identified and agreed to by the two regional committees
representing local government councils.
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Eighteen males and three females attended the interviews as a cross section of the
workforce but not an equal representation of the total workforce; a result of voluntary
participation which was intended and was noted. The majority of interviewees were in the
36+ year old category and were identified as not being eligible for immediate retirement, with
limited access to computers and had not participated in the online questionnaire. This cohort
represented those who had accepted the invitation to partake in discussions about transitional
employment in the future and the role of older workers in the future and their current impact
on workloads for them. Nine managers and supervisors (representing traditionally identified
leaders of working teams) and twelve workers (identified as traditional workers) and who had
no direct supervisor or leadership roles attended the interviews (21 in total). Table 9 presents
a sample overview of the representative group.
Table 9 Sample Representation
Council Gender Ages Position
Male Fem 16-25 yrs
26-35 yrs
36-45 yrs
46+ yrs
Mgr Supervisor Worker
Urban 7 0 2 1 3 1 1 1 5
Rural 5 2 0 1 4 2 2 2 3
Regional 6 1 1 1 4 1 3 0 4
Total (18) (3) (3) (3) (11) (4) (6) (3) (12)
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3.6.2.5 Sub study (ii) Procedure for conducting the interviews
To avoid research bias, particularly as the researcher was the Training and Development
Manager in the Local Government Association, and a key provider of learning services to
Queensland local government councils, an experienced interviewer was recruited. The
interviewer was briefed about the research project and the design of each of the interview
questions. The interviewer had previously conducted interviews in local government and
other industries and had been engaged as a management consultant on a range of matters
pertaining to ethics, change management and corporate workforce planning. The interviewer
was informed of the purpose, history and processes undertaken for Study One and the (i)
online questionnaire which led to the establishment of interview questions, prior to
conducting the interviews.
All interviewees confirmed that they had not completed the online questionnaire in the
study, prior to their attendance for interview. The total number of interviewees targeted and
recruited was 21. However, after the initial recruitment two interviewees had to withdraw for
personal reasons. These two individuals were replaced to maintain the integrity of the study.
All selected interviewees met the predetermined criteria established in that they had not
previously taken part in Study One questionnaire, and had not been previously interviewed on
any matters pertaining to the present research. Equitable representativeness of the workforce
population was not achieved and this was noted in light of the voluntary invitation to and
subsequent involvement in the interviewees.
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Individual invitations were sent to the seven volunteer interviewees in each council
through the Human Resource Officer. The invitation identified the voluntary nature of
engagement, purpose of the interviews, duration of the interviews, name of the researcher,
venue and date. All interviewees were informed prior to the meeting that their discussions
and responses to the ten questions would be audio-recorded and translated into narrative
transcripts, sorted and interpreted and analysed by the researcher. All interviewees were
assured prior to the interview by the Interviewer that all transcripts would be retained as
confidential and at no time would names be recorded.
3.6.2.6 Sub study (ii) Ethics approval
The study reflected on research undertaken and data from a QUT ARC project about
local government blue collar (outdoor) workers and for which the researcher was directly
involved. The process for ethics approval was processed and approved through the ARC and
in accordance with QUT ethics procedures. All respondents were informed of the
requirement for ethical standards to be complied with and that the process had been
completed. No ethical issues were raised within this study. Contact details for further
information or clarification was provided to each interviewee. All interviewees confirmed
that they had understood the process and were aware of contact details for them to use in the
future.
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3.6.2.7 Sub study (ii) follow up procedures: interviews
The interview responses provided recorded data which was analysed and included in
an initial synthesis and shared with the two regional committees representing Queensland
councils in a comprehensive report. The two regional committees had assisted in the
distribution and promotion of the Sub study (i) online questionnaire and were engaged to
review and comment on the accuracy and representativeness of the findings. This information
was shared with their interviewees and enabled them to reflect on those themes presented.
Some comments and clarifications were presented and minor amendments made, but no
significant changes were made to the final themes presented.
3.6.2.8 Sub study (ii) Interview data analysis
The use of descriptive statistics provided percentages of responses to each item and
personal responses to a range of questions designed towards themes from the questionnaire
data analysis. These were considered and calculated to gain some idea of the patterns, trends
about matters impacting on access to transitional employment by interviewees. The interview
questions were designed around key themes from the literature review about the importance
of transitional employment arrangements and some of its features. How these features were
understood by this group of people enabled a presentation of some emerging patterns and
trends about levels of support and barriers to accessing transitional employment. The
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definition of data analysis is “the process of examining, categorising, tabulating, testing, or
otherwise recombining both quantitative and qualitative evidence to address the initial
propositions of a study (Yin, 2003, p.109).
Ten questions were posed (refer Appendix II), and all responses were audio recorded
and later transcribed. Key themes that concurred were read then re-read and analysed for
frequency in the transcribed texts. The most frequently appearing themes were accepted and
imported into main categories for coding and sorting the data. Initially ten themes were
identified from sub study (ii) and later collapsed into eight, as there were two overlapping
themes. Themes included role of older workers, ageing trends, current learning, adult
learning preferences, wellbeing factors, levels of aces, workforce culture and notions of
retirement. The eight themes were identified as those being most reflective and directly
impacting on individuals and older workers seeking to access transitional employment options
in the workplace. The themes were included in the initial TEM (refer Figure 1, p.182) which
was established as a synthesis of the literature review (refer Table 18, p.193). To better
organise the classifications, the data was reviewed again and it was noted that the data
analysis frequently reflected and focussed on roles and responsibilities impacting on the
workforce and subsequent workplace relationships. Two key stakeholders were identified in
the data analysis:
(i) Employer or (ii) Employee.
Key terms, phrases and concepts raised and discussed reflected two environmental
elements as key and determinant factors in having the greatest influences and impact
on the working relationship of both stakeholders:
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(ii) Corporate Policies or (iv) Corporate Operations.
The four elements were used to organise the emergent themes from Study One into an
initial structure and referred to as the four quadrant model. The themes were sorted, aligned
and imposed into one of the four pre-determined quadrants; reflecting greatest impacts on
older workers for accessing transitional employment from the data analysis.
3.6.3 Study One: A Summary
Study One sought to validate initial themes by gathering data through a consistent and
qualitative approach, from two sources. Sub study (i) Queensland-based online questionnaire
presented majority levels of support for transitional employment and enabled identification of
themes impacting on access to transitional employment, and then (ii) interviews were used to
further validate those themes and collate richer data about older workers in the workplace
towards extending their working lives; accessing transitional employment.
Sub study (ii) interviews data analysis presented views and elaborated opinions and key
themes from the sub study (i) questionnaire data analysis. Sub study (ii) interview data
analysis recognised two key stakeholders, (i) Employers and (ii) Employees and then realised
two additional environmental work matters impacting on the employers and employees’
working relationship (iii) Corporate Policies and (iv) Corporate Operations. A four quadrant
model was established and led to an initial TEM (refer Figure 1, p.182). Eight themes are
presented as those most frequently identified for impacting on access to TEM. This was used
as a paradigm construct and guide for Study Two. Study Two was established to validate
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those themes towards identification of most impacting issues for workers towards the
transitional employment and towards a revised TEM (refer Figure 2, p.263). A further follow
up was the sharing of data with the regional committees who stated that no comments or
queries had been posed to them and that the findings reflected matters they considered to
accurately reflect current and emergent themes in the workplace.
3.7 Study Two
Study Two utilised two focus groups to consider expectations about learning and
development towards extending employability of older workers within the local government
sector (research question 3). A focus group is a data collection methodology often used to
collect shared understandings from group interactions, as well as solicit views from
individuals representing diverse groups (Babbie, 2002, P.67). It is advantageous to facilitate
interaction among those interviewees as it yields diverse responses. They are also useful
when the time to organise and collect information is limited (Cresswell, 2008, p.39). This
method is perceived as being less clinical, more like real life and takes its cues from
ethnography and cognitive science and it is claimed to elicit deep insights, emotions and
motivations (Wellner, 2005, p. 83). It also allows a representative sample selection (as group
members) to reflect a broad sector of the community and represent and contribute to the
outcomes of the group consensus (Babbie, 2002; Lederman 1990; Persico & Heaney, 1986).
Generally, focus groups comprise of approximately six to ten respondents per group (Babbie,
2002; Lederman, 1990; Persico & Heaney, 1986). The two identified key stakeholders in the
current local government group, (i) employers (including executive leaders) or (ii) employees
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(including general managers, supervisors, outdoor and indoor workers) were identified and
were represented in the study. The focus group representatives considered and discussed
views expressed in response to 16 stimulus questions which had been aligned to the four
quadrant model. Emerging issues, themes, interactive comments, personal views and
opinions shared by the participants were observed and recorded. The value of the focus group
method is that it is often used to elicit those things that we cannot directly observe (Patton,
2001) with other research methods. The stimulus questions were derived from themes from
Study One, and each one aligned to one of the four quadrants (refer Table 10, p.143).
The focus group process enabled a range of discussions and the sharing of views,
ideas and opinions about perceptions of the value of older workers, value of learning and
development and perceptions of workers about management commitment to supporting access
for all workers. Both groups considered and contributed responses reflecting their views
about the ageing phenomenon, looming skills and labour shortages and how this was been
impacting on councils’ service delivery, given the impost of the State-led local government
reform in Queensland “to build stronger councils” (Queensland Government, 2007b). The
process allowed for individuals to seek clarification, express their own opinions based on past
experiences and observe other viewpoints in a safe and supportive environment, where views
were welcomed and biases expressed. The environment reflected the importance of enabling
individuals to explore how different participants in a social setting construct their beliefs
(Guba & Lincoln, 2004). This was based on individuals own varied backgrounds, unique
experiences, different levels of workplace operations and any intergenerational differences
that emerged which were identified and voluntarily discussed and shared.
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Data collection techniques such as recorded dialogue and transcripts were used. All
opinions and views expressed within the focus groups were recorded and later transcribed.
Throughout the focus group discussions, rephrasing and qualifications of statements were
made by both the researcher and attendees, as required. This enabled participants to agree to
a readable and reliable account of responses (Glesne, 1999) at the conclusion of each focus
group meeting.
3.7.1 Planning the focus groups
The planning of the focus groups initially involved engagement of both regional
committees to determine purpose and desired outcomes for such a process in the study. To
enable a fair cross section representation of both local government councils and reflecting
both employers and employees, four steps were undertaken and are described in detail below.
Phase 1 – Initial project setup
Two focus groups were established to discuss and elicit emerging issues for older
workers accessing transitional employment in the future. Sixteen stimulus questions were
designed (refer Table 10, p.143) to reflect emergent themes from Study One data analysis.
The intention of the focus groups was to provide a final data gathering strategy for collating
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contemporary views and opinions about themes impacting on older workers towards possible
interventions in the future and subsequent findings for future consideration by both employer
and employee.
Phase 2 – Selection of participants
In the second phase participants for the two local government focus groups were
identified and selected by the two local government regional committees who had supported
and promoted the Study One. All focus group attendees were initially contacted by their
Human Resources Manager, similar to the process used in sub study (ii) interviews. To
enable a fair cross section of the workforce and representation of both councils, human
resource managers were advised to invite participants who were interested in discussing
transitional employment and the role of older workers in the workforce. All participants were
invited as volunteers to the study. In addition, it was also requested that any potential
attendee who had previously taken part in or responded to the online questionnaire or
interviews (Study One) were to be advised that their attendance was not required on this
occasion. Each council then prepared and submitted the names of nine employees and
confirmed representation of employers and employees, genders, ages, and different
occupational levels of employees within their local government council and that
representation met the selection criteria established (that they had not previously been
engaged in this study). Limited representativeness of some cohorts was noted. Three
different interview dates, times and suggested venues were offered to each of the councils, to
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maximise options for attendance and to be least disruptive to the daily work requirements of
the participating councils.
Phase 3 – Invitation to selected personnel
A letter of invitation, including a Participant Information letter outlining the intent of
the research (refer Appendix III) stating the anticipated involvement of the candidates and
their rights in relation to the research was sent to each potential participant. Once these had
been received back and confirmation from Council as to its preferred date, time and venue,
arrangements were made to facilitate the two separate workshops.
Phase 4 – Engagement of two focus groups
The fourth phase consisted of the researcher establishing the logistics of the focus
group meetings, and confirming attendance and logistics with the Human Resource Manager
in each council. Both focus group meetings were held in a safe, comfortable, confidential, (i)
board room for focus group one and (ii) training room for focus group two, where there were
no distractions or interruptions and privacy was demonstrated and managed by all parties.
Attendees were formally reminded of the location details and meeting times two weeks prior
to the focus groups being held. The focus group workshops were held at what had been
previously agreed to be the most convenient time for employer and employees, within normal
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working business hours and at the best agreed time and least disruptive time for all
individuals. The focus group process was then led by the researcher who posed the same
sixteen stimulus questions to both focus groups to elicit and encourage responses from all
individuals in the group. All respondents were informed of the process, the purpose of the
study and contact details for further clarification or enquiries about the study. Whilst each
individual was encouraged to contribute their own responses throughout the focus group
meeting, they were also invited to and encouraged from time to time to clarify each other’s
views and opinions which is a benefit of focus group participation (Burns, 2000).
At the commencement of the focus groups, all attendees were introduced to each other
and confirmation secured that none of the individuals had directly worked with each other
prior to the meeting. This was to establish any previous levels of communications or
interactions that might bias or limit any discussions or sharing of opinions. This process also
enabled individuals to recognise that there were no preconceived responses or outcomes to the
group discussions. The informal structure was to be fair, equitable and accessible by all
attendees to enable full responses to a range of stimulus questions and sharing of emerging
issues on the day. Clarification was sought and agreed to at commencement of each meeting
about knowledge of the topic and specific terms or jargon that may emerge (Goldman &
McDonald, 1987) and invited to seek further clarification at any time.
All attendees were given the opportunity of identify their own preferred methods for
being involved in general discussions and enabling their individual contributions. This was
noted and was then adopted and accommodated by the facilitator. This also enabled and
promoted shared interests in a non-threatening, semi-structured setting (Goldman &
McDonald, 1987; Lederman, 1990; Persico & Heaney, 1986; Ziff 1990).
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3.7.2 Focus group stimulus questions
The focus group participants were each posed 16 open stimulus questions designed to
reflect themes from Study One data analysis and which had been aligned to the initial TEM,
within the four quadrant model. The 16 stimulus questions (refer Table 10, p.143) included
elements of the three key research questions. These included current local government
workforce issues impacting on skills and labour (Research Question 2), perceptions about the
current workplace environment (Research Question 1) and expectations about learning and
development towards extending employability (Research Question 3). The questions were
posed to stimulate and focus the participants’ thinking, and it also enabled discussions and
facilitation of shared views and experiences on a range of matters impacting on older workers
in the workplace, whilst reflecting on their own roles and responsibilities in the workforce.
Quadrant One presented themes impacting on current practices by employers with
regards to the role of their older workers and current levels of training access available to
them. To further elicit themes, focus group questions were designed to discuss current
support services. FG question 1 sought responses to incentives that encouraged older workers
to train and develop their skills. Frequent references were made from the interview sets
regarding other and better practices in private industry. FG question 3 was designed to
identify those practices and if they existed, compare with those in councils today. FG
question 4 attempted to explore support services identified that were evident in private
industry and FG question 11 sought out innovations for the future to retain workers and levels
of support for older workers.
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Quadrant Two reflected on themes impacting on employees and included ageing
workforce trends and their own wellbeing factors which were frequently raised in the
interview groups. FG question 5 sought out current services available to them, and question 6
attempted to identify any perceived differences between jobs and roles. Some literature
reflected on different levels of access for males and females, and this was occasionally
referred to in the interview groups. FG question 7 sought out if differences existed and was
followed by FG question 8 to identify any different levels of access and finally, FG question 9
focussed on current training and development services available.
Quadrant Three was established in light of different views about current policies
which the interview groups questioned regarding notions of retirement within the current
workforce culture. FG question 2 sought issues that discouraged older workers to train, FG
question 10 about the quality of training delivered and undertaken by them, towards FG
question 12 which sought out the value of such services for the future, culminating in FG
question 13 about current management approaches and practices and actual or perceived
corporate policies applied.
Quadrant Four reflected current day to day work operations and actual availability of
support services. FG question 14 sought out the role and value of the supervisor towards FG
question 15 asking about the “value” of keeping older workers in the workplace. FG question
16 enabled general comments about current workplace operations in councils for accessing
TE.
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Table 10 Study Two: Focus Group Stimulus Questions
Quadrant 1 Employers
01. What exists in Council to encourage
older workers to train and develop their skills for the future?
03. What exists in private industry to encourage older workers to train and develop their skills for the future?
04. How does private industry manage their older workers?
11. What do you think Council should do to retain their workers?
Quadrant 2 Employees
05. What currently exists in Council to
support training and development for older workers?
06. What is the difference between access for training and development for blue collar and white collar workers?
07. What is the difference between learning and development access for males and females?
08. What differences are there in access to training and development services for workers?
09. What training and development is available within Council?
Quadrant 4
Corporate Policies
02. What exists (if anything) that discourages older workers to train and develop their skills for the future?
10. What is the quality of training and development services available?
12. Why are training/development/ learning services necessary in a workforce?
13. What is management doing to retain workers?
Quadrant 3 Corporate Operations
14. How does your supervisor assist you
in identifying learning and development opportunities?
15. What is the value of keeping older workers in the workforce?
16. Any general comments about the workforce?
Each question was posed in a pre-determined order which enabled responses across a
range of themes. Questions had previously been designed and aligned to one of the four
quadrants for the purpose of recording notes and later sorting and data analysis. The quadrants
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included, (i) Employers, (ii) Employees, (iii) Corporate Operations, and (iv) Corporate
Policies have previously been discussed.
3.7.3 Sample representativeness
The two focus groups represented one large rural council (eight employees);
one employee was unable to attend on the day or provide an alternative attendee,
and one small rural council (nine employees). This totalled 17 employees, and the
groups were named Focus Group A and Focus Group B respectively, representing
males and females, all ages and different occupations and disciplines within
Council. Table 11 presents a summary of the representatives for both focus groups.
Table 11: Representatives: Study Two Focus Groups
Focus Group A (Larger Regional
Council)
Focus Group B (Smaller rural Council)
No. of participants 8 9 Males 5 5 Females 3 4 Age range 18 years – 56 years 19 years – 57 years Manual workers 2 2 Administration workers 2 2 Trade workers 2 3 Business workers 2 2 Average planned retirement age 60 years 65 years Average – ideal retirement age 55 years 60 years LG work experience 18 months - 32 yrs 3 months – 28 years Support for more workers in the future
Yes - 100% Yes - 100%
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3.7.4 Administering the focus groups
Each focus group participant was issued with a unique identification number, which was
recorded on their individual card and placed on the table in front of them. They were then
requested to refer and quote this number when responding to the stimulus questions, for later
referencing of the transcripts, and individual identification. When participants omitted to state
their agreed code, or this was not recorded, the researcher made notes so as not to detract or
interrupt the natural flow of discussions and responses to the specific stimulus questions.
3.7.5 Focus groups’ ethics approval
Research ethics approval for the conduct of the focus groups was obtained from the
Queensland University of Technology Human Research Ethics Committee (Queensland
University of Technology [QUT], 2007; refer to Appendix VI).
All focus groups members were informed at commencement of meetings of ethics
approval process and purpose. All attendees were invited to confirm their understanding of
ethics approval, and contact details of the Facilitator were distributed for future enquiries or
clarification. No ethical issues were raised within this study.
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3.7.6 Focus group data analysis
The use of descriptive statistics and texts presented from the focus group discussions
led to key issues being identified and presented. These issues were considered and reflected
key patterns, trends and ideas for future interventions for learning and development and
support services for older workers. The focus group questions were designed around key
themes from the literature review and study one about future interventions and levels of
access to learning and development to enable extended employability. Focus group
discussions enabled identification of barriers for and strategies in the future, to better support
older workers accessing transitional employment.
Within the focus group study, themes were initially derived from the current
theoretical literature review about the role of older workers. Some assumptions regarding
stereotypical views of older workers, learning and development opportunities and
expectations were extended across specific sub-boundaries in this study. The strategy
reflected the characteristic of the design of the focus group engagement by further identifying
issues, which helped to guide the data analysis of this research data (Silverman, 2005; Yin,
2003) by, for example, helping to focus on key data related to the assumptions drawn from the
literature review. In qualitative research, searching for inconsistencies in language used by
attendees is important for the data analysis, and in this study were considered and reflected in
questions deemed suitable for all respondents and agreed to by both regional committees.
Most qualitative research requires a rich data set, in this case three empirical data sets
for analysis. According to Leonard and Hilgert (2004), this enables the engagement of richer
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data that reflects different mindsets to resolve the conflict between the current short-term
thinking evidenced by many organisations, and the need for a broader national approach that
meets future social, personal and economical needs. However, the richness of information
that makes qualitative research so attractive to researchers can also be a “nuisance” because of
the number of variables and themes which this type of research can generate (Bryman, 1988).
Seale, Giampetro and Gubrium (2000) criticises qualitative research for being vulnerable to
creating so many variables and themes that the researcher can too easily judge factors as being
causal or significant when arguably they are not, or is only telling part of the story. This
study sought to investigate the role of older workers across diverse and representative groups,
hence the focus on frequent and key themes and then issues for future interventions.
Research needs to consider a systematic way of coding data to avoid these traps (Vaitkus,
1991) and has been applied in this study. As a result of presenting a hypothesis in the form of
a proposed model (as is the case in the current research) a sharper focus of the data analysis is
enabled.
Bryman (1988) posits that the researcher should be looking for key words and
categories, such as labeling comments on a phenomenon as “critical” or “non-critical” and
making notes in a note book accordingly. In this study, initial categorisation was established
by identifying “supportive” or “not supportive” statements and comments shared about
transitional employment. In addition, researchers are advised to keep notes during and after
each focus group about how comments were made, and if any inflection could change the
meaning of what was being said. In this case, such observations were noted and coded
against their names in response to their contributions. The data was contextualized and
entered in to a database. The data was read and re-read to sort data into codes, according to
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frequency of terms and phases used and issues raised and supported regarding access to
transitional employment options by older workers.
The next step was to examine the coded data to establish an understanding about the
entire data set as a whole until categories were developed from the segments of the coded data
(Johnston & Christensen, 2004; Silverman, 2005). The categories were then concluded
within a revised TEM framework (refer Figure 2, p. 263) to reflect the most frequently
identified issues impacting on older workers in the workplace. The application of a
triangulation process to data enabled further improvement to the internal validity of the
findings (Burns, 2000) and justifies the different viewpoints towards key findings presented.
3.8 Summary: Methodology and Research Design
This qualitative study employed four criteria sets to ensure a quality approach to the
research which included (a) construct validity (b) internal validity (c) external validity and (d)
reliability, as these tests are common to all social science methods (Yin, 2003, p. 34) across
three empirical studies undertaken in this research. The three key research questions emerged
from the literature review which provided initial themes about older workers and the notion of
transitional employment. The questions were applied to Study One which included (i) a
Queensland-based Questionnaire which led to an initial TEM. This was further validated
through (ii) three interview sets as a second investigation. Sub study (ii) interview data
analysis identified two key stakeholders and their working relationship, (i) Employers and (ii)
Employees which led to two frequently referenced workplace environmental matters
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impacting on that relationship; (iii) Corporate Operations and (iv) Corporate Policies. A four
quadrant model was imposed which led to Study Two and a revised TEM. This approach
focussed on context and was emergent within an informed framework, which is
fundamentally interpretive (Rossman & Rallis, 2003), and resulted in a presentation of a final
Transitional Employment Model; outcomes from this study as factors impacting on access to
transitional employment for older workers in the future.
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Chapter 4
Empirical Study One: Data analysis, Interpretation and Findings
4.0 Introduction
Study One comprised two sub studies which included the conduct of (i) a Queensland-
based questionnaire posing 34 open and closed questions to 1,082 questionnaire respondents.
There were (ii) three interview sets which comprised 21 interviewees representing three
separate local government councils, each responding to 10 questions. Themes from the data
analysis of both sub studies are presented and discussed separately. Details of the
methodology of Study One including the two sub studies were presented in Chapter Three.
It should be noted that the study is not using quantitive methodology and analysis.
Any presentation or references to numerical data is used to support some descriptive data to
explain patterns and trends of some outcomes. Whilst participation numbers were small, as a
qualitative study, some differences were identified between the different sub groups which
were deemed relevant to the study and were noted. Consideration was also given to any
differences between demographics to enable identification of any significant patterns or
trends.
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4.1 Structure of the Chapter
This chapter firstly presents a discussion on thematic coding applied for both phases
of Study one. This is followed by an overview of the online questionnaire with results and
findings of sub study (i), sub study and (ii) interviews, which are presented. A synthesis of
the data analysis follows and finally, a presentation of each emergent themes from the study.
The development of the initial TEM is explained, followed by a description of the established
four quadrant model. The chapter concludes with a summary of Empirical Study One.
4.2 Thematic Coding
The raw data from sub Study (i) the online questionnaire was imported in to tables in a
word document. The data was sorted according to frequency of responses, and in response to
questions posed which were designed in light of the literature review findings about older
workers and to gather data about perceptions of the current workplace environment (Research
Question 2). The text was read and considered for frequency of words, terms phrases and
identification of the most frequent and common responses about the workplace to enable
identification of trends and patterns. Responses to the closed questions were then imported in
to an excel spreadsheet to enable the establishment of categories for analysis and comparison
for frequency and reporting purposes.
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Sub Study (ii) interview sets presented recorded responses from each of the 21
interviewees. Interview questions had been designed to validate findings from sub study (i)
and to reflect on issues impacting on skills and labour (Research Question Two) towards
accessing transitional employment. All responses were transcribed in to a separate word
document. The data was then sorted and imposed in to predetermined columns, aligned and
placed in categories, according to the different question number posed and coded. The most
frequently identified terms and phrases were identified and imposed in to another set of tables
where their numerical frequency was noted. The outcomes were then transferred in to an
excel spreadsheet according to chronological frequency for comparative analysis with the
online questionnaire findings. The first data analysis considered the levels of support for
transitional employment and some emergent themes from questionnaire respondents and then
Sub study (ii) further validated those themes, with other matters proffered as additional
comments provided in response to open ended questions in sections three and four.
The key and most impacting themes from Sub study (i) online questionnaire analysis
were then used as a construct towards the design of ten questions for Sub study (ii)
interviews. Gillham (2000) asserts that interview data analysis is concerned with content
analysis, which involves the two primary processes of identifying key or substantive points,
and then putting them into categories. The processes for data analysis of interview data were
executed in four steps. Firstly the transcription of individual interview recordings verbatim
and information from the researcher’s interview notes for each respondent was written during
each interview. To establish a high degree of reliability, the tape recordings of the in-depth
interviews were transcribed verbatim which provided accurate writing of every sentence,
word and explanation provided during the interview. In qualitative research the quality of the
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field notes and transcripts of the recorded interviews contributes to the reliability of the data
(Silverman, 2001). Secondly the data was sorted into units of meaning or concepts (Strauss &
Corbin, 1990) by exploring the interviewee’s selection of words, phrases and vocal
inflections; this drew on some of the analytical processes used in grounded theory research
developed by Glasser and Strauss (1967). This stage of the data analysis process involved
open coding, the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualising and
finally categorising the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The third phase was the process of
identifying ideas, terms and phrases and sorting these into different categories, the categories
may consist of those that are generated by the data, or may be constructed by the researcher
(Burns, 2004). This research project had three defined research questions which led to a final
TEM as a guide for organisations, towards enabling older workers to access transitional
employment; a more sustainable workforce in the future.
4.3 Sub study (i) Online Questionnaire
The majority of respondents supported transitional employment and their responses
were coded (refer Table 12) according to question numbers. The subsequent selection of
statement responses provided were then coded and sorted in to pre-determined categories
from literature review themes whilst reflecting on the three research questions. The pre-
determined categories included identification of frequency of responses and emerging trends
and patterns from responses as a logic making pattern, and then coded according to
perceptions for responsibility (employer or employee), expectations for access (frequency of
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preferences for access to TE) biases evidenced (frequency to responses noted or additional
comments presented about responsibility for current practices). Levels of impact for TE by
individuals were noted from additional matters raised from open-ended questions posed.
Identification of the most common responses was undertaken to quantify and attempt to
determine trends and patterns of responses, which were considered in light of their frequency.
Consideration was then given to key demographics of respondents and their individual
responses, to identify any key differences between the different cohorts representing gender,
age, highest level of qualification (if any), and any other emergent response patterns. No
significant patterns from the cohorts emerged, but the majority of respondents supported
transitional employment. The majority of respondents also supported and identified work
related learning as a key factor for enabling future employability.
Table 12 Coding Table for Sub study (i) online Questionnaire
ID
Gender Age Highest Qualification
formally achieved
TE Frequency
(closed questions)
Codes established
(open questions)
Unique
Code
No.
-and-
Question
No.
(M)ale
OR
(F)
(O)lder = >45 years
(Y)ounger = <44 years
(U)niversity
(T)AFE
(Tr)ade
(S)chool
(O)ther
Levels of support
Number of responses
Trends
Patterns
Perceptions for responsibility
Expectations for access
Biases identified
Impacts for TE
Other themes
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Sub study (i) online Queensland-based questionnaire was distributed to Queensland
local government councils only. The data analysis concluded that whilst the majority of local
government respondents support transitional employment arrangements, there are emergent
themes impacting on access by older workers. Some of the highest scored responses are
presented as a synthesis (refer Table 13, p.157) and used as a guiding construct in the design
of Sub study (ii) interview questions.
4.3.1 Results and findings of Sub study (i)
80% of questionnaire respondents sought to undertake and secure transitional
employment arrangements and flexible and part-time work arrangements over any other
options. Perception of age in the workforce was reflected as either an asset or of no
significance for work performance by the majority (72%) of questionnaire respondents.
92% of respondents identified that work-related learning and development services
enabled extended employability in the future. However, only 65% of respondents were
actively seeking to undertake transitional employment arrangements with local government
councils, as their preferred employer.
In considering the nature of transition employment, 67% of respondents sought to
undertake work that was deemed to be similar to that being currently undertaken, with others
citing no specific preferences for their future work. The majority of respondents supported
working with any age cohort, and dispelled myths that different age cohorts had strong
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preferences for “working with their own age groups.” 92% of respondents were prepared to
undertake learning and development to prepare for transitional employment arrangements,
and did not cite the lack of, or limited previous education and training as a disadvantage to
accessing transitional employment arrangements.
It was interesting to note that 76% of respondents cited their employer should be the
key responsible driver for learning and development services and support for older workers.
Others were willing to pay for their own learning and development if undertaken during
normal working hours. Another significant response reflected the high level of willingness to
learn new skills for the future. Older workers want to share their skills with others in the
workforce and are keen to undertake more flexible working hours to enable them to achieve
this. Whilst income was identified as one of the key purposes for extending working
arrangements, this was followed by the need for individuals themselves to keep active, to be
respected and valued and “have a purpose in life.”
In referencing future aspirations 92% of respondents were prepared to undertake
learning and development if it led to improved opportunities for extending their
employability. Work-related earnings were recognised as a key reason for working and
impacting on future retirement decisions and 92% recognised this. Access to and enabling
transitional employment in the future was supported by 80% of respondents, whilst 78% cited
no specific career paths were available to them in the current workplace. 76% cited the role
of employers for being responsible for learning and development with 67% of those
respondents preferring to retain the same work as they were doing, with some slight changes
of work, if required. 66% of the respondents were seeking flexible and part-time work
arrangements in the future if these were available. 65% of respondents were seeking
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transitional employment options in councils at this time. These were the highest scoring
responses and led to some assumptions being made in favour of transitional employment in
the future. In highest frequency order, respondents are prepared to undertake learning and
development, identified work-related learning for future employment. The majority
supported TE and identified concerns over the absence of career opportunities. Employers
were recognised as “leaders” of services. Individuals preferred to maintain the same types of
work they are currently doing, with more flexible workforce arrangements. The majority is
seeking employment options in local government, and a synthesis of these scores in their
ranked order is presented in Table 13.
Table 13 Highest Scores from Sub study (i) online questionnaire: A Synthesis
65% seeking transitional employment options in local government
66% seeking flexible and part time work arrangements in the future
67% prefer to undertake same work as now or slightly different types of work
76% cite employers as being responsible for learning and development towards TE
78% cited no career paths available in local government, a disadvantage for older workers 80% support transitional employment
92% identified work-related learning as a key factor for future employment
92% prepared to undertake learning and development towards transitional employment options
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The questionnaire data analysis identified major concerns for older workers in the
workforce about the absence of career plans or strategies in response to the ageing
phenomenon. These were included in general comments presented to open questions for
which some quotes are presented in this study. Emerging concerns for older workers
currently leaving councils, with no other options available to them, other than permanent
retirement was frequently referenced. There is a need for improved access to transitional
employment in local government, for older workers. As evidenced in response to question 18
about who should pay for training there is a high level of willingness by individual
respondents to financially contribute to self-development through learning and development
and support services. This personal commitment was intended to assist in the realisation of
the value of work-related learning towards future employability. This assertion complements
the purpose of the research for possible corporate interventions in the future; transitional
employment.
The most frequent responses to the questionnaire questions resonated with global
concerns; more support for and recognition of the value of transitional employment by
workers, an option over permanent retirement. Key themes that emerged reflected
implications for policies in organisations to support older workers (65% seeking transitional
employment options), the value of older workers in the workplace (92% willing to undertake
learning and development for future employability), work incentives for older workers (65%
referring to impact on work loads from exiting older workers) and their levels of access to
different jobs (78% cited no career paths existed in local government councils).
Ageing was frequently referred to and was reflected in attributes recognised such as
the ability of older workers to work, workforce trends impacting on older workers, current
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workforce learning, adult learning preferences, levels of training access and workforce
culture. The majority of respondents perceived that whilst transitional employment was
identified as a positive and affirmative strategy for older workers in the future, there was an
absence of support from employers (52% did not know what policies, if any, existed). This
was reflected in responses about limited or no access to services towards transitional
employment. Respondents reaffirmed perceptions that barriers exist towards extending older
workers’ working lives. Moreover, corporate interventions for retaining and building on the
skills of their older workers, towards maintaining a sustainable workforce in light of the
looming skills and labour shortages, were not evidenced. Some quotes are presented in
response to four open questions which presented additional comments. These responses also
reflected questions that attracted the highest scores from Sub study (i) online questionnaire.
In response to Question No. 25 about corporate support for transitional employment,
78% respondents supported learning and development services.
Q. 25: What should Council do to support you in to transitional employment? Responses
included “Support us with careers and learning new types of work, and managing new jobs
we have to do” (24:q25), they (employers) need to better understand what’s going on in the
workforce for us long term and how our work is changing every day” (180:q25), and “ we are
trying to set ourselves up for the long term future (careers), and that includes keeping our
jobs” (79:q25).
In response to Question No. 26 about personal commitment for transitional
employment, 92% of respondents identified work-related learning as a key factor .
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Q.26: What would you be prepared to commit to, for transitional employment? Statements
included “learn more on the job” (73:q26) and “more training for the skills I need”
(305:q26).
In response to Question No. 27 about levels of personal commitment to transitional
employment, 92% of respondents were prepared to undertake learning and development
towards transitional employment; this is reflected in the theme about older workers in the
workforce.
Q 27: What would you personally undertake to do more of in transitional employment? Two
of the responses included “Learn new jobs” (45:q27), and “I would pay for my own training,
if it helps me in the future” (1054:q27).
In responding to Question No. 29, several responses reflected on main benefits of
transitional employment which led to 66% of respondents stating that they were seeking more
flexible and part-time work arrangements, but this did not reflect current corporate culture.
Q 29: What are the main benefits to you for transitional employment? Some responses
included “loads, but how do I apply for it?” (578:q29). Other responses included “being
valued and opportunities for other work” (799:q29), “ a chance to teach others” (43:q29)
and “not having to do the same work all the time” (1080:q29)”
Comments presented reflected majority support for transitional employment for a
range of reasons, which appeared to be determined more by the role of both employer and
employee in enabling access to transitional employment. Whilst some responses reflected on
the absence of careers or pathways in local government, there was overwhelming support for
transitional employment options to be made available. Some respondents were willing to pay
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for their own learning and development realising its value and appreciating that work place
learning led to future employability.
4.4 Sub study (ii) Interviews
As noted in Chapter 3, 21 interviews were conducted across three separate local
government councils to present most frequently identified themes that emerged from Sub
study (i) questionnaire. Ten questions were designed to elicit richer data about emergent
themes impacting on access to transitional employment. All responses were recorded with
some notes taken by the interviewer and the responses then prepared into transcripts. The
transcripts were then read and sorted according to unique individual’s predetermined
identification number, question number and then established codes that had been established.
The codes reflected levels of perceptions, expectations, biases and themes impacting the most
on access to transitional employment. Codes were established to identify frequency of
responses about levels of support for and willingness to access transitional employment. This
included levels of support for TE, levels of access available, if any, the value of TE for
employees and then the value of TE for employers. The codes were similar to those applied
in Sub study (i). A synthesis of the coding applied is presented in Table 14.
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Table 14 Coding Table for Study One, Sub study (ii) Interviews
Interview
Group
Gender Age Highest Qualification achieved
Transitional Employment
Codes established
Frequency
Unique
Code:
Interview
Group No
(1, 2, or 3) /
Question No
(M)ale
OR
(F)
(O)lder = >45 years
(Y)ounger = <44 years
(U)niversity
(T)AFE
(Tr)ade
(S)chool
(O)ther
Levels of support
Levels of access
Value for individual
Value for Employer
Perceptions for responsibility
Expectations for access
Biases identified
Services available
issues impacting
Other matters impacting on access to TE
Phrases
Themes
Trends
Patterns
Demographics were also considered to determine any specific differences between the
responses of the different the cohorts. Some differences emerged regarding location, types of
work undertaken and sizes of teams they worked in. However, they were not so markedly
different to determine any significant differences, other than transitional employment was not
accessible to them. Other themes reflecting on the supervisor and manager relationship
emerged which further supported identification of and perceived roles of key stakeholders.
Some emergent themes included work-related learning as a key factor for future
employment, absence of career paths in local government, and willingness and preparedness
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to undertake learning and development towards accessing transitional employment options.
An interpretation of the data led to the most impacting themes emerging which were the most
frequently identified matters impacting on older workers, in light of their own expectations
and perceptions of the current workforce. The majority of interviewees sought more flexible
work arrangements, transitional employment options and were prepared to undertake and
personally invest in their own learning and development, to enable this.
The codes enabled identification of individuals by their unique number assigned and
then interview group number. This enabled a focus on their individual perceptions,
expectations and biases towards accessing transitional employment and then any other matters
that emerged from the data analysis. The frequency of phrases or terms used and shared and
trends or patterns reflecting concerns or matters for levels of support services were noted.
These were then aggregated according to those themes impacting the most on access to
transitional employment by older workers in local government. Whilst there were some
minor differences noted such as personal work situations experienced, inconsistent
communications, working relationships and individual cultures within the different councils,
no significant differences or patterns emerged. There was strong support and identified needs
for councils to support and retain knowledge and skills of older workers. Strong and negative
comments about the impacts different managers had in communicating and sharing
information was evidenced. Inconsistent approaches to managing older workers were deemed
more as a result of some individual negative relationships, than any other corporate matter.
Internal communications about services available within the workforce, were poor.
The data was then re-read to consider any significant differences between the different
demographics noted about the groups. This included males and females, younger and older
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workers, and formal qualification achieved, if any. It was noted that the majority of
interviewees were males (total 18), aged 36 years - 45 years (total 11) and employed as
workers (total 12), a synthesis is presented in Table 9 (p.123). In aggregating the key and
emergent themes, the different cohorts were then separated into different tables and a pattern-
matching logic was applied. There were no discernible differences in responses from the
different cohorts to reflect any specific trends or patterns or biases other than the majority of
respondents supported transitional employment options in local government, for a range of
reasons.
4.4.1 Two interview questions were posed (refer Appendix II) to focus on support for older
workers, with responses as follows:
Q1: 86% of respondents stated corporate policies do not exist to support older workers in the
workforce.
Q9: 84% of respondents stated loss of knowledge and skills of older workers will negatively
impact on the workforce in the future. One interviewee said “nothing is being done to
keep older workers or their knowledge, and they know a lot” (4:I1/q1), whilst another
said “we are losing the ones with the most experience, and it leaves a big gap for all of
us, we are all feeling it at the moment, a few more getting ready to go to, that’s a
worry” (6:I2/q1).
Numerous benefits for extending employability beyond retirement age was identified.
Advantages of intergenerational working were raised frequently. Expectations of employers
to provide options to extend older workers’ working lives are not being realised. However,
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current biased approaches of some managers to creating new employment options for older
workers were key findings.
Whilst some corporate policies were frequently referenced, they were more aligned to
corporate requirements and legislative compliance than any other matters. Stakeholders who
were responsible for managing those policies were less known, with more confusion as to
who they were and where they could be contacted. There was no evidence of policies
reflecting the management of older workers or their learning and development entitlements or
strategies to retain their skills. This was in direct conflict with policies that were identified
for specific cohorts in the workplace, such as employees with a disability or younger trainee
workers. Some plans and monitoring processes were perceived to be in place for them, more
as a result of legislative requirements. Inability to recruit staff in some sections was noted
with strong views about the absence of recognizing the potential of older workers by local
government employers. The value of older workers was frequently cited and referenced
reflecting their contributions to the younger members of the workforce through provision of
mentoring and individual support. Their guidance and advice for managers was also
recognised along with their historical perspectives of previous projects; no direct support for
future employability of older workers was shared or discussed. The majority of interviewees
were keen to secure future employment beyond their traditional age, but there was no
evidence of local government councils undertaking any actions to enable this. In fact,
frequent references were made to the biased and unfair approaches of some managers and
supervisors who were “burning out” their current older workers, who were perceived to be
their hardest working and most loyal employees. Unrealistic demands placed on older
workers by management, job changes and increasing corporate productivity demands were
shared as reasons for such burnout. Whilst some suggestions reflected on unavailability and
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limited access to support for learning and development courses, it was also agreed that current
practices were ad hoc, inconsistent and at the behest of individual managers or supervisors.
Different roles and responsibilities were discussed and some positions in councils that could
not be “freed up” to attend development courses, a result of contractual requirements and/or
the need to increase productivity to deliver specified outcomes with funding implications for
the smaller working teams.
The negative value of some older workers was questioned and raised, but this was rare
and more reflective of individual personalities and their own subsequent negative attitudes
more than the contributions of older workers to workplace productivity. All interviewees
agreed that the inability to retain older workers was a major concern, as they exited the
organisation with skills, knowledge and history which could not be replaced. Frequent
references were made to inability and lack of planning by management to prevent older
workers from leaving, with no options, support or directions for alternatives being made
available. The majority of interviewees agreed that the real value of older workers was
frequently realised after they had terminated their employment and left the organisation - too
late to initiate options or strategies to retain them. All respondents raised concerns about their
future capabilities and competencies for future employability, and this reflected more on the
lack of corporate planning and career pathways. In some cases cited, older workers had
offered to train or guide new staff as their commitment to a progressive exit strategy towards
their retirement. However, of the individual situations discussed, none of the offers were
taken up by management. This was perceived to be more of a reflection of the lack of
corporate workforce planning by management and their ignorance about impending skills
shortages than any other matter. Whilst physical capabilities or cognitive abilities of older
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workers were not an issue, the absence of consideration of older workers’ aspirations for new
work or alternative positions by their managers was.
4.4.2 Three interview questions (refer Appendix II) were posed seeking responses about
levels of training access and current workforce learning, the response were as
follows:
Q2: 65% stated that councils do not value their older workers, and this was evidenced in little
or no services available to support them in their work, over that which is available for
younger employees.
Q3: 52% were not aware of any training courses or programs or services that were available
to assist or retain older workers
Q4: 80% of respondents stated that no incentives existed to keep older workers in the
workforce. An interviewee said “oldies are leaving in droves, nothing being done to
keep them. Why would they stay if they are not wanted?” (2:I3/q4), whilst another
stated “what’s the purpose of learning more if it isn’t going to lead anywhere, if it isn’t
going to help keep a job, what’s the point?” (5:I1/q4).
What was perceived by some interviewees to be “old fashioned beliefs” about limited
learning abilities of older workers was also identified as the absence of valuing loyalty and
trust for doing new jobs by older workers. This was complemented by the majority of
interviewees identifying that local government older workers were committed to skills
development, highly productive and frequently contributed to achieving team goals in service
delivery, budgets and contracted time frames. Older workers have strong work ethics that are
of value to local government workers but evidently, not generally realised by their employers.
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No evidence of workplace learning and development practices was cited to support older
workers in the workplace or enable them towards accessing transitional employment.
Responses reflected numerous concerns and warnings regarding future impending retirements
of some older workers and subsequent skills shortages and inability to recruit replacements.
Workforce culture was identified as a key determinant factor in accessing or selecting to stay
working in a specific team or section. Managers and supervisors were perceived to be lacking
in people management skills and particularly in their negative attitudes to the future potential
role of older workers. The absence of learning options or incentives for older workers was
reflected in the current management culture, and inaccurate perceptions by employers that
physical capabilities were aligned to age. This was frequently deemed to be inaccurate and
unfair, by all respondents. This was also dismissed by several interviewees who challenged
the generally held belief that age was directly linked to physical and cognitive capabilities.
The majority of interviewees cited older workers’ attitudes as being much more of a
benchmark and determinant factor in the workforce culture. There is a need to better reflect
the value and recognition of retaining older workers; a contemporary workforce culture
reflecting ongoing changes for older workers in the workforce. Levels of training access
provided by employers were a major concern to all respondents and deemed to be the
responsibility of employers. Current workforce learning courses were more reflective of
reactive corporate operations and outputs required. These themes are included in the initial
TEM.
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4.4.3 Two interview questions (refer Appendix II) were posed about workforce culture
and adult learner preferences and the following responses were noted:
Q5: 52% stated that there were no different jobs/roles available to older workers other than
those they were currently employed to do. The availability of “work sharing” or new
types of work for older workers was raised as a possible incentive. Frequent responses
reflected on the need for councils to provide workers with more time to undertake those
arrangements. It was agreed generally that this could not be achieved, in light of the
ever increasing need for improved productivity and efficiencies set by employers “to
meet deadlines”; an outcome of workforce undersupply and current workforce culture.
Q6: 92% stated that council communications were poor, ineffective and inconsistent
regarding services or information about services including learning programs that were
available. Statements reflecting on poor timing of information about some courses to
potential learners included “you don’t get to find out about courses, until it is too late –
manager doesn’t share this with us” (4:I3/q6), whilst another said “you have to ask if
you want to find out about courses, usually you hear about it after it has happened, too
late then” (2:I3/q6), and another “never rely on your supervisor for information, don’t
think he even know what’s going on sometimes, even though we are interested!”
(6:I1/q6).
Frequent comments were made regarding the absence and lack of invitations to attend
courses and programs. The most significant comments reflected high levels of concerns about
poor or absent incentives from managers for learning new types of work, or opportunities to
“attend” available courses within council. Information sharing was generally determined by
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the behaviour of different managers and in most cases resulted in lack of or no information for
workers. Where interviewees had attended courses or programs, there were frequently raised
issues about not being relevant or not “reflective of learner’s needs”. Courses were more in
response to reactive corporate needs towards increasing what was perceived to be unrealistic
productivity levels and growth; current workforce learning is a theme reflected in the initial
TEM. The majority of interviewees sought out new and different job opportunities in local
government. They were keen to undertake learning and development to achieve their own
aspirations. This was not supported or evidenced by any actions by employers.
Interviewees acknowledged and accepted that there was a traditional path to retirement
that reflected an average age of 65 years. However, an absence of valuing older workers by
local government reflected an inability to offer options to extend their working lives. Their
decreasing financial status (diminished superannuation funds) and sustaining a standard of
living reflected more on their need to retain some form of employment. Limited or no
learning options were available as incentives for extending their employment in local
government. There were frequent comments regarding the increased costs for organisations
to train their staff. However older workers were identified as a disadvantaged cohort given
the perceived and old fashioned views of their employers that they had a limited working life.
Several comments were also made that whilst younger workers were employed for shorter
terms in the workforce and were seeking increased mobility, they received better support.
Frequent comments also reflected that the workforce culture about older workers was
reflected more in the absence of corporate policies for supporting them and recognizing their
value in the workplace. Adult learning preferences were key issues and not considered in the
planning of corporate learning and development courses, but current practices reflected
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reactive responses to corporate demands and operations and a “just in time” work methods;
two key themes included in the initial TEM.
4.4.4 Two interview questions (refer Appendix II) were posed regarding productivity of
older workers and measures for evaluating this and the following responses were
noted:
Q7: 78% of respondents stated that older workers were productive, but that there were
limited opportunities to support them during busy work periods. This led to and
included limited access as a result of unavailability to attend skills development
programs, particularly in the use of new technology.
Q10: 88% of respondents could not relate to any evaluation processes in place to support or
assess performance, other than performance appraisals. These were identified as a
process that had little or no value for enabling future training or skills development. A
statement from one interviewee was “we have a performance system, but I don’t know
what that’s about. We never talk about what I can or want to do” (2:I2/q10), another
said “I haven’t had feedback about my work for years, sometimes get a thank you or the
odd compliment, but never asked if I am coping with the workloads – and they are
changing everyday!” (3:I3/q10), and another interviewee stated “you only get told what
you have to do, never if you can or want to do it or if there is a better way of doing it?
Don’t get recognised for doing any extra either, use our experience but only when it
suits them” (4:I1/q10).
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The majority of the interviewees frequently stated their desire to stay in the workforce,
maintain their health and wellbeing and their willingness to learn new skills for the future.
Majority of respondents linked and identified their ability to match corporate requirements
whilst maintaining their positive and good health. The most significant concern was absence
of feedback, directions or assessments of their work performance from their managers, an
indicator of their perceived low value which led to increased stress levels. The majority of
interviewees were concerned for some of their colleagues who had limited literacy and
numeracy skills. Limited access to skills development inevitably led to concerns about how
they were assessed for future work or job opportunities. Respondents sought future careers as
a long term strategy to increasing their employability, and were prepared to personally invest
in their future training, to achieve this. This realised an acknowledgement that older workers
are prepared and will contribute to the cost of their skills development as an investment in
their health, wellbeing and extended working lives. However, the absence of directions or
advice as to possible options from their managers pervaded; a disadvantage for seeking future
training or employability. Adult learner preferences emerged as a key issue in light of the
absence of opportunities to engage and consult with their manager about future opportunities.
Performance appraisal systems were identified and discussed, but were generally assessed as
being a waste of time with no value to the interviewee. Where it was regularly implemented
by their manger, it was perceived to be inconsistent, unfair and poorly managed. However,
the intention of the process, to assess individuals and provide guidance for future work plans
was acknowledged, recognised and of value, if properly managed and implemented. General
agreement was evident that numerous factors contribute to the health and wellbeing of older
workers, and was more reflective of employees’ own responsibilities and their relationship
with their manager. Health and wellbeing is included as a theme in the initial TEM.
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4.4.5 One question (refer Appendix II) was posed to focus about future planning for the
workforce by Council and the responses are noted as follows:
Q8: 92% of respondents stated that there was no planning for careers or work options other
than the job you had applied for and were currently doing. Promotion opportunities were
discussed, but deemed to be more biased towards senior managers more than any other
cohort in councils. Apart from increasing work demands, there was no recognition of or
awareness of corporate planning of the future workforce. Ongoing changes were being
implemented by managers, but were frequently referenced as a “waste of time with no
added value or directions for us”. A response arguing for more support for future
planning was concluded with “there is nothing here to help us stay, no one talks about
future goals or opportunities - until you retire, too late then” (5:I2/q8), whilst another
interviewee said “cannot afford to retire now, but not going to be pushed when it suits
them either. I can do work for a lot longer, but what is available? No one knows”
(2:I1/q8).
The notion of retirement is changing and this was frequently discussed, a result of the
global financial crisis and decreasing superannuation funds and the fact that people are living
longer. At no time were interviewees concerned about intergenerational working, work
changes or different types of work, so long as they had access to support services.
Interviewees frequently cited the main challenges for inexperienced or poor managers and
their stereotypical views of older workers; decreasing capabilities and diminishing cognitive
skills aligned to ageing. Impending retirement of older workers brings inevitable challenges
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for both employers and employees in the future and is not currently included in corporate
policies as a management strategy. This is in light of warnings of a diminishing workforce
and is included as a theme in the initial TEM.
All interviewees agreed that whilst there is an ageing population, councils were not
planning for or implementing any policies to manage this. Whilst respondents were keen to
pursue new work opportunities for the future, it was generally agreed that this would be at the
behest of their manager or supervisor – not a consistent, corporate approach towards
sustainability in the future.
4.5 Summary of Themes from Study One (sub studies i and ii)
Sub study (i) questionnaire presented majority support from respondents for
transitional employment and reflected on a range of emerging themes impacting on access by
workers. These included an awareness of the absence of corporate commitment to older
workers for transitional employment options. There was a frequently identified need to better
value older workers in the workplace, and review current support services available to them.
Sub study (ii) interviews validated themes from Sub study (i). Eight key themes were
deemed as impacting the most on the workforce towards accessing transitional employment.
These themes are presented in no specific order as a synthesis of Study One data analysis
(refer Table 15). The role of older workers in the workforce in the future was recognised and
overwhelmingly supported. Evidence of ageing workforce trends led to concerns about the
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absence of actions by councils. Questions were raised about the value of some current
workforce learning programs that had been accessed. There was an absence of any
collaboration with learners about the design of those programs which did not reflect adult
learning preferences or individual needs. Health and wellbeing factors of older workers were
discussed and it was generally considered that more services were available to support their
younger counterparts in the workplace. Increasing workloads for older, more experienced
workers noted a result of a diminishing, experienced work pool. Levels of training access for
workers were inconsistent within a workplace culture where stereotypical views of older
workers pervade. Different opinions about retirement were raised, with a general view that
actions or strategies in response to impending levels of retirement by older workers were not
evidenced in councils’ workforce plans for the future.
The most common and frequently impacting themes included the current role of older
workers in the workforce dominating ageing workforce trends; current workforce learning
services available to them and the need to better reflect adult learning preferences in the
design of programs. Wellbeing factors reflect successful ageing which raised concerns about
levels of training access for older workers in the current workforce culture. These themes
impacted on access to transitional employment and were aggregated. A synthesis of those
themes is presented (Table 15). This was then used as a conceptualisation of a framework to
guide the next phase of investigation and analysis in Study Two, towards identification of key
and most significant issues impacting on older workers in the workplace.
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Table 15 Emergent Themes from Study One: A Synthesis
Role of older workers in the workforce
Ageing workforce trends
Current workforce learning
Adult learning preferences
Wellbeing factors
Levels of training access
Workforce culture
Notions of retirement
Some themes from Study One complemented those themes raised from the literature review
about transitional employment and its role in the future for older workers for contributing to
their wellbeing. A conceptual framework was formulated as an initial TEM (refer Figure 1,
p.182). This will be discussed further in the next section.
4.6 Development of initial Transitional Employment Model
The Study One data analysis presented eight key themes impacting the most on access
to transitional employment for older workers, by employers and employees. The data
reflected on roles and responsibilities of two key stakeholders which were then supplemented
as a result of frequent and significant references to two workplace matters impacting on that
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relationship. A four quadrant model was established to represent four elements, (i)
Employers (ii) Employees, (iii) Corporate Operations and (iv) Corporate Policies. The eight
key themes were then imported in to one of the four quadrants which were deemed to have
the greatest impact in enabling or improving access to transitional employment in the future.
Some themes complemented those noted in the literature review by referencing the value of
some roles and strategies for improved engagement with older workers in the workforce.
The model is intended to reflect emergent themes aligned to levels of responsibility for
accessing TE.
Considering the boundaries placed by the case study design, only those themes which were
recognised as most significantly impacting on either employer or employee have been included
in the initial TEM (refer Figure 1, p.182).
Retirement options are not understood or generally agreed to by employers. Such
understanding is evident through the absence of corporate plans or strategies to re-engage with
or retain the services of their current older workers beyond their traditional retirement age.
Employees are seeking and keen to secure alternative employment options to full time jobs or
permanent retirement and no options appear to be currently available.
General views from Study One data analysis were that local government councils in
Queensland remain focussed on organisational productivity levels over any identified or cited
concerns for maintaining a sustainable workforce. Personal attitudes and individual’s personal
experiences are not valued, or individual goals for the future agreed. This led to a general
realisation and agreement that career paths do not exist in local government councils, and is
recognised as having a detrimental impact which is hindering older workers’ future
employability.
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These themes contributed to the establishment of a guiding construct for the next stage of
the current study, to identify emerging issues impacting on access to transitional employment
within a four quadrant model.
4.7 Four Quadrant Model
The four quadrant model reflects the roles of two stakeholders identified in this study
and matters impacting on that relationship. Sub study (i) survey data analysis reflected
overwhelming support for transitional employment options in local government councils and
identified factors impacting on access to transitional employment. These factors reflected the
roles and responsibilities of both employers and employees in accessing support services for
older workers.
(i) Employers (including executive leaders) as the stakeholders who determine work
outputs, organisational demands, performance standards and established benchmarks,
or
(ii) Employees (including mangers and supervisors) as the stakeholders who respond to
demands from employers and responsive to benchmarks for performance delivery.
The value of learning and development towards future employment was frequently
identified and referenced. Themes from the literature review and then Sub study (i)
Queensland based survey led to interview sets (Sub study ii). The interviews were established
to validate those themes and to further consider the role of both stakeholders. Interview data
analysis enabled presentation of richer data and further elaboration on themes impacting the
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most on access to transitional employment. The data analysis supported the key roles and
responsibility of both stakeholders. Frequent references were made to the greatest influences
and impact on the working relationship of both stakeholders, which enabled two further
elements to be included in to the Model:
(iii) Corporate operations; levels of work outputs undertaken by all workers to comply with
workplace procedures; or
(iv) Corporate policies; formal corporate documents reflecting requirements of workers and
guidance for performance.
As a result, an initial TEM (refer Figure 1, p.182) presents eight key themes within a
four quadrant model from Study One data analysis to enable a further investigation towards
key issues realised from Study Two. Furthermore, the four quadrants reflected three key
goals for organisations to work towards if they are seeking to engage with and motivate
employees in the workplace in the future, as noted by Mishkind and Meltzer (2005). Support
options towards enabling access to transitional arrangements for older workers were
conceptualised from the literature review. These goals included:
(a) Equity, between and about the current working relationships. This is considered from
the perspective of the two key stakeholders within this research, (i) the employers or (ii)
the employees.
(b) Camaraderie, which reflects the productive relationship between the employer and
employee and is determined by the (iii) different levels of corporate operations within an
organisation. This has been assigned to quadrant three, (iii) corporate operations.
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(c) Achievement, which relies on the individual’s accomplishments that has been enabled
within the working world and determined by current actual practices; this has been
assigned to the final quadrant four, (iv) corporate policies.
Table 16 provides a synthesis of the key roles of the two stakeholders in this study, (i)
Employers and (ii) Employees and the environmental elements impacting on that working
relationship, (iii) corporate operations or (iv) corporate operations. The table presents
perceived levels of responsibility or relationships impacting the most on emergent themes
from Study One data analysis.
Table 16 Four Quadrants: A Synthesis
1. Employers (executive leaders)
Stakeholders who determine required
work outputs
2. Employees (managers and supervisors)
Stakeholders who respond to required
work outputs
4. Corporate Policies
Formal corporate documents
reflecting requirements of workers
3. Corporate Operations
Workplace practices reflecting
work outputs undertaken by workers
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This synthesis model provided a platform to further investigate and clarify the current
perceptions of the value of older workers within the workforce towards transitional
employment, interventions for extending working lives of older workers.
The initial Transitional Employment Model attempts to integrate the various key
aspects into a holistic model reflecting factors to better understand, investigate, reflect and
support transitional employment options for workers in local government. The eight most
significant factors were sorted and aligned to the quadrant that reflected most significant
impact for access to transitional employment in the future. The initial model is intended to
reflect factors contributing to access to transitional employment. Those factors were aligned
to levels of responsibility. They included the role and responsibilities of (i) Employers or (ii)
Employees or their subsequent relationship regarding (iii) corporate operations or (iv)
corporate policies. These are presented as individual quadrants within the initial TEM (refer
Figure 1).
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Figure 1: Initial Transitional Employment Model for older wor kers
Factors that contribute to
positive transitional employment
Role of older workers in the workforce
Levels of training access
Notions of retirement
Workforce culture Current workforce learning
Adult learning preferences
Wellbeing factors
Ageing workforce trends
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4.8 Summary: Empirical Study One
This chapter provided details of key themes from Study One data analysis which
comprised two sub studies; (i) Queensland-based online questionnaire and (ii) interviews,
both of which contributed to the establishment of an initial TEM (refer Figure 1). Study One
sub studies data analysis was undertaken separately towards key factors initially identifying
two key stakeholders and then merged through a pattern matching logic which led to the
establishment of the four quadrant model. The data analyses identified two elements
reflecting workplace operations impacting on the relationship of the two key stakeholders and
are included. Eight key themes emerged and imposed on the initial TEM which were each
aligned to one quadrant. Key themes from the Study One data analysis complement some
themes from the literature review. It is intended that the initial TEM will enable a further
investigation through two focus groups, to validate those themes aligned to perceived roles
and responsibilities in Study Two towards most significant issues as key findings.
Chapter Five presents data analysis and findings from the third empirical study which
engaged two focus groups. The groups were established to validate themes from Study One
and gather greater insight and data about issues impacting on older workers towards accessing
transitional employment. The study led to the establishment of a revised TEM; responses to
questions designed to reflect and aligned to the eight themes from Study One. The data
analysis process is discussed which provides significant evidence regarding emerging issues
for older workers in the workforce in accessing transitional employment.
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Chapter 5
Empirical Study Two: Validating the initial Transi tional Employment Model
5.0 Introduction
Study Two collected evidence to further investigate the efficacy of the initial TEM
presented. The initial TEM was established from eight themes each aligned to one of four
quadrants from Study One data analysis. This led to the establishment of a revised TEM. 16
questions designed from Study One findings. The two groups represented one rural local
government council and one urban local government council.
The study is not using quantitive methodology and analysis. Any presentation or
references to any numerical data is used to support some descriptive data to explain patterns
and trends reflecting issues for accessing transitional employment; a key outcome of the
study.
5.1 Structure of the Chapter
Study Two enabled the establishment of a revised TEM in response to Study One data
analysis and three key research questions:
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1. What are the current local government workforce issues impacting on skills and labour
retention?
2. What are perceptions about the current workplace environment? And,
3. What are the expectations about learning and development towards extending
employability of older workers within the local government sector?
The most frequently identified and referenced matters for future actions or responses are
presented as impacting issues for addressing by local government councils for the future. The
Chapter presents a discussion of the thematic coding applied to data collated from the two
focus groups, towards the presentation of the data analysis. The four quadrant model imposed
is discussed separately. A triangulation process was undertaken on some emergent themes to
justify the use of data sets from the analyses undertaken in this study.
5.2 Thematic Coding
The conceptual framework for the thematic coding from the focus group data analysis
was initially plotted and aligned to one of the four quadrants, (i) Employers (ii) Employees
(iii) Corporate Operations or (iv) Corporate Policies within the four quadrant model imposed.
The data was initially prepared as transcripts from recordings into a Word document. Tables
were then established within the Word document reflecting each of the four quadrants from
which the 16 questions were designed. Codes were assigned and reported according to the
question number, and response statement number. A search was undertaken within the Word
document to identify frequency of words, terms and phrases which were identified and
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grouped as either positive or negative responses. The most frequently identified terms and
phrases from the transcripts were then imported in to an Excel spreadsheet in to separate rows
for comparative analysis of individuals’ responses and those of the other focus group within
the study. This was to enable both focus groups’ transcripts to be aligned to either one of the
stakeholders or workplace practices. The four quadrants enabled the design of sixteen
stimulus questions to elicit views, opinions and discussions on perceptions and expectations
and emerging issues for access to transitional employment by older workers in the future.
To develop an analysis of the multiple details about local government workforce
demographics, perceptions and expectations about the value of learning and development
towards enabling transitional employment, the raw data transcripts from both focus groups
needed to be carefully coded. The sorting was undertaken separately to allow logical
interpretation and clarity of meanings. Data from each of the focus groups was initially
transcribed from the focus group interview recordings verbatim and included some interview
notes written by the researcher during each focus group meeting. To enable and establish a
higher degree of reliability, the tape recordings of the focus group interviews were transcribed
verbatim. This provided an accurate record of each sentence, word and explanations which
were presented during the focus group discussions. In qualitative research, the quality of the
field notes and transcripts of the recorded interviews contributes to the reliability of the data
(Silverman, 2001). The data was initially read, sorted and classified according to the question
number that had been posed and pre-aligned to one of the quadrants. Each classification
within its quadrant was then read and sorted into units of meaning, or concepts, by exploring
the respondent’s selection of words, phrases and vocal inflections as well as the interviewer’s
record of the nuances of body language and communication. The data was then coded as a
process for breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing and finally, categorizing
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the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Open coding is directed at opening up the data and
identifying categories that appear to fit the data (Morse & Richards, 2002) the coding of data
is important as it performs a labeling, retrieval and organising function (Burns, 2000). The
final stage of the data analysis process identified ideas and topics from the concepts that were
discovered towards different and emerging issues impacting the most on older workers. The
process of issues generation involves noting regularly recurring concepts about the people
subject of the study, older workers. The issues may consist of those that are generated by the
data, or may be constructed by the researcher (Burns, 2000). This research project has three
defined research questions about accessing transitional employment which this approach
investigaged. Transitional employment is seen as a strategy to enable older workers “to move
into work arrangements that would best suit both the employer and employees”; with the
intention of extending their working lives beyond the traditional retirement age (Tikkanen,
2006). The most frequently identified issues were then merged, according to significance of
impact as future work arrangements for older workers.
The transcripts were initially placed in to two separate columns according to question
numbers posed and were identified as being either Focus Group A (FGA) or Focus Group B
(FGB) groups. Each response was then coded according to (i) focus group A or B, (ii) status
of respondent either (o)lder or (y)ounger worker, (iii) gender of respondent, (iv) question
number posed (v) statement response number (vi) quadrant number reflecting predetermined
stimulus question. The data was then read and coded for perceptions of responsibility for
either employers or employees (stakeholders), expectations or suggestions for improved
access to transitional employment options for older workers, biases that were evidenced about
access and support in the workplace, issues negatively impacting on access to transitional
employment or any other emergent issues The large pool of focus group data provided a rich
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source of information which was useful for creating a revised TEM (refer Figure 2, p.263) for
the local government sector. An overview of the codes applied to the focus group data is
presented as a synthesis in Table 17. The intention of the focus groups was to gather richer
data about issues in accessing transitional employment regarding levels of responsibility,
expectations for access to transitional employment and biases for such access. Identification
of concerns that may negatively impact or any other emerging matters for access were
considered towards the presentation of most significant issues which are presented in the final
TEM (refer Figure 3, p. 270); key findings from this study.
Table 17 Coding Table for Study Two: Focus Group Data
(i) Focus Group
(ii) Status of
respondent
(iii) Gender
(iv) (Q)uestion no posed
(v) (S)tatement
no. response
(vi) Quadrant
No
Codes
established
Frequency
A
(O) lder = > 45 years
(M) ale OR (F) emale
(Q) (S) Words Phrases
Perceptions of responsibility Expectations for access to TE Biases for TE
Patterns
B
(Y) ounger = < 44 years
(M) ale OR (F) emale
(Q)
(S)
Concepts
Issues negatively impacting on access to TE Any other emergent and key issues
Trends
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Any issues raised within the focus groups were from perceived or actual practices
shared and discussed about working in the local government workforce and reflective of key
concerns for the future. Key phrases, words and terms were reflective of the majority of focus
group respondents who supported or added to comments in response to a stimulus question.
Where comments ceased to be shared or voiced or silence emerged, the group was invited by
the researcher to make any final comments or assertions and this was noted by the researcher.
Where there was little or no further discussion or comments shared; it was determined that the
theme was neither significant, nor directly impacting on the study or outcomes of this study
about older workers. The most impacting issues were from those that had initially been
identified through frequency of phrases, words and terms presented and then reflecting on the
greatest impact for older workers in the future and presented in the revised TEM (refer Figure
2, p.263).
The focus groups’ data was initially analysed within the four quadrant framework to
reflect perceived levels of responsibility for employers or employees or matters impacting on
that relationship, corporate operations or corporate policies. The data was then read within
that aligned quadrant and coded according to frequency. The case study methodology
enabled consideration and discovery of a range of issues and relationships considering the
humanistic, qualitative and personal perceptions of the value of learning and development.
5.3 Focus Group questions attracting minimal or no responses
The 16 stimulus questions for the focus groups were designed to reflect and enable
further discussions and gather richer data (refer Table 10, p.143) about themes from Sub One
which have already been discussed and presented.
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The questions were posed to both focus groups. Seven questions attracted minimal or
no responses other than services “did not exist” in their Council. Where minimal responses
were noted, these were more about personal experiences about private industry, which were
not relevant to the study. These comments attracted no support or input from other
respondents and were recognised by the interviewer and group as having no added value or
significance to the research investigations.
5.3.1 Quadrant One
Responses to questions 3 and 4 (Quadrant One) provided no identification of any
specific services that were perceived to be available to older workers in private industry that
were any different to local government. Question 11 found that minimal or no activities were
being undertaken by councils to retain their older workers. Suggestions for reviewing this
and proffered by respondents were included and noted from responses to other questions
posed about interventions for the future.
5.3.2 Quadrant Two
Quadrant two posed questions 6, 7 and 8 about the perceived differences between blue
and white collar workers, males and females and access to learning and development for
them. Some biases had previously been identified from statements from Study One data
analysis. This included levels of inequity, unfairness and limited access by those cohorts who
were identified as being disadvantaged in the workplace. The majority of respondents agreed
that there were no significant differences or preferential treatment for support between other
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cohorts within the workplace and older workers; albeit those certain cohorts in councils were
given preferential treatment. This included the disabled, indigenous and women workers and
reflected in legislation such as the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. They were perceived
to be generally well supported by organisations; this was not the case for older workers.
5.3.3 Quadrant Three
Quadrant three posed question 15 about the “value” of older workers in the workforce
and attracted majority support from respondents about the value of, and keeping older
workers in the workforce. Responses from other study questions reflected more about
possible future interventions which led to specific issues raised for both employers and
employees and are presented in the revised TEM.
5.3.4 Quadrant Four
Quadrant four included question number 13, this focussed on the role of managers in
proactively retaining their older workers. Respondents were unanimous that no corporate
actions or specific strategies exist in the workplace for retaining or recruiting older workers.
5.4 Focus Groups Data Analysis
In light of the focus group questions that attracted minimal or no responses, most
significant issues are now discussed. Quadrant One presents five emergent and significant
issues for employers in the future. These include consideration of adult learner challenges in
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current services available, limited or no access to courses and programs, workforce
undersupply leading to inability to attend learning and development programs, current
intergenerational working relationships and personal attitudes reflecting minimal commitment
to self development to enable future employability.
Quadrant Two presents one issue (two similar and overlapping merged issues) impacting
on employees and that is current leadership and stereotypical management behaviours
impacting on their access to transitional employment.
Quadrant Three presents two issues within the current day to day corporate operations
which included the absence or limited workforce opportunities available and low levels of self
esteem of individuals, as a result; implications for day to day work practices.
Quadrant Four presents five issues; all impacting on older workers towards improved
policies for access to transitional employment in the future.
All identified issues have been individually numbered for easy referencing and are listed
within its unique quadrant. The quadrant reflects levels of responsibility for accessing TE and
has previously been defined and discussed. The issues are presented as a synthesis in Table
18. Each issue is then discussed and included in the revised TEM (refer Figure 2, p. 263).
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Table 18 Study Two Data Analysis: A Synthesis
Quadrant 1 (Employer)
Quadrant 2 (Employee)
01 Adult learner issues 02 Limited Access to learning and
development 03 Workforce undersupply 04 Intergenerational working Relationships 05 Personal attitude/self development
06 Leadership/Management
Quadrant 4
(Corporate Policies)
Quadrant 3
(Corporate Operations)
09 Career pathways 10 Personal achievements 11 Levels of support for learning and
development 12 Previous learning experiences 13 Attitudes to learning and
development
07 Workforce opportunities 08 Self Esteem
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5.5 Study Two Data Analysis
5.5.1 Part One: Quadrant One (Employers)
The table below presents a summary of the most dominant issues that emerged from the
FG data.
Table 19 Issues (Quadrant One: Employers)
Study Two Data analysis (refer Table 18, p.193)
5.5.1 1 Adult learner issues 5.5.1.2 Limited access to learning and
development 5.5.1.3 Workforce undersupply 5.5.1.4 Intergenerational working
relationships 5.5.1.5 Personal attitude/self development
The initial TEM presented themes about older workers in the workforce and their levels
of access to training which reflected on the role of the Employer. The Employer quadrant
reflected more the role and responsibilities of managers for managing older workers and
enabling levels of training access. Five key issues from the focus group data reflected the
greatest and most negative impacts by managers (Employer quadrant) and their behaviours in
their lack of understanding of adult learner issues, resulting in limited access to learning and
development by older workers and a lack of workforce planning - a result of workforce
undersupply. Intergenerational working relationships were raised together with personal
attitudes reflecting on limited individual commitment to self development that existed within
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the workplace. These issues are presented independently with support statements that were
made by focus group members.
5.5.1.1 Adult learner issues
Adult learners and their preferred learning modes were frequently referred to and
identified as a key issue not being taken into account by organisations. Differences in learner
styles and learning preferences of workers within the workplace were frequently evidenced by
the focus group members. There were different views and opinions regarding learning and
these were more reflective of negative past experiences of some individuals, more than any
other matters. Biases and views about the value of learning and development in the
workforce were discussed, with specific and different opinions about how people do and
should learn at work. The different cohorts presented different experiences and views, for
example one focus group respondent said “you are the sum of your learning, it happens every
day, it isn’t planned, it just happens” (FGAyf/q1/s8).
The emerging issues about adult learners differed between individuals in respect of their
own value, purpose and benefits for accommodating learning and development in the
workforce. Whilst there was strong agreement for learning and development, participants
concurred that employers needed to invest more in relevant and appropriate learning and
development services. However, the term “lifelong learning” was identified as a key concept
which was not generally understood as a process. Transitional employment access secured
majority support; when the term was fully explained by the researcher, after clarification was
sought by some focus group respondents. Concerns about transitional employment were
reflected by one FGA who questioned the tenure, or period of learning for workers and said:
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“You learn as you work, we know that, we are all doing that all the time. But, I am not
sure if older people really need to keep learning” (FGAof/q1/s9).
This was reflected in a negative statement from another FGA about the value of learning
and development, and added:
“Life is pretty demanding for all of us, we have more pressures today, I think we are all
working a lot harder and always learning about workplace changes for us, legislation,
operations, procedures and staff” (FGA/q1/s10).
In a further reference to the dominant views on learning and development and perceived
failings of managers to enable access by their staff to learning and development services,
another FGA said:
“Work is already a challenge for lots of managers. I think we are capable of doing our
job, and getting on with it. Training that isn’t directly relevant to my work or our team
is just a waste of time” (FGAom/q1/s11).
The majority of the respondents were confused about the corporate process or guidelines
for accessing learning opportunities and the subsequent role of the employers to create
learning opportunities. The majority of views reflected concerns about corporate lack of
planning and inappropriate learning programs. References were made about competing
demands of their work loads and current methods/delivery of training that did not reflect their
preferred learning styles or preferences. This view is illustrated by one FGA respondent who
said:
“We do have regular training programs, but don’t know how or who chooses these”
(FGAom/q1/s22).
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There were general agreements which reflected on the corporate process for selecting
and planning learning programs by councils which appeared to be more reactive than
proactive responses to changing work markets and demands.
The majority of respondents were of the opinion that workplace training courses and
programs were randomly selected by their managers, with little or no collaboration with the
workers as the potential attendees, a reactive approach to ever increasing work demands.
Such an approach by managers reflect the absence of engagement with adult learners, and
serious ramifications for motivating learners to engage in learning and development activities,
especially if the learner is not part of or has ownership of, the planned learning process.
Another aspect of the corporate staff development programs which drew very negative
comments was the relevance and quality of some of the training content delivered, and
subsequent poor delivery styles of some of the trainers. This was reflected in a comment from
one FGA who, in referring to his own motivation to undertake training, said: “I had to do, and
was told to do a manual handling course, I do it all the time in my job, nobody taught me and
well, it was a complete waste of my time, she didn’t know what she was talking about”
(FGAym/q1/s25).
This was supported by another FGA respondent who said:
“Not sure where she came from, but the blokes were not happy with that training - we
told our supervisors. Don’t think they’ll take too much notice” (FGAom/q1/s26).
Reflecting on the relevance of training as a key motivator for adult learning, Knowles
(1980, p. 43) determines that the discrepancy between what individuals (or organisations)
want and what they receive creates the distance between an aspiration and a reality. Another
FGA complemented the assertion that individuals needed to be part of the decision making
process, and said:
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“If it’s not got anything to do with your work, or you can already do the work, why
should you do some training just because management thinks you have to do? Training
doesn’t sort out the problems we have with our Supervisor” (FGAof/q1/s27).
Another older FGA participant, in full support of the need for skills development
commented that “new skills, new ways of working, we still have to be ready for change.
Sometimes they don’t see the benefits or want to go, but development is part of Council’s
commitment to all staff” (FGAyf/q1/s28).
Whilst the FGB were generally more aware of what learning and development services
and programs were available, they were also confused about the procurement process for
purchasing those learning services. They unanimously agreed that workers did not have any
direct input in to the selection of workforce development programs. Furthermore, the
relevance and timeliness of some of those programs were questioned. The FGB respondents
unanimously agreed that the absence of clear guidance by their managers often led to
miscommunications or no communications or engagement about training courses attended.
Managers were identified by majority of respondents as the “key drivers” in enabling
employees to access information about learning and development. There was no evidence of
any workers contributing to the selection of training programs or courses that had previously
been delivered in council. A general assumption was that executive managers prioritised
training to firstly mandatory requirements, and then were reactive to emerging needs, rather
than any long term planned approaches in consultation with the key stakeholders; the learners.
This was summed up by an FGB respondent who said:
“Our Council is good, they invest in all of our staff, in different ways, we have some
good supervisors and some not so well, that’s the way it goes” (FGByf/q3/s9).
Another FGB respondent, in support of council services, added:
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“Council has trained us up with loads of skills, and some of them forget how much more
they know because Council supports us. I think it’s one of the best things here, and
learning is part of our life” (FGByf/q3/s10).
In support of the previous statement a younger FGB responded and summed up the majority
of views about the value of working with other workers, and said:
“I have had to do some courses I didn’t want to do, especially when I first joined; but
that was a good lesson to learn. Getting to know the other workers was great”
(FGBym/q3/s11).
However, none of the respondents were able to clarify or identify any management
processes that reflected the processes for selecting or procuring the types of learning and
development services available in their council.
The majority of older respondents agreed and voiced their concerns about the
inappropriateness of some learning environments for older workers; this was illustrated by a
statement from an FGB, who said:
“When it comes to training, organisations treat you like a school kid. They tell you that
it isn’t like school, and it is for workers, we’re not kids, hey” (FGBof/q3/s15).
Whilst the principles of androgogy and the psychological characteristics of adults are
well known, the diversity of learning contexts all preclude a simple approach to the
development and operation of learning in adulthood (Burns, 2002, p. 302).
Issues about the range and relevance of some of the training delivery methods used in
training courses was frequently raised by the majority of older workers. In comparing and
referring to their own learning patterns and previous delivery methods they had been
subjected to, one FGB summed up the position and said “over the years, we are still doing the
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same old ways of learning, in a room, with a group of people sometimes you know, and
sometimes you don’t”. Nothing has changed” (FGBom/q1/s12).
Sixty percent of the respondents supported the assertion that some workers were not
given sufficient time or adequate course or program information which had been preselected
by their managers, for them. An FGB (FGBym/q1/s13) reflected the majority of views and
said: “we are told to turn up, you don’t always know what it’s about, and you do what you’re
told. It can be a long day, especially if you normally work outside”. A younger FGB
participant supported this view and in referring to courses previously attended said: “At first I
didn’t have a clue what I was doing, or why I was supposed to be doing it, but it did make
sense months after” (FGByf/q1/s14). This again raised the issue of ownership of learning and
direct involvement of learners in choosing and selecting relevant training and development.
Significant differences emerged between the larger regional council and the smaller rural
council regarding their councils’ responses to skills shortages. Both focus groups respondents
agreed that councils were reactive to skills development in response to skills gaps. Whilst
none of the respondents were able to identify specific skills shortages or vacancies that
existed within their council, there was a general assumption that courses were purchased as a
reactive response to meeting corporate needs. One FGA (FGAom/q1/s32) summed the
situation up and said “I suppose we are here now, and we are only as good as the skills we
have”, whilst another FGA responded “but it is still up to us to know what skills we need for
the future” (FGAym/q1/s30).
Both focus groups were supportive of the need to invest in the current workforce, as a
strategy to retrain and retain older workers and maintain a skilled workforce for the future.
The perception of the value of older workers was evident and consistent. At no time did any
of the respondents question or disagree with the need to develop older workers and create
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career opportunities for them. Key concerns were more about the consideration of adult
learning issues and experiences and absence of any direct engagement with the learners in the
planning of training or engagement of skills development. The selection and management of
training programs and courses was identified as a responsibility of managers. Their
inconsistent attitudes reflected the negative impacts on and limited or absence of value for
workers when no consultation processes were evident. Where biases existed, these again
were more reflective of the attitude of individual managers, and their own values on
workforce development for individual workers as learners, more than any other identified
aspect.
5.5.1.2 Limited access to learning and development for older workers
No concerns were raised at any time in the research about the ability of older workers to
perform their work in the workplace. The majority of respondents supported the retention of
older workers in the workplace and agreed the need for organisations to better support them.
However, there were concerns frequently raised about the perceived lack of information and
communications available to older workers about access to learning opportunities, training
programs and self development opportunities. This issue generated significant discussions
about inconsistent communications for older workers to a range of services that were deemed
to be available to other cohorts in the workplace. All focus group B participants concurred
with a statement by an FGB (FGBym/q1/s8) who stated “loads of training and processes are
in place, but not sure if older workers know about them” and an FGA (FGAyf/q1/s2)
supported this statement “Council accommodates the disabled, indigenous and women, both
of whom get special treatment, but there is no support for the older ones; that’s for sure.”
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A further example of inequity and discriminatory approaches towards the older workers
was raised concerning differences in access by younger employees in comparison with older
employees and was evidenced when an FGB (FGBof/q1/s11) said: “younger ones do get a
better go, that’s the way its always been” whilst FGA (FGAym/q1/s14) noted that “it all
depends on the team you work for and the work that you do”. Views were evenly split about
the range of corporate development services available, depending on whether respondents
were older or younger workers; older workers reflected on some biased and preferential
access by younger workers and vice versa. There was a general perception however about
older managers in that they were less biased, more supportive and fairer in managing their
workers, more so than their younger counterparts.
The absence of initiatives for improving management of older workers by managers,
drew several comments and was summed up in a statement who said that “there should be
increased access to more training that’s relevant to older workers, we don’t even think about
that” (FGAym/q1/s5) . Majority of the participants agreed that traineeships could be
identified as one solution to enable older workers to develop and build on their existing skills;
no other alternative options were evidenced in the research. Another FGB reflected on the
role of managers and was supported by 100% of the participants in referring to the “complex
challenge and difficulty in managing people” (FGBAof/q1/s6) by managers and suggested
that individual workers needed to be more understanding of the roles and should be more
responsible for creating their own individual work opportunities in the workforce. Another
FGB (FGBom/q1/s15) reflecting the majority of views about individuals and their learning
opportunities summed it up and said “to get on in life, you need to get on with it; you have
just got to study in your own time”. An FGB (FGBof/q1/s16) supported this assertion and in
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reflecting the responsibility of the learner, said “you have just got to put some of your own
time and effort in.”
In response to enabling older workers to be more directly involved in maintaining and
building on their skills and competency sets, there was a general view that managers needed
to be more proactively and directly engaging with their older workers. One FGA
(FGAom/q2/s1) said “enable workers to learn more; we need to find out more information
about our people, their wants and their needs”. Another respondent (FGAof/q11/s2) said:
“up skill staff, ask staff what they want, involve them more in the process”. This was further
complemented by a general statement of support to recognise all workers in the workplace
when FGA (FGAyf/q11/s3) said “mix older workers and younger workers”. The question of
competency of supervisors and managers again was raised and reflected in the majority of
views when an FGB (FGNom/q11/s9) said “there aren’t enough incentives from management
to support workers”, whilst another FGB (FGBom/q11/s10) in reflecting the challenges for
older managers, retorted “younger employees are a threat to them, they just don’t know how
to manage them”.
In considering the perceptions of current employees about older workers and their skills,
most of the focus group respondents were complementary of the value of older workers’
capabilities, levels of work commitment and ethics within the workforce. This was based on
the demonstrated levels of respect that existed about their experience and general “know
how”. One FGA respondent provided an eclectic response representing concerns that had
been raised about older workers’ learning and development options, and said:
“Learning programs for older workers don’t exist, we all do the same. Some older
workers do get more access; if they are indoor workers. There is nothing that
specifically encourages them to learn more” (FGAom/q5/s1).
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Another respondent illustrated the majority of shared views from respondents and
reflected concerns about older workers working for younger managers who did not fully
understand or appreciate the experiences of older workers and their needs and said “there’s
no help or support for older workers, suppose that’s because their managers are younger”
(FGAom/q5/s11).
Another older member of the FGA, in response to the previous statement said “we are not
aware of anything that encourages us to want to learn to better us or our skills”
(FGAom/q5/s12). This observation was endorsed by another FGA group member who said,
“Council focuses and accommodates the needs of younger ones, but not older workers”
(FGAof/q5/s13).
An FGB respondent raised the concern of the impact of biased management and
inconsistent support for older workers’ learning and development. The FGB respondent said:
“There are promotions available in the field and some of our older workers have
definitely done well, but this relies on communications in Council and information
available to them” (FGBom/q5/s5).
Biased management styles and approaches were again evident from comments made
from respondents during discussions about elements that exist within the workforce that
discourages older workers from learning. One FGA respondent (FGAof/q11/s1) suggested
that “councils need to allow workers to do more study and learn more about their
organisation” whilst another FGA considered that “mixing older workers and younger
workers should be part of the workforce planning” (FGAym/q11/s3). One FGB reflecting the
majority of concerned respondents about the issues of leadership within local government
councils, said:
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“Management is always setting up new positions in Council, not based on the skills or
experience needed for that job. I don’t know if it is a case of who they know”
(FGBof/q11/s8).
Another FGB respondent supported the statement by adding:
Not enough incentives to use the experience we already have. We should be passing on
their knowledge but no time allowed doing that (FGBym/q11/s9).
Another FGB interjected by stating that “younger employees can be a threat to them”
(FGBom/q11/s10). Whilst another FGB respondent said “managers are selective in who they
help anyway, and don’t want to share their skills or knowledge, suppose they aren’t
encouraged to either, more afraid others could do their jobs better”.
FGA respondents, whilst also being critical of the quality of their management
generally, were less specific about their specific managers’ roles. As one FGA respondent
said “there is no planning to enable others to learn” (FGAom/q5/s7). Another FGA
respondent negatively commented “isn’t management attitudes more focused on their annual
performance, where bonuses are paid” (FGAyf/q5/s3). Another FGA respondent retorted
“ there are no actual policies available to assist employees for the future, so how can
managers help” (FGAof/q5/s10).
From the details provided by both FGA and FGB respondents, there is a general
appreciation and support for retaining older workers in the workforce. The FGB respondents
are more aware of the emerging issues and concerns regarding future workforce development
planning and the specific roles of their managers. This could be attributed to the smaller size
of Council and evidenced knowledge of specific vacancies and positions not being filled.
These respondents appeared to be more aware of general skills shortages, vacancies in their
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neighbouring councils and the effects on their own individual teams. As one FGB respondent
said:
“We aren’t doing enough to keep the ones that are leaving, I know we aren’t recruiting
as many as we need to do the job, we can’t fill those jobs” (FGBom/q13/s4)
Comments about management biases and the specific lack of support for older workers
were also prevalent within FGA. They frequently referred to the need for a review of their
current corporate communications and recruitment strategies. One FGA respondent said
“general assistance is not available to outdoor workers, who are usually older”
(FGAym/q5/s13) and another FGA respondent said “there is no such thing as succession
planning for older workers, and that is down to the managers, isn’t it what they are paid to
do” (FGAyf/q5/s15).
Concerns from both focus groups regarding the manager/employee relationship were
raised. Inconsistent levels of information and methods of communicating consistently were
identified as concerns, for all respondents. General consensus reflected the beliefs that
accessing learning and development services are at the behest of their supervisor and manager
and determined by their own management biases. This was based on their own previous
learning experiences. Whilst the principles and awareness of Equal Employment Opportunity
(EEO) was referenced and evident within both groups, at no time was any comment made
regarding evidence of any ageism policies or strategies for managing an older workforce
within the EEO policy or in response to equal employment requirements for organisations.
This was in direct contrast to specific references that had been made about the traditionally
recognised disadvantaged cohorts such as physically disabled, women and ethnic minorities.
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5.5.1.3 Workforce undersupply
Study One highlighted labour shortages as a result of the undersupply of labour in local
government councils which were aligned to most frequent comments regarding shortages of
specific qualified and technical specialist areas such as trades, environmental officers,
community planners and engineers. Themes resonated with specific shortages and allied
disciplines across the State of Queensland and reflected national skills shortages data (ALGA,
2006). One of the key issues that emerged from both focus groups regarding workforce
undersupply was the numerous concerns raised about vacancies not being filled for extended
periods of time. This inevitably led to direct and negative impacts on some older workers to
increase their outputs and as a result, lessening their availability and chances to access
learning and development services. Where increased work responsibilities were transferred, it
was apparent that for older workers more than any other cohorts, there was an accepted and
traditional expectation of them. Corporate requirements were for them to proactively respond
to completion of that work within sometimes, unrealistic timeframes. The majority of
respondents agreed that older workers “bore the brunt” of such arrangements - a result of their
accumulated work experience, strong work ethics and loyalty to the organisation.
Respondents cited such arrangements as resulting in some older workers being “burned out”,
and subsequently resigning or retiring from the organisation. This awareness is evidenced in
the response of an FGA participant who stated:
“Council does have some skills shortages and it’s difficult for us waiting for those
positions to be filled. We lose the older ones first, expect too much of them”
(FGAof/q1/s4)
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The second issue applicable to all councils is that it appears that there is a profound
absence of appreciation or work recognition of personnel. It was frequently acknowledged
that there was very limited attention given to strategies or long term plans to maintain and
develop skills of older workers. According to FGA, retention of ageing workers is diminished
because of the perceived lack of recognition of their individual corporate knowledge, skills
and experience. A reflective observation was provided by an FGB respondent who said:
“Offering apprenticeships and traineeships could fill the skills shortage gap, but it is
only for younger workers, what about the oldies?” (FGBom/q1/s4).
In expanding the skills shortages theme being linked to management strategies, both of
the focus groups identified a range of specific management and leadership options that could
attract and sustain workers in the local government sector, in the future. Overall, this is best
summed up from an FGA respondent who reported that:
“Managers need to do more to keep their workers. Lots of guys [sic] have left because
of the attitudes of their managers; improve communications and support, jobs should be
linked to performance; and how they manage people” (FGAom/q1/s6).
Management, leadership and effective staff supervision with respect to sustaining older
workers or creating alternative employment options appears at best inconsistent or virtually
non-existent, according to some members of the focus groups. The corporate focus is
productivity and work outputs, and the lack of any clear strategy for retaining workers was
further complicated by the restructure and merger of Queensland local government councils in
2007. This merger created additional skills shortages. As noted by a majority of both focus
group respondents, the local government sector witnessed a dramatic change triggered by the
appointment of new managers at middle and senior management levels across the State
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(LGAQ, 2007), which in turn resulted in the loss of some workers, increased productivity and
new key performance indicators being established.
Inconsistent and poor workplace recruitment strategies were raised as leading to
increased workloads for current older workers. Councils are not retaining some older workers
which are leading to general assumptions that those workers are not “valued”. The effects of
workforce undersupply appear to disadvantage and restrict the busiest and most competent
workers from being available to undertake learning and development. The absence of
recognition of their contributions to the workforce led to inability to engage in development
programs and courses.
5.5.1.4 Intergenerational working relationships
Individuals within the two focus groups identified some specific issues that emerged
within different sections of the workforce. This was deemed to be attributed to the
“intergenerational groups” which were also representative of different mixes of skills and
abilities. The majority of respondents cited an inability and unwillingness for some workers
to recognise the changing dynamics of the workforce such as increasing generations and
different age cohorts in the workplace. Frequent references were made by older respondents
about their individual negative attitudes towards some younger workers and vice versa. Other
younger respondents’ attitudes towards some of their older worker colleagues were shared,
and illustrated by one older FGA respondent who said:
“We don’t want to have to work or act as minders for the new younger ones; they just
don’t want our support. They have been here for a couple of months and they know it
all” (FGAom/q5/s8).
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Another older FGA respondent argued that the attitude and approach to work by younger
employees was not conducive to positive work outcomes. They were identified as having a
more “selfish approach” to work, and an inability to be part of the older workers’ strong work
cultures. To further illustrate this, an older FGA in relating to younger workers stated that “I
find that most of them don’t know anything about work ethics, they just haven’t got the get up
and go approach we had” (FGAom/q5/s9).
Complementing this assertion a member of the FGB questioned the intentions of some
younger workers by saying “they’re here for the money, and really don’t care about anything
else that’s going on here. I find them hard to work with” (FGBom/q5/s11). However, in
contrast, another older FGB responded:
“Older workers are selective in helping/assisting those who are eager and have a
commitment or interest; they have to be keen to want to learn” (FGBom/q9/s11).
Given the variances in ages of the focus group participants; a younger FGB participant,
whilst acknowledging the noted sentiments said “it works both ways too, some of the older
workers are really great and want to work with us, but some just don’t want to share their
skills with you, and they make that obvious!” (FGByf/q9/s12).
The collective general views regarding range and access to learning and development
opportunities for workers was more about the perceived poorer work ethics of the younger
employees. An FGB respondent said “they just have it their way, if they don’t want to work,
they won’t and there’s nothing you can do. Supervisors find them too hard work”
(FGBof/q9/s13). Another FGB respondent reflected on his own life experiences and
responded “we couldn’t have got away with what they have today. They have had it much too
easy in comparison with us, I don’t fancy managing them: too much trouble”
(FGBom/q9/s14).
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Another older FGB respondent referred to younger outdoor workers and defended their
work outputs, and approaches to work, he said:
“You can’t generalise, there’s some good ‘uns [sic] and bad ‘uns [sic]. Our outdoor
workers sort them out, nobody gets away with not doing their bit in the teams; it’s just
sorted by the team” (FGBom/q5/s16).
Another FGB respondent added:
“They can be hard work, but if you give them a fair go; and let them know what they
have to do, I think most of them can be good, and like it or not they’re the ones coming
up through the system for when we retire” (FGBom/q5/s17).
A younger FGA respondent referred to his own experiences of a supportive supervisor
in council and said:
“My Supervisor is really good; he lets you get on with the job, but tells you when things
have to be done, he’s respected by all of the team, he’s an oldie but gee, he’s good at his
job” (FGAym/q5/s14).
5.5.1.5 Personal attitude/self development
Individual managers were again identified by the majority of respondents as impacting
negatively, a result of their own personal and sometimes biased attitudes to older workers’
skills development. This was often was reflected in the lack of support to enable self
development of their older workers. This was frequently evidenced when references were
made to the inconsistency of access to support, by older workers. One FGA respondent
reflected on the role of managers and their individual styles and said (FGAom/q1/s7) “work
outputs are totally dependant on your type of supervisor, they can make or break you”.
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Another (FGByf /q1/s8) said “it’s all about the views of the supervisor, if he doesn’t want you
to get a look in, forget it!” Frequent references were made about the negative aspects for
enabling self-development of workers. In some cases “soft skills” were referred to as being a
waste of time and that any training focus should be on technical skills to reflect key
competencies and increased productivity and efficiencies; this reinforced the notion that
managers are out of touch with line management (Burns, 2000) and the way workers currently
work.
The range of perceptions, opinions and attitudes that were shared within both of the
focus groups about learning and development services and access were quite different and
often conveyed mixed messages and views. It is reasonable to assert that personal attitudes
and behaviours usually reflect the work environment in which workers operate. Elements
such as diversity, multi-cultures, and varied work demands, creating a positive work
environment and impacts on individual work input, commitment and their perceptions about
work, were discussed and noted. Details from focus group data reflected that negative
attitudinal behaviours of workers are often derived from the reactive and negative approaches
of some managers and supervisors, more than any other element. The majority of respondents
supported the view that success in the workplace was a direct outcome of the proactive
manager/employee relationship, more than any other element.
Other issues emerged, which included inconsistent and poor performance feedback to
workers, and unrealistic section or department work expectations and an apparent absence of
any agreed personal work goals or aspirations. These were varied and appeared to be more
reflective of individual team dynamics and the nature of the manager. Some respondents
considered and reflected on the myriad of corporate and personal changes they had
encountered within the workplace over the past few years. One FGA respondent said:
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“I have been here for 32 years, and I have seen loads of changes in attitudes, some good
and some bad. Yep, we have had good and poor managers” (FGAom/q1/s13).
Another FGA respondent referred to the different types of work being undertaken by
different individuals and added: “it depends on your team and the work that you do, it’s the
people that count”. Another, younger FGA respondent added “look, everyone gets chances in
life; it’s up to you if you do anything about it, and you can’t always blame others”
(FGAym/q1/s15).
It was interesting to note one contrasting view by an older FGA worker who had been
with council for a minimum period and had minimal local government experience; the
respondent said:
“I had one experience, not here, there was no support for me; I keep my head down
now, and just do what I am supposed to do. I get paid, I go home” (FGAof/q1/s16).
The majority of FGB participants reflected on the different attitudes of all workers as
being a direct result of the different and extensive life experiences they bring into the
workplace. They reinforced a view of the work environment; it is more determined by the
way people work; the uniqueness of each work environment is determined by the attitudes
that prevail. One FGB respondent said:
“We have some great people here. We have had some tough times up here with the
reform and difficult political situations (laughter within this group at this response) and
I think we have all learned a lot from that” (FGBom/q11/s14).
Self-development as an individual responsibility was frequently raised in discussions.
Contrasting views on the preferred levels of responsibilities and inability and sometimes
unwillingness to accept actual ownership of work responsibilities by some individual workers
was evident. Opinions and views contrasted markedly when any references were made about
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biased levels of access for some staff to learning and development and workplace
opportunities. Individuals who had previously undertaken significant and what appeared to
be successful training and development appeared to be more supportive of learning, whereas
those who had undertaken a moderate or small amount of training and development
questioned the value of such an investment by employers.
The FGB reflected similar views generated by FGA by noting that personal
development opportunities did exist, but results were dependant on the efforts of individual
employees. An FGB respondent stated “get off your backside and get on with it. I studied in
my own time, and I have done council courses and programs” (FGBom/q2/s14). Another
FGB respondent suggested “council can be too supportive and you’ve just got to put in some
of your own time, I think they’re generous myself” (FGBof/q1/s16).
A younger FGB respondent reminded the group that as part of his traineeship agreement
it was mandatory to undertake personal development and studies in his own time and added:
“I haven’t done any training here so far, but I know it’s going to be worthwhile in the
end, but can’t do everything in work time, hey. I do what I am told to do”
(FGByf/q1/s17).
Following on from the different roles and relationships employees have with their
managers and supervisors, one FGA (q1s21) said “you cannot rely on Council managers for
everything; I think you have to decide what you want and be responsible to get out there, and
we are here to work.” Discussions regarding current learning and development supported this
view when FGA (FGAym/q1s19/s23) said “I think we have done enough training, need to get
on with our jobs”. Whilst another acknowledged consistent and positive support given and
FGA (FGAyf/q1s26) said “you get what you put in to a job, I have done a fair bit of training,
some suggested by my Supervisor”. Building on the value of training, FGA (FGAym/q1s28)
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said “I have done some training here; it does make sure everyone is on the same level playing
field”.
5.5.2 Part Two: Quadrant Two (Employees)
Table 20 Issues (Quadrant Two: Employees)
Study Two Data analysis (refer Table 18, p.193)
5.5.2.1. Leadership/Management
The initial TEM presented themes about ageing workforce trends towards wellbeing
factors of older workers in the workplace and increased levels of support for them. The
revised TEM presented the employees’ quadrant reflecting on the role of the workers under
guidance from their managers or supervisors, as leaders and representatives of management.
Strong views were expressed about the evident ageing workforce trends, increasing number of
older workers, a result of ageism in the workplace, and demands to meet increased
workloads. Overwhelming support was evidenced for the need to improve and strengthen
leadership towards recognising the importance of wellbeing of staff in all work matters.
Focus group respondents discussed current practices and strategies currently in the workplace
for future employment; a perceived lack of leadership by their own councils resulted.
Leadership and styles of managers were the most frequently identified and discussed issue
impacting on all workers, ranging from the qualities of a leader to the role of the manager in
enabling individuals to access services and support, towards improving their employability.
Whilst the role of leader and manager resulted in a range of contrasting views and opinions,
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the study focussed on the key issues impacting most for all workers in this case, the perceived
inconsistency of strong leadership in local government.
5.5.2.1 Leadership and Management
Emerging constructs from the focus group respondents included discussions and views
on the different levels and types of leadership and styles of managers. The role of the
manager (or supervisor) reflected the greatest negative impact on any opportunities for work
success for individuals in the workplace. Two key themes that emerged as impacting on older
workers were first, the different levels and styles of leadership that currently exist in the
workforce, which appears to be determined more by the personality traits of managers than
any other elements. Secondly, individual manager’s own experiences which appeared to
reflect on their management styles and any inherent biases about their levels of support for
their workers, if any.
The basis of some perceptions was more about levels of opportunities afforded them by
their managers or supervisors to undertake formal qualifications which were recognised by all
respondents as being “critical to future employability”. Stereotypical views were evidenced
about some managers not enabling others to achieve their aspirations in the workplace and
were shared. Frequent references were made about the different types of support that had
been experienced within the workforce. Whilst the majority of focus group respondents
supported the need for individual employees to be more responsible about their own
aspirations; managers were deemed to have the most significant impact in workers accessing
learning opportunities. This led to a unanimous agreement about the role and need for more
effective and supportive managers which led to and referred to as “leaders” in an organisation.
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Stimulus question 5 regarding the support that currently exists in Council and question 9
about training and development available within the councils generated numerous dynamic
views and opinions which led to varied opinions again about the different and very limited
exemplar models of management practices within the current local government workplace.
Most personal difficulties shared were about specific and difficult relationships between a
manager and a worker and was frequently described as the result of the absence of good
leadership. One FGA respondent (q5s1) stated “encouragement from our managers do not
exist, not in our section”. In discussing the value of learning and development and the
different methods that could be employed by managers, one FGA (FGAyf/q5/s5) said “we are
not aware of anything that lets us want to learn more”. This statement was further supported
by another (FGAom/q5/s10) who said “we don’t have any consistent policies; it’s just luck on
how you do your work, no directions from our supervisor”. This was also noted by
(FGAom/q5/s11) who replied “there’s no support, just a get on with your job attitude”.
Frequent references to the lack of, and/or inconsistent communications by management
were again raised. Referring to future directions, a respondent (FGAyf/q5/s4) said “we need
to look at the whole workforce, we need to be more consistent in how we operate, not
separate units” whilst another reflected on the need to improve motivation of staff. FGA
(FGAom/q11/s4) said “the next five years is critical for all of us, we must bring in new
support and look at different ways of working”. The lack of motivation for seeking work
options or improved access to employment diminishes with age, particularly where little or no
value is recognised by managers for their older workers, and this was reflected by the
majority of respondents about ongoing absence of leadership or guidance for the future.
Leadership and management styles are two aspects and variables that impact and play a
major role in the success of operations in any organisation. Inappropriate or the absence of
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corporate practices or lack of corporate commitment can potentially create age-unfriendly
workplaces (Germov, 2005; Van Gramberg & Teicher, 2000). If workplaces do not have
strategies to reflect the needs of ageing workers this will result in placing more work demands
on older workers (Australian Government, 2007; OECD, 2006). Greater advocacy of older
workers by management is needed and must be recognised (Rocco et al., 2005). Perceptions
reflected that traditionally, leadership is aligned to vision, strategic planning and initiatives.
In this research, no links, alignments or monitoring of workers reflected any planning
processes or appraisal systems for older workers to lead or guide them in the future. The
implementation of effective monitoring of individuals and performance is required to ensure
corporate outcomes and organisational effectiveness (Germov, 2005). Whereas, the
perceptions of the respondents within these focus groups and current literature suggests that
management is more aligned to the practical and operational matters necessary to achieve
efficient and effective workplace operations, and outcomes. These are more linked to the
strategic and documented whole of organisation objectives (Germov, 2005); the workforce is
not recognised as a key driver of future achievements or successes although tokenistic
approaches were frequently referred to by respondents.
None of either FGA or FGB group participants referred to any corporate standards to be
adopted by their leaders or managers within their respective councils. One FGA respondent
said:
“It’s all in the attitude of your Supervisor; some give you a really good go. Others just
don’t, if you are a good worker, they keep you on the job, so you can’t afford to be “off
the job” to learn or do anything else but work” (FGAom/q2/s22).
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Another respondent within the FGA group stated “it is more about the attitude of your
Supervisor, I’ve had a raw deal in the past on a few jobs, and I just don’t think that’s
going to change for me” (FGAof/q2/s23).
Another FGA added “it is tough going for management having to try and motivate some
workers too, how you can get some workers to learn, if they don’t want to” (FGAom/q2/s25).
There were some concerns raised within the FGB about workforce equity to access, and
the inability of senior managers and supervisors to support staff particularly during heavy and
increasing workloads. It was recognised that such situations in themselves, marginalised
access to learning and development by those who were directly involved in the “contract”
types of work. One respondent from FGB said:
“We always have some training going on, and I think local government is really good
but it still depends on the job you do. Some are luckier than others; it is all relevant to
the work they do” (FGBof/q5/s11).
Another FGB respondent commented “some need to change their old way of thinking I
think, and realise we don’t all think the same” (FGBym/q5/s12). This was followed by
another FGB respondent who commented:
“It does depend on your team and your kind of work, if you have a tight contract which
has to be delivered on time, you can’t allow some of your staff to be freed up to do
training? We don’t have extra staff just to cover others” (FGBom/q5/s13).
Leadership and management styles reported by both focus groups and reflecting
different councils indicate that leadership and management styles differed markedly but were
predominantly weak in abilities to support workers. There appeared to be a consistent
absence of contingency plans to cover workers who were attending training or development;
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this resulted in resentment of those workers who were released from work to attend learning
and development. Past negative and positive experiences drove and vocalised individual
views leading to a generalisation that leaders determine the levels of access that workers have
to learning and development, rather than a process which reflected equitable corporate
policies, priorities and reflective of identified and planned workforce needs.
This leads to the need for a re-evaluation and interpretation of corporate objectives to
further define ‘building a stronger workforce’ and what that entails with regard to learning
and development for staff in the future, particularly older workers.
5.5.3 Part Three: Quadrant Three (Corporate Operations)
Table 21 Issues (Quadrant Three: Corporate Operations)
Study Two Data Analysis (refer Table 18, p.193)
5.5.3.1 Workforce opportunities for learning
and development 5.5.3.2 Self esteem
The initial TEM presented themes about adult learning preferences in current workforce
learning, a reflection of services that are available and accessible by older workers in
councils. The Corporate Operations quadrant presents concerns, practices and perceptions
about the design of some programs and courses and absence of collaboration or input by adult
learners and perceived to be the responsibility of managers. Current learning and
development processes were identified as “as hoc”, and were more in response to the need for
increased productivity and efficiencies and returns on investment for employers, more than
any other matters. Generally, it was identified that the role of the employer in providing
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relevant, timely and appropriate learning and development services for employees should be
more of a natural consequence to the changing demographics. Ways of working need to be
more reflective of technological changes, products and services. However, given the looming
skills and labour shortages, and ageing phenomenon any corporate changes and strategies
appeared to drive a greater expectation for employees to increase productivity, work smarter
and be more economical in their work operations.
Emerging issues from both focus groups related to the absence of, or poor access to
workplace programs and lack of alternative work opportunities. Frequent references and
concerns were about the importance and value of individual’s self esteem and levels of
confidence within the workplace which affected their own self worth and abilities to
undertake a range of work requirements. These requirements were generally attributed to the
different and unplanned emerging types of work required of them. Any changing roles were
undertaken within the workplace, to meet increasing corporate outputs.
Broader implications were referenced and noted with regards to required productivity
levels of different teams. Inconsistent or poor appraisal systems with limited or no feedback
about work performance was occasionally referred to. Transitional employment was
supported by all respondents towards achieving their own aspirations, but was not being
realised or enabled by their management. Also, it was noted by both focus groups that no
evidence, support or services towards transitional employment existed or was cited. Some
comments were made regarding the future and alignment of different and emerging roles and
responsibilities within organisations to meet changing corporate outputs. As a result of
council mergers, concerns were again raised regarding inequity and unfairness in the
recruitment and appointment of some current officers. This led to levels of mistrust about
some current managers.
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Stimulus question 14 sought responses on what the council did to encourage workers to
be productive, and question 16 enabled reflections or general comments about current
corporate operations. Responses frequently reflected the need for managers to create more
workforce learning opportunities for workers. Managers should be more aware of individual
employees’ own self esteem as a key component in future commitment to, engagement and
work achievements.
Stimulus question 15 regarding the value of keeping older workers in the workforce
realised 100% affirmative responses and was noted regarding the future implications for, and
advancement of transitional employment within the local government workforce. However, it
was also noted that a definition of the term transitional employment had to be explained to all
respondents, in response to requests for clarification of the term itself.
This quadrant was intended to reflect current work outputs and work procedures.
Descriptors such as lack of work force opportunities, intergenerational working relationships,
and levels of available support, access to information and the impact of low self esteem for
individuals emerged as key focus group discussion points. Concerns were raised regarding
inconsistent directions and management styles for informing staff of the required operational
standards, time frames and key outputs to different jobs, and the lack of planning and support
for performance and time management. This was particularly evident where focus group
respondents were required to work on what consistently appeared to be unplanned and poorly
managed projects. Respondents frequently referred to successful outcomes of some projects;
more the result of “bottom up” approaches which were led by workers as reactive responses to
work in the absence of any concrete or consistent decisions being made by their managers.
Personal commitment, strong work ethics and a need “to get the job done” overrode absence
of any corporate leadership.
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5.5.3.1 Workforce opportunities for learning and development
Adult learner influences for skills development within the workforce reflected both the
traditional aspects and biases about learning that have emerged from their school experiences
and initial work induction to learning. This complements Knowles’ (1980) principles and
practices of adult learning in which he asserts that adult learner experience(s) has a major
influence on individuals’ attitudes about learning and development engagement and activities.
However, there were frequent references and examples of biased approaches and attitudes of
supervisors that resulted; workers denied access to learning and development opportunities,
for a range of reasons.
Frequent references were made by respondents about their own individual and unique
family backgrounds; perceived in some cases to be a distinct disadvantage to knowledge,
skills and employment opportunities. This was often referenced by their own failures in
achieving good scores in school subjects or not being capable of learning what was “expected
of them”. Their own attitudes to learning prevailed from their perceived negative school
years to the workplace.
Each individual participant voluntarily noted themselves as being either successful or not
successful at school, the majority of respondents in both groups deemed themselves as either
not good or distinct failures within the school system. This was linked to their own or their
family’s level of commitment (or non commitment) to attendance at school. They referred to
the support or lack of support from their own families during their school years, and their
likes or dislikes of some teachers. The impact of education for workability in the future was
frequently questioned and particularly apparent where individuals had acknowledged that they
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were in jobs where they were going nowhere, as it was “too late to start over”; a result of poor
school learning experiences and achievements.
Any cited references to success were based more on an identified and particular
relationship that they may have had with individual teachers who liked them and supported
them in their learning years at school. Their current perception of success was based on the
profile of the jobs they were currently performing and any hierarchical levels of responsibility
assigned to them for managing or leading others and subsequent remuneration received.
Successful work operations were frequently associated with individual levels of
achievement and self-worth. The impact or influence for levels of respect, trust and
subsequent ability to co-work with managers and colleagues were perceived in levels of
confidence which were determined by the relationship with their manager.
Comments about workplace learning and development and challenges were generally of
a personal nature. They were founded and particularly reflective of their own personal
negative experiences which frequently highlighted and referenced their own negative
schooling experiences. Secondly, perceptions of workplace success were more influenced by
the personal and shared views of their managers. The manager and employee relationship
again appeared to be a critical element of workplace success, and subsequently determined
any engagement in learning and development. Willingness to participate in learning and
development is again reflective of their own self esteem, and current work relationships and
circumstances.
The different levels of support from managers for individual employees were again
evidenced when FGA (q14s15) stated “we never get new work or job changes, all just a
waste of time”. The performance appraisal process, whilst being recognised as a corporate
strategy for supposedly enabling workforce opportunities, was not fully understood or
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recognised as a useful tool by respondents and this was confirmed by a statement from FGA
(q14s16) who said “people really don’t understand the appraisal process. It is supposed to
be for us all, allows us to talk about where we want to going in the future, our plans and
goals, good if it works?”
Data from both focus groups identified the absence of any age management policies or
workforce planning, particularly for older workers. The evidence of significant
communication gaps led to the general perception that workers have neither consistent access
nor regular information regarding learning and development services or opportunities that are
available to them, if indeed, any exist. Levels of communications regarding learning and
development appeared to determine the levels of opportunities available to older workers in
the workforce. This deflected any chances for the realisation of the concept of transitional
employment as a strategy to retaining and engaging older workers in the future.
Both FGA and FGB reflected that workplace learning and development programs were
influenced by what was noted as a “mixed and inconsistent approach” to staff by their
different managers and supervisors.
One respondent in FGA supported the shared and general opinions regarding biased and
preferential levels of access for the future. One FGA respondent reflected on this and said
“tradies are the most secure group anyway, whatever happens at work, they are secure”
(FGAym/q2/s3). This comment was further endorsed by another respondent in FGA who
said, “anyone who already has formal qualifications know where they are going, and I don’t
think job security for them is a problem, and yet more learning and development is available
to them” (FGAyf/q2/s4). A further comment raised from an FGA respondent related to the
concerns on different levels of access for all staff and retorted “I thought learning and
development was supposed to be for us all, not just qualified staff, hey?” (FGAom/q2/s5)
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Another FGA respondent supported some preferential and selective biases in their
council towards undertaking learning and development services; to be dependant on role and
status within council, and stated:
“We have shortages of planners and engineers, they’re always going to be able to do
training and development when they do get here and are appointed, it’s part of their
package” (FGAym/q2/s15).
Some biases appeared to exist for identified, qualified workers to undertake learning and
development within FGA; however, based on comments by FGB the smaller rural council
appeared to be more proactively supportive and less biased about learning and development
services, as one respondent said:
“Others say there are better opportunities for qualified staff. I think when you look
around this group; most of us have been here for more than five years, some qualified
and some not, opportunities are there, if you want them” (FGBom/q2/s14).
Another FGB respondent supported the previous FGB statement and said:
“We are good at giving learning opportunities; local government does a lot of work
with LGAQ. They are always up here helping us with training our staff, and getting
them qualifications” (FGBym/q2/s15).
One FGB respondent referred to another aspect of access for employees and said “jobs,
updates and loads of information is available on the LGAQ website for careers, our council
has its own training on our website” (FGBom/q2/s17). Another FGB participant interjected
and responded “but it’s not everyone who has access to a computer, or can operate on, not
part of their job” (FGBym/q2/s18). Another FGB respondent endorsed previous statements
by stating “I think we are lucky in this industry, we all know that councils do invest in its
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staff, there’s always something going on here” (FGBom/q2/s19). Another FGB respondent
added “but nothing on new careers, or trying out new jobs” (FGBom/q2/s20).
Concerns regarding older workers and their access to development did not emerge as a
separate entity. General comments reflected perceptions that an “ad hoc” approach and
inconsistent information sharing was evident within both councils for all workers when it
comes to training and development services available. This could be attributed to the absence
of any specific policies for the management of learning and development for older workers or
the inequitable access levels previously referred to. It can be seen that there is a need for a
review of the current learning and development investment and management approaches by
councils. Increasing opportunities for more non-traditional learners, such as older workers is
needed. The current systems discussed in this research do not recognise or reflect the
emerging needs of individuals, their desire for multi-skilling, enabling diversification towards
career changes for the future. Concerns regarding the investment councils currently make and
the “added corporate value” development programs for workers requires further study and
investigation, towards a more unified and corporate approach to creating and realising the
value of learning and development opportunities for the future.
5.5.3.2 Self-esteem
Frequent issues emerging about workplace behaviours, performance and commitment to
work was evidenced and perceived to be the direct impact learning and development has on
an individual, their own perceptions of the “value and relevance” of training for them. Issues
were aligned to their own self-value and self-worth, their attitudinal perceptions of themselves
and others and their sense of themselves as valued workers in the workplace. Self-esteem
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emerged as a contributing factor to success and ability or inability to integrate and
communicate with their manager or supervisor.
Strong links in the supervisor/employee relationship reflected on levels of status and
confidence of individual workers. The majority of statements agreed with the concept that the
success of the manager/employee relationships was vital for identifying and accessing
individual learning and development needs. All respondents agreed that the value of learning
and development was determined by their managers and subsequent working relationship.
Whilst some argued that their previous learning experiences reflected input from their
manager and the quality of that relationship, respondents were concerned about the
knowledge levels of some supervisors in accurately reflecting corporate standards and
policies. This is reflected by details provided by an FGA respondent who said:
“ I have had several jobs over the years, where discipline and demands on you are clear
and not negotiable. Your senior officer knows his job, been there and done that, he
knows what he is talking about and the system works in a regimented and very little
margin for error” (FGAom/q16/s9).
Another FGA respondent added to this comment by saying:
“I think getting groups together and sharing that information is the greatest value, that’s
if the supervisor know what he is talking about; and we aren’t made to just listen”
(FGAof/q16/s10).
Expanding on this theme, another FGA respondent added:
“. . . isn’t this more about how their supervisor treats them? If they aren’t confident in
what they’re doing, that rubs off on everyone, I think” FGAyf/q16.s11)
FGB respondents considered the growth and interdependence of individuals for enabling
them to develop. One FGB respondent said:
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“We all did the Diploma course, young and old, it was tough and hard work, but I think
we all got a lot out of it. I certainly was more confident” (FGBom/q16/s18). Another
FGB (FGB/q16/s19) said “there’s a lot more to a job than the supervisor, hey?”
(FGBof/q16/s20).
An FGB respondent who had identified as being an older worker who had recently undertaken
some training, said:
“I went on to do the Certificate IV Training and Assessment Course, and am now
training in Council, training others. Gave me the confidence to go on and do different
things” (FGBof/q16/s21).
Whilst levels of confidence and self-esteem were generally deemed as important, this
was not reflected in management approaches. Criticism was evidenced regarding the role of
council in their management of older workers with FGA (q15s9) who said “there’s loads of
things council can do to keep our older workers, they have the knowledge, skills and
experience, but they are sometimes used as the hard labour all the time” Whilst another
respondent attributed any opportunities for extending working lives to a select cohort such as
qualified, older workers and an FGA (q15s10) stated: “a couple of oldies have been brought
back in the past to help out or assist, but they are the qualified ones.” The inability to
identify opportunities or new career paths was evidenced when FGA (q15s11) stated “not
sure if an older worker really wants to do new work or office work, if they have been outside
all of their working lives, it would be a massive change”. Whilst the value of older workers
in the workplace was frequently evidenced, again there were concerns regarding the current
lack of workplace opportunities for older workers and was raised by FGA (q15s12) who
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stated: “they haven’t been given the chance, and they are definitely needed in the future to
train others”.
5.5.4 Part Four: Quadrant Four (Corporate Policies)
Table 22 Issues (Quadrant Four: Corporate Policies)
Study Two Data analysis (refer Table 18, p.193)
5.5.4.1. Career pathways 5.5.4.2. Personal achievements 5.5.4.3. Levels of support - access l & d 5.5.4.4. Previous learning experiences 5.5.4.5. Attitudes to l & d 5.5.4.6. Motivation and communication 5.5.4.7. Transitional Employment
The initial TEM reflected on different views of retirement within the different workforce
cultures, a result of the absence of future planning for councils and realisation of an ageing
phenomenon, towards maintaining a sustainable workforce in the future.
All focus group respondents confirmed that there were no incentive or reward schemes
for older workers in local government. Personal achievement and the need for improved
recognition within councils were raised with frequent references to previous and successful
learning experiences; outcomes inevitably proffered increased work opportunities and
personal development.
Whilst broader implications for managing human capital, and age management
strategies were discussed, no tangible or significant examples were shared or noted. The
absence of local government careers generated concerns, and whilst there was a general
awareness of population ageing, the focus was more on the lack of workplace opportunities or
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role advancement for the future. Careers pathways are reported on, with some broader
implications for all organisations in the future.
Question 13 sought responses on management actions to retain workers, and this led to
the least amount of responses; unanimous agreement that nothing was being done to retain
current workers. Question 12 asked if learning and development was necessary in the
workforce, 100% of all respondents positively supported the need for appropriate and relevant
workforce development as pathways towards employability and work in the future; this is
discussed and reported on later.
This quadrant reflected on policies that currently exist within local government councils
for supporting older workers, and the value of those policies. Descriptors such as absence of
career advice, recognition of personal achievement and consideration of previous learning
experiences led to negative attitudes to learning and development and were noted. Concerns
were raised regarding some stereotypical views about older workers, but these were not
identified as significant in comparison with other emerging and impacting themes.
Discussions regarding some assumptions about different retirement arrangements were
evidenced and unanimous support for more policies to better support and recognise the
“value” of older workers in their workforce to provide them with more choices in the future.
5.5.4.1 Career pathways An absence of any specific career pathways within local government was frequently
evidenced and referenced by focus group respondents. Biases towards specific, qualified
professional personnel again were recognised. In referring to access by older workers to
learning and development, towards future aspirations, no focus group respondents recognised
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or cited strategies that exist for supporting older workers. One FGA (FGAom/q2/s4) said “I
don’t think pressure to engage with more learning and development is on them, why it would
be if they don’t know where they are going”. Whilst there was a general agreement that
learning and development should be available for all staff; biases were evidenced and existed
about opportunities for selected cohorts. As one FGA (FGAom/q2/s15) stated “Planners and
Engineers are always going to be able to do well; they are the priority”. Reaffirming
previously recognised and selective biases for qualified staff, one FGA (fgaym/q13/s12)
stated “if you have qualifications or experience ok, if you don’t then you don’t get a look in.”
No evidence of any specific career opportunities or pathways was shared and was
frequently reaffirmed throughout this research with one FGB (FGBom/q2/s20) stating
“nothing new on careers, or new jobs for any of us” whilst another FGA reflected on the role
of managers to create career opportunities and their perceived biased approaches to enabling
self development and work promotions of some individuals within local government, and
(FGAof/q13/s12) said “some of the promotions are a joke, and you get to find out about a
job, after the appointment has been made”. This was followed up by several concerns raised
about the absence of fair, equitable and consistent human resource selection processes and
was referred to when FGB stated “since the [local government] merger appointments have
been made, and we still don’t know how the decisions or how they were made. Not everyone
had a chance to apply” (FGBom/q13/s6).
Both focus groups highlighted the serious and negative impact of changes, jobs, and their
responsibilities as a result of the local government reform and subsequent mergers. They
generally agreed that the major workforce changes had been poorly planned and was
frequently referred to as an apparent absence of collaboration or engagement with local
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government workers; decisions were made by State Government for implementation by local
government councils.
Any job promotions and individual changes emerged as an ever-changing response to the
imposed mergers to “improve productivity and build stronger councils” (Queensland
Government, 2007b). The mergers were recognised and discussed in terms of being
unplanned, and politically charged as opposed to a planned, methodical approach in response
to specific and evolving changes; a result of the changing demographics of each council.
Established career pathways were agreed by all participants to be a non event, as work
performance was reactive to ever increasing work demands and the need for all employees to
accept and adapt to the need for “working smarter”; to be better skilled for the future and
knowledgeable about corporate objectives, outcomes and budgets. Inconsistent and varied
opinions were raised regarding personal or corporate job promotions in their Council.
Current HR practices were discussed about the “merit principle”, a fair and equitable
approach to appointing “the best person” for the job, and its opposing interpretation that
“managers selected the person they wanted to work for them” emerged.
One FGA employee stated:
“Council does promote itself as an “employer of choice” which was defined by the
group as an organisation “that people want to work for”, but once in where do you go
from there” (FGAom/q13/s9).
Another FGA, who appeared to be concerned at the over commitment to such a concept,
interjected and said:
“Hey, any more learning and development just gets peoples’ backs up. If our system is
that good, why are staff still not happy to work here, they don’t want the same job for
life” (FGAyf/q13/s10).
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A second FGA respondent questioned the human resource (HR) processes in place for
personnel promotions and stated:
“You get to find out about appointments after they have been made. We are all told that
the “best person for the job” is our policy, but I can think of a couple of instances,
where that is not the case” (FGAof/q13/s11).
Another FGA respondent referred to the extensive range of qualifications and skills
levels for some local government jobs and said “in most cases I think you have to have those
qualifications or experience, so if you don’t, then you don’t get a look in, hey”
(FGAyf/q13/s12).
In contrast, the FGB group believed and confirmed that council’s human resource
processes were in place and appeared to be generally sound and supportive of staff.
Generally, the comments indicated that respondents understood the purpose of recruitment
and selection policies that existed, but in contrast, some voiced their concerns regarding the
inconsistent and ad hoc manner in which management had led a recent organisational review.
It would appear from comments that individuals were promoted and appointed as they
perceived, to fill specific vacancies by already pre-selected and preferred individuals, as
opposed to creating career opportunities for current staff to apply. One FGB respondent said:
“Look, some of these appointments were made, and we still don’t know who made the
decisions or how they were made. I don’t think everyone had a chance to apply”
(FGBom/q13/s6).
Another FGB interjected and said:
“I think this was more to do with the new incoming staff from the merging councils, then
looking at what was needed in some of those teams. I think they have their work cut out
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for them, and some of us are annoyed at how it was handled, but who is going to say
anything? We all need to keep our jobs now” (FGByf/q13/s7).
5.5.4.2 Personal achievements
In considering different levels of motivation that currently exist within the workforce for
employers and employees, there was strong evidence that no future directions or plans to
support individuals to extend their working lives existed; as referred to by FGA
(FGAof/q5/s7) who stated “there’s no planning to enable workers to learn more, or stay
longer” whilst another referred to current corporate biases that existed; an FGA
(FGAym/q5/s6) said “council focuses and accommodates the needs of younger ones, but not
the older workers”. Other biases that had been evidenced about some managers towards
older workers were restated when FGA (FGAom/q5/s13) said “no general assistance or
recognition is available to outdoor workers, who are older anyway”.
Personal achievements and past experiences strongly influenced the levels of motivation
for individuals to pursue work advancement within the local government industry. Currently,
increased remuneration appeared to be the only reason for seeking job changes, and was
stated by FGB (q2s16) who said “we need more incentives for learning, other than pay”.
One respondent, with a focus on employability and the benefits of skills acquisition,
(FGAym/q13/s13) stated “I think we should stop seeing it as something our Council wants us
to do, and realise that to be employable you have to have the right skills”
In most professional careers personal achievement is planned and linked to career paths;
achieving high self esteem, and self concept. Moreover, according to Taylor and Unwin
(2001) this is further linked to effective workplace productivity, which was recognised by
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respondents. Appreciating the influence of team outcomes and levels of productivity, it was
interesting to note that personal achievements were more as a personally perceived successful
outcome more than any other matter. No references were made or identified for enabling
some workers to undertake personal training, other than meeting mandatory corporate
requirements and licenses.
Neither of the focus groups appeared to recognise that individual levels of achievement
were in any way linked to their performance assessment or appraisal. Both focus groups
attributed any performance assessment to the style of their manager and reflected more on
whether or not workers were able to cope with ever changing work demands. There were
some brief references made to individual goals that had been established or briefly mentioned
in conversation with their manager. This was more as an emergent incident rather than a
planned or targeted outcome for the individual or the organisation.
Individual or personal achievements are not consistently recognised. However, this may
be due to council mergers and organisational priorities, rather than an oversight by councils.
Any references or examples cited about recognition of personal or individual goal
achievements were minimal; and if they did, they appeared to be more of a general work
consequence than a planned approach to enable and recognise exceptional performance.
Generally, respondents were more aware of their manager’s own biased approaches than any
intended, mutually agreed individual output or strategy to meet work demands and reflect on
personal achievement. The ad hoc nature of agreeing or setting personal goals or learning
achievements could be more the result of emerging situations linked to the reform rather than
any specifically intended plan. Several references were made to the council’s performance
appraisal system, which in itself appeared to cause confusion in relation to its purpose,
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regularity and the value of such a process to the individual employer and employee. As one
FGA respondent stated:
“Look, we all get chances of doing different things in council, but it still goes back to
what you are allowed to do and what you have to do. I’ve built up my skills since I have
been here; but it’s just expected of you, you’re part of a team, if you don’t do it, then
someone else has to. We do have performance appraisals, but it’s luck of the draw who
does them, and when you do have them it’s more about what needs to be done better.
Can’t see the point of them myself” (FGAom/q13/s13).
Another FGA participant briefly explained their own beliefs and understanding of the
performance appraisal process and benefits for individuals, and added “it [performance
appraisals] does give you a chance to talk about work with your supervisor or manager, and
what you want to do in the future.” Another FGA member interjected and said:
“Yep [sic], but are they done properly, we never get to see any changes, just get us
ready for more work next year? I don’t see the value or the point of them, just a waste
of time” (FGAom/q13/s15).
An additional statement from another FGA participant challenged the level of
knowledge of workers regarding the council’s performance appraisal system and stated:
“I don’t think a lot of people really understand the appraisal process properly. It’s
supposed to be for us all, allows us to talk about where we want to go in the future, our
plans and goals. Managers are supposed to manage them; and I think they have to fit
that in to their normal workloads. Like all good ideas, it is good if it works”
(FGAof/q13/s16).
The FGB group contrasted in their own views and opinions about the process or impact
of their council’s current performance appraisal system. However, unanimous agreement was
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evidenced about the need for supervisors’ skills in workforce planning to be improved to
enable more effective work directions and outputs. As one FGB respondent said:
“Council makes sure everyone has a go at planning their future and goals, and we are
all supposed to agree to a training plan, but doesn’t go anywhere. Some supervisors
are not as good as they’re supposed to be. It really is down to who supervises you”
(FGBom/q13/s10).
A younger FGB respondent referred to his own agreed work plan as part of his traineeship
agreement and said:
“Since I have been with Council the training is good, support is good and I am
achieving what I want. My goal is to complete my traineeship, and I think that is all
well planned and supported here” (FGBym/q13/s11).
Another FGB respondent referred to a specific award that had been given to an
employee to recognise performance and stated:
“I think Council is proud of what we do; there was one award for recognition recently,
so that kind of information has to come from our appraisals, I think” (FGBom/q13/s12).
5.5.4.3 Levels of support for access to learning and development
The significant appreciation of the value of learning and development to all focus group
members was reflected in their individual experiences and opportunities afforded them, by
what was perceived to be, effective leaders. A major complaint that emerged from both focus
groups was the inconsistent levels of support for, and planning of corporate workforce
training. Levels of accessing learning and development within the two councils differed and
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appeared to rely more on their own supervisor or manager and their willingness to share the
appropriate information and support to release their workers to attend training.
Based on earlier comments about access to learning, the participants were asked
(stimulus question 14) “Does your Supervisor assist you in identifying learning and
development opportunities?” It was interesting to note that the majority of the respondents in
FGA believe that, whilst some support existed, it was neither consistent nor reliable, as one
FGA respondent claimed:
“Look, we know there is investment by Council, but I think we can all agree that its ad
hoc, inconsistent and I certainly couldn’t tell you what’s available today or next year.
We know the intranet has the information, and we know we can’t all access that. Our
supervisors will make the decision if we are going to find out or not” (FGAom/q14/s1).
Another FGA respondent said:
“In comparison with my previous employer, it’s there and I know it seems a lot of
people do training; but apart from my own work area, couldn’t tell you what others are
doing” (FGAym/q14/s2).
Another FGA respondent followed up this statement and said:
“It’s up to the individual, they go talk with their supervisor and ask what they know, if
they haven’t got the answers, then go to HR, I suppose” (FGAyf/q14/s3).
In contrast, the FGB respondents believed there to be a more consistent and informative
approach to enable access for staff to learning and development. However, there appeared to
be a perception that Council was more selective and sometimes unfair towards manual
workers as a result of their work loads, which was reflected by one FGB respondent who said:
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“I haven’t done any training for ages, that’s because of my work and working with the
gang. We have contracts, tight timeframes and if one is away, then the rest of the team
have to cover. I think it is unfair” (FGBom/q14/s10).
Another respondent challenged the previous assertion and stated:
“All staff can access and go to training and we do try to plan it on the days that are
most suitable to try and maximise attendance, and we do talk with your supervisors
before we set up the dates” (FGBof/q14/s11).
Another FGB respondent quickly and assertively responded to the previous statement saying:
“Yep [sic], that’s right, but it isn’t the days that you run the training, it’s the workloads
we have on, sickness and staff away. We have been down two blokes for the last couple
of weeks nothing we can do about it, but training isn’t even on the priority list! It’s an
ongoing problem with staff. You just don’t release the workers” (FGBym/q14/s12).
Another FGB respondent said:
“I think we are agreed that there’s plenty going on in council to help staff, but the
reality of the world is that some are going to be more available than others, a fact of
life. That’s got nothing to do with our supervisor; he is a really good bloke and will
help us out. It’s still back to getting on with the job and doing the right thing by your
team” (FGBom/q14/s14).
5.5.4.4 Previous learning experiences
This section discusses participants’ perceptions about previous learning experiences and
impacts on current workforce operations during learning and development programs; deemed
to be of greatest value, by the majority of responses. Access to engaging in learning and
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development remains an issue for most workers, and is recognised as being more dependent
on their own previous learning experiences more than any other matters.
Knowles’ (1980) principles and practices of adult learning indicates that adult learner
experience(s) has a major influence on individuals’ attitudes with learning and development
engagement and activities. This is further emphasised by Borland (2005) who has noted that
learning experiences and attainment stimulates an individual’s self esteem and self concept.
The participants within both focus groups had varied and contrasting learning
experiences within schools and also in workplace learning and development opportunities.
One FGA respondent stated:
“School was OK for me; didn’t like it, didn’t want to be there. I have been with Council
for 5 years and don’t know any other type of work. You get some good training and I
enjoy doing the tickets and licenses. That’s practical, I know what it’s about and I know
what I am doing it for. No tickets, no job” (FGAym/q10/s5).
Another FGA respondent reflected on the type of teachers that the respondent had at
their school, and said:
“School meant nothing to me. You went there, you did what you were told, and as soon
as you were old enough you got out and got a job. I have learned more at work than I
did at school. I think after 13 years in the job, I don’t know if there is much more to
learn. I go to some of the training, but usually about stuff I already know; can’t see the
point sometimes” (FGAom/q1/s21).
In contrast, another FGA respondent referred to a recent formal course that the
respondent had just completed as a group in Council, and said:
“The benefits of that group was that I got to know more about what’s going on in
Council, had a laugh with the group and you were made to feel that you’re not stupid.
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Other people have the same concerns, especially when you have to learn new skills, or
Council is making another change, and you get to find out what others think. The
qualification has helped me, but I’m not sure where to from here” (FGAym/q10/s8).
Another FGA participant reminded the group that learning and development had much to
do with whether the individual wanted to be there or not, and said:
“I have been in learning and development for several years, and I don’t think people
realise the value or just how it helps them in their jobs. We spend a lot of money
investing in our staff, but not sure if they realise all of the work that goes into it to get
them there” (FGAof/q10/s10).
Furthermore, an FGA interjected in reference to “late and last minute” information
issued to workers regarding courses or programs to be delivered and said: “We don’t know,
but I’m not sure if you realise how busy some of us are, and sometimes if you only get a
couple of days notice, to make up the numbers, then it causes problems especially when you
don’t know what it’s about” (FGAof/q10/s11)
The FGB in contrast, reflected on negative aspects of previous learning and development
opportunities that they had been exposed to, and drew on their negative experiences which
tended to override any learning engagement. One FGB respondent said:
“We had one training program on manual handling which was a waste of time, we
didn’t know what she was talking about, but we all sat there, took it, and came out
feeling it was a waste of time. She just didn’t know what she was talking about”
(FGBom/q10/s11).
Complementing and expanding on this issue, an FGB participant said:
“We all want training and agree it is worth our while, but we do get fed up with being
told what course to attend. You don’t get any information beforehand and it can come
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as a surprise when you turn up and see it’s something on management or
communications or business writing. What’s that got to do with getting on with our
jobs” (FGByf/q10/s12)
An FGB participant responded by saying:
“It’s all about cost, if they’re going to bring in a trainer, they try to get the biggest
numbers to make it all worthwhile. But the time spent for all day, for all of us; you’ve
got to ask why” (FGByf/q10/s12).
However, another FGB in support of the diversity of occupations and work areas within
council, interjected by saying:
“It is difficult for council to get it right. You can’t have the same programs that are
going to be suitable for all of us. We have so many different jobs going on here, and
loads going on that we don’t even know about. How do you please everyone at the same
time? In between roster days off, sick days and work I don’t think council is left with
much choice as to when and how to run training” (FGBof/q10/s14).
Regarding the costs to Council for learning and development investments, a more positive and
supportive FGB interjected by saying:
“We have good training, and I have learned heaps. It’s all been worthwhile, and I am
grateful to Council for letting me do it in their time. I had to put some of my own time
in, obviously, but at the end of it – I learned more about myself and I have learned new
skills, so it’s all been worthwhile for me” (FGByf/q10/s15).
Previous learning experiences again influenced individual attitudes towards workplace
learning and development; they were frequently referred to by focus group participants. One
respondent (FGAof/q2s23) said “I have had a raw deal in the past with supervisors who
didn’t help me; don’t think that’s going to change for me”. The dislike of school and
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traditional learning was highlighted by some workers, and was supported by a respondent
(FGAym/q10s5) who said “school was ok for me, didn’t like it, and didn’t want to be there,
but you do get some good training here at work, and I have picked up my tickets and licenses
here”.
The value of learning and development within the workforce was confirmed and FGA
(FGA/q10/s6) said “I have learned more at work than I did at school. After 13 years in the
job, there is much more to learn!” However, access to learning and development services
was questioned on several occasions and confirmed when FGB (FGBym/q10/s11) said “we
need to remember how busy some of us are, and sometimes if you only get a couple of days
notice, it causes problems”. The limited systematic approach to planning workplace training
and evident links to maximum value of training budgets was raised and questioned. FGB
(FGBof/q10/s13) said “it’s all about costs, if they are going to bring in a trainer, they try to
get the biggest numbers to make it all worthwhile”. There was a need for clarification of
council’s processes and this was sought within focus group A when FGA (q13s16) said
“surely there’s a system that picks the training, it can’t just happen”.
Whilst the quality of some trainers and selection processes for training providers was
raised within FGB, one respondent relating to a workplace program undertaken FGB (q10s11)
stated “one trainer, a waste of time, we all sat there, she didn’t know what she was talking
about”.
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5.5.4.5 Attitudes to learning and development
The LGAQ through the Learning and Development Services Section provides each
Council with an annual learning and development guide outlining programs, schedules and
courses (LGAQ, 2009-2010). The information is also available on the LGAQ learning and
development services website and is accessible by all local government workers. Both focus
groups commented on the role of learning and development and the value of being formally
qualified. The majority of respondents agreed that they were aware of the services and direct
involvement LGAQ had with their council. It was pleasing to note that all of the respondents
were supportive and proactively voiced the need for skills development within the workforce
as being a necessary part of their employment and work. Some respondents shared their
positive experiences of undertaking training with the LGAQ. There was strong support for
future investment in skills development within the workforce. Some views expressed a need
for certain conditions to be met, such as programs needed to be relevant to the individual, to
enable a range of learning methodologies and “add value” to their current work. Generally,
respondents accepted there was value to such an investment by their Council. However,
issues were frequently raised regarding the logistics, coordination and strategic planning for
learning. As one FGA respondent said:
“Look, we all have to learn, and are learning every day. Think we should stop seeing it
as something our Council wants us to do, and realise that to be employable you have to
have the right skills. It’s finding out what those skills are that’s the problem, and
making it relevant” (FGAom/q13/s17).
Another FGA respondent added by saying:
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“We have the Australian Business Excellence Framework here in Council, which keeps
reminding us that the staff is the greatest asset. I believe that, but the skills of some
supervisors have to be questioned. They might be technically competent, but why do
you assume that means you will be a good leader in your team? I think they make it
harder for their staff. I am not sure how they plan the training for their teams”
(FGAyf/q13/s15).
Referring to a previous comment regarding the selection of appropriate courses, programs and
services, another FGA respondent again questioned the learning and development planning
pathways that Council took, and asked:
“They have to go out and organise where they’re going to meet, getting the dates
organised and talking with the presenters. So where does [sic] the idea come from in
the first place?” (FGAym/q13/s16).
A formally qualified FGA respondent reflecting on levels of responsibility for managing
logistics of training and development in Council, said:
“Council has a strategy for selecting training, it is based on priorities, and as we know
the mandatory tickets and licenses have to come first. Once that is selected, it’s like the
Australian Business Excellence Model; top management identifies a need in the
organisation and we take it from there” (FGAom/q13/s17).
One of the FGA respondents, who had previously been fairly vocal and critical about the
consistency of Council in applying its selection and delivery of different training programs,
retorted to this comment with a question, asking:
“Yeah, but that still doesn’t tell us how it is selected. I used to be in the Defence
Services, and all of the planning was done way ahead, you know what was required, and
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you knew what was on offer and you were keen. Here you get to find out a few days
beforehand, if you’re lucky. That’s not right” (FGAom/q13/s18).
In support of Council’s current methods, another FGA respondent interjected:
“Yeah, but Defence Services pay their staff according to skills and knowledge, you don’t
get promoted until you have reached that point, we don’t have anything like that in
Council. It’s on a needs to know basis, it’s part of the job you were employed to do, but
we just don’t know what the system is for identifying those needs here? I would like to
do some more workplace training in another section of council, where I think they are
better planners and supporters of their people; but not sure [sic] where I would go to
get that or who I should ask?” (FGAom/q13/s18).
The FGB group again raised the matter of their performance appraisal system for
identifying training needs, and highlighted the opportunities for employees to talk with their
supervisors or managers about future training plans. This, according to the FGB group is part
of the system to identify training needs. One of the FGB respondents commented:
“We get to talk about what we want to do, once a year in our Performance Appraisal
meetings, but usually record the same thing every year, and told if it doesn’t run it’s
because they can’t afford it” (FGBof/q13/s9).
Another FGB responded by trying to explain the process to the group:
“Look, our performance appraisal system is designed to talk with you and allow you to
identify your training needs for the year. We record all of that against a skills and staff
matrix, and determine training needs in accordance with the outcomes of that. Of
course, mandatory training has to be a priority, but we try to do the best we can from
there on in” (FGBof/q13/s15).
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Another FGB commented by saying “that’s not always the case though, if we have a
change in legislation or Enterprise Bargaining training or something, I think you change the
funding then don’t you” (FGBom/q13/s16).
A FGB respondent questioned the reliability of the information that is recorded or stored
for use in decision-making and planning of training programs in council. The respondent
referred to their “corporate skills matrix” and commented by saying:
“I haven’t had a performance appraisal meeting for years, and can’t remember the last
time I was asked what training I wanted to do. It’s usually decided by our Supervisor or
that’s what I thought we did anyway. I would like to do more training, but just didn’t
think our team could, we are always busy, no time” (FGBym/q13/s17).
Current attitudes to learning and development are directly influenced by the individual
managers and supervisors, FGA (FGAom/q2/s22) stated “it’s all in the attitude of your
supervisor, some give you a really good go, and are fair and supportive, and others just don’t
give you a chance”. Other respondents questioned the consistency and communications of
strategies within their council for accessing information. In referring to the development of
the intranet, one FGB (FGByf/q2/s18) reminded the group “it’s not everyone who has access
to a computer to find out what’s about.” The breadth of local government occupations and
work requirements was identified with one FGB (FGByf/q2/s25) stating “Council is too task
focused, is just too broad for many of us.”
Another respondent reinforced the value of training and aptly summed it up and
(FGBym/q10/s15) said “we have good training, I have learned heaps, it’s all been
worthwhile and I am grateful”. Another respondent said “I don’t think people realise that
it’s the learning and development that helps them with skills to get their jobs” (FGAq10s10).
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5.6 Triangulation
A triangulation process was applied in the research to cross check at least four different
data sets presented in the study to confirm or refute the findings. By collecting and analysing
different data sets, the evaluator ensures that the final evaluation report reflects the multiple
realities of specific social relationships (Burns, 200 p. 420). In this study that included the
literature review and three empirical studies to investigate transitional employment for older
workers. A methodological triangulation process was undertaken and achieved by initially
selecting four common terms that frequently emerged in the study and reflected on high levels
of impact for employer and employees. A synthesis of the four selected themes is presented
(refer Table 23), referenced and aligned to each of the three data collection sources, (i)
Literature review, (ii) Study One data analysis and then (iii) Study Two data analysis. The
terms were aligned to compare differences between each study and to contrast any common
beliefs, viewpoints and opinions which resulted in majority support for transitional
employment. The viewpoints reaffirmed different levels of responsibilities for both (i)
employers and (ii) employees and their subsequent working relationship regarding (iii)
corporate operations or (iv) corporate policies, for enabling access to TE.
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Table 23 Triangulation of different data sets in analysis: a Synthesis
Key term/s frequently
identified in research
Literature review Study One data analysis
Study Two data analysis
Retirement Greater control needed by older workers
80% support transitional employment as a strategy to retirement. Currently determined by managers
Limited opportunities available for TE or extending retirement options
Performance Management
Workloads and lifestyle balance needed Increasing physically demanding jobs not considered
Absence of feedback from or engagement with managers
Limited value Inconsistent approaches taken
Unfair work practices
Tokenistic approach by organisations Absence of identification of barriers for some learners
Inequity and unfair treatment of some blue collar and outdoor workers
Biased approach from some supervisors and managers. Limited communications if IT is not accessible by workers
Lifelong learning Concept for retaining skills and competencies for the workplace
Recognised the value, identified need for more support and access to skills development
Value of learning and development for future employability; critical and essential element of employment
An outcome of this triangulation process was to consider merged literature review and
Study One themes against the initial TEM (refer Figure 1, p. 182) constructed. This was
further applied through external work processes and workplace influences (refer Figure 2, p.
263) from Study Two. Such a process enabled identification of some rival theories for which
Yin (2003) wrote that “the more rivals an analysis addresses, the more confidence can be
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placed within your findings” (p.120). The focus group data analysis from Study Two enabled
a richer, more humanistic insight in that personal experience, opinions and viewpoints were
openly shared and reflected on current corporate policies and operations and key perceived
responsibilities of the two key stakeholders.
5.6.1 Retirement
The literature review data analysis reflected on extensive awareness of the different
notions of retirement within the current work environment and the need for older workers to
have greater control. Study One data analysis resulted in 80% support for transitional
employment as a strategy to extend retirement for older workers. However, exiting the
workforce appears to be more determined by older workers’ direct supervisors and managers
in local government councils, than any other cohort. Study Two data analysis realised limited
or no opportunities were available for accessing transitional employment options towards
extending retirement beyond their traditional retirement age.
5.6.2 Performance management
The literature review cited needs for improved workloads and a better lifestyle balance
for all workers, towards a more progressive and planned approach to permanent retirement.
Increasing physically demanding jobs were cited in response to the changing work needs and
increasing urgency to deliver corporate outputs in response community demands. However,
there was little or no evidence of workforce planning or support to ensure reactive changes
and demands were achievable, given current resources. Study One data analysis frequently
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identified the absence of feedback or directions from managers with regards to work outputs
and standards. Performance appraisals were recognised as an evaluation system of workers,
but little or no collaboration between managers and workers in the preparation of the annual
appraisal process was evidenced. Questions were frequently raised regarding the purpose and
value of such a system, particularly where references were made to linking outcomes to skills
development and work opportunities in the workplace for workers. Majority of respondents
considered that the process itself was misunderstood by many workers, with the majority
citing inconsistent and unfair approaches to the concept, if it occurred at all. Study Two data
analysis identified limited value for engaging in Council’s performance appraisal system and
considered there to be no provisions or opportunities for planning or discussing future
learning and development or enabling identification of skills gaps for workers, towards
support services.
5.6.3 Unfair work practices
The literature review referred to tokenistic approaches by organisations to the
development of some of their staff, particularly older workers. There was an absence of
identification of barriers for some learners in the workplace and this was reflected in levels of
engagement undertaken and inequity for access to some courses by older workers. Study One
data analysis reflected on unfair treatment and management of some workers, particularly
blue collar and outdoor workers in accessing learning and development. Study Two data
analysis perceived there to be a biased approach from some supervisors and managers which
impacted on poor corporate communications about training opportunities. Workers with little
or no access to IT were identified as being disadvantaged in accessing information about
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corporate learning and development available in council, especially where this was identified
as the only source of information for them.
5.6.4 Lifelong learning
The literature review reflected on lifelong learning as an investment for valuing and
retaining skills and competencies in the workplace, a joint approach by both employers and
employees. Study One data analysis overwhelmingly recognised the value of learning and
development for future employability. Support was so strong that respondents agreed to pay
for their own learning and development or at the least, contribute to the costs if the services
were made available to them in enabling future work employability. Study Two data analysis
realised majority support for learning and development towards acquiring competencies and
future work opportunities. An investment in lifelong learning was deemed to be a critical and
essential element for future employability.
5.7 Summary of Focus Group Data (Study Two)
17 focus group participants representing 2 different local government councils
responded to 16 questions posed were aware of and agreed that the local government
workforce was ageing. They concurred that no strategies were in place to respond to what
was identified as a worldwide problem, the global and workplace ageing phenomenon.
However, given the current changes and the new roles established in response to local
government council mergers (Queensland Government, 2007b), general assumptions were
made in that the ageing workforce was not a priority for local government councils at this
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time and global warnings (EOCD, 2006) were not being heeded or responded to. The impact
of the ageing demographics and the need for strategies to better reflect those changing
demographics (Council on the Ageing, 2006) were not evident within local government
councils. Some of the issues raised by respondents were about the need to retain skills and
labour to maintain a sustainable workforce. The issues also reflected a general perception that
older workers need to be valued and their services retained in the workplace. Some older
workers referred to doing what was required of them, with frequent concerns about the
dictatorial and inappropriate management styles of some managers and supervisors.
Awareness of the intergenerational working relationships was more reflective of the
different ways of working together. The majority of focus group respondents identified the
negative and consistent impact that poor senior managers or leaders had on their work and the
workers. Poor communications abound and reflected more on increasing workloads of all
workers and inequity of communications for learning and development course information.
Continuous ongoing developments and poorly structured changes to work outputs to ensure
compliance was resulting in confusion by workers and the creation of a perceived diminishing
value of older workers. Subsequently, this was perceived to lead to the creation of a
discouraging work climate. Organisations which create a discouraging job climate are
effectively reducing the likelihood of workers to maintain and develop their skills (Sterns &
Miklos, 1995).
The employers’ role is generally perceived to be a demanding position reflective of
corporate impositions for productivity, performance and increasing compliance. However,
the current workforce undersupply, a result of a diminishing work pool is seen as a major
issue by respondents. General comments were made about management not adequately
planning, leading or adequately supporting the current workforce. Older workers are now in
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the workplace; this was recognised with frequent references to their contributions, a reflection
of their corporate knowledge and experience. Generally, respondents preferred the styles of
the managers and supervisors who “understood” and were either past or current practitioners
of the work they were managing. A result of starting “from the shop floor up”, was an
indication that experienced managers are recognised as more successful than the qualified, but
less experienced managers.
The employers’ responsibility for policies was recognised, particularly those reflecting
human resource legislation within local government. There are no policies or current
practices for proactively engaging or retaining older workers. Current actions such as
performance appraisals are identified more as a hindrance for retaining older workers; no
value in reflecting older workers’ need or meeting their current aspirations for new or
different work. Frequent references were made about their mandatory attendance at some
learning programs which they had not selected or sought out but were required to attend, by
their employers. Little or no notice was given prior to engagement to attendees, and no
collaboration about the course purpose, outcomes or expectations beforehand. The process
for selecting staff to attend some courses and programs was seriously flawed and perceived to
add not value to employer or employee other than meet some target figures for the
organisation.
Whilst both focus groups indicated an appreciation of specific vacancies in their
councils for professional or technical positions which were deemed as critical to operations,
no other specific gaps or general awareness of other skills shortages were identified within the
workforce. Promotional opportunities or advancement to other different work did not exist
except for when labour gaps “had to be filled”, in reactive response to insufficient workers.
No specific council vacancies, other than the positions that directly impacted on them or their
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team were raised. Whilst there were differences in skills shortages within both councils, there
was an absence of general knowledge about major skills and labour shortages impacting on
local government councils in Queensland and Australia.
Both focus groups identified and represented a strong sense of appreciation and
awareness of the impact, implications and value of the older workers within the workforce.
General concerns regarding the working relationship and the capabilities of managers and
supervisors were raised with frequent references to the impact of the Queensland Local
Government Reform, as an imposed corporate challenge that appeared to be in some cases,
poorly managed. There was a general realisation and agreement that the reform had changed
and seriously affected workplace relationships, responsibilities, and the value of workers
which included older workers. Moreover, as a result of the reform, key concerns were raised
regarding expected and ongoing increased workloads and responsibilities for all managers and
supervisors.
General perceptions reported from the older workers who participated in the focus
groups, was that their presence in the workplace was positive, consistent and their skills were
required for the future. Some concerns were raised that they do not have much support or
access to learning opportunities as other specific cohorts, and there was a need for a n urgent
review of current strategies for engaging older workers. According to the majority of focus
group respondents, strategies appear to be more of a tokenistic approach or were non-existent.
Overall, it was noted from both groups that access to learning and development services
for qualified employees and trades people was easier. A prevailing perception was that such
access was a key commitment by employers to maintaining their professional development
and more reflective of status and hierarchical position in the organisation, than any other
matter. This led to assumptions; corporate commitment to ongoing professional development
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for selected workers. Biases regarding preferential access to learning and opportunities were
noted and they are borne out by the assumption that those who already have some form of
formal recognition have an improved opportunity to maintaining or building on that
recognition and subsequent qualifications.
Both groups considered management skills and attitudes were a determinant factor in all
team development, productivity and corporate successes. Both focus groups raised details
about individual cases of bias and these were consistently cited and referred to in discussions
about leadership and management. Whilst motivation and communications are two key
drivers and determining factors for teams and corporate performance, individual development
appeared to be solely reliant on the effectiveness and capabilities of their individual managers.
The emerging issues which related to the two specific councils engaged in this research
were considered to validate all themes for older workers. Both focus groups identified
situations and challenges that appeared to be unique either to their own team, or their Council
as a result of location, size and general demographics. The impact of the ageing
demographics and the need for strategies to reflect those changing demographics were
discussed and identified as important.
Aspects of emerging intergenerational working within council was discussed, and whilst
general support for both older and younger workers working together in council was evident,
individual examples of biases again by their managers or supervisors were raised by both
focus groups. Communications regarding access to services that were available was
highlighted, often resulting in what can be deemed as mixed and inconsistent approaches
within both councils for informing individuals of programs and courses available to them.
Job promotions and job changes emerged as selective and biased towards emerging
needs and priorities of corporate workloads and contracts or target led outcomes within both
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of the focus group in respect of their councils. Careers do not exist in Council, as a perceived
pathway to building on work opportunities. Whilst individuals recognised the level of
investment by their employing council, the inconsistencies in provision and application of
learning and development strategies based on the comments from the focus groups, appeared
to be haphazard, ad hoc and reactive to changing corporate and legislative demands.
Individual perceptions of workplace and learning and development was explored and
considered. If an individual had experienced negativity in school during their school years
and support from their families was not evidenced, then a reluctance to partake or identify the
value of learning and development in the workplace was also evident.
Outdoor workers, with the least or no formal qualifications appeared to be more
reluctant about workplace learning and development, than their counterparts with
qualifications or previous positive experiences in learning and development. The concerns
which emerged were more about workplace courses attended and the style of the presenter;
unrealistic expectations of the learner, and competition generated between their peers; all
depended on the learning environment created.
Current views about some learning and development undertaken in the workplace was
supportive, positive and frequently identified as a critical tool to get on in the future.
Individuals identified the value and need for learning and development within the workplace,
but questioned the levels of access and strategies engaged to identify the types of services on
offer to them.
Self-value and self worth emerged as varied and fragmented amongst the workers, and
this appeared to be more about their own work capabilities or aspirations. Whilst the value of
both older workers and younger workers were identified, there were no consistent patterns
regarding how self-value or self-esteem emerged.
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Flexible work hours existed for some workers which were deemed to be inconsistent
and unfair. Consequently, certain work cohorts are disadvantaged, and that may well be the
older and outdoor workers. However, the need for increased support in investing in all
workers for the future was evident, with a focus on future employability as a key issue.
5.8 Learning and Development Services: Transitional Employment
5.8.1 Evidence for learning and development towards Transitional Employment
The term transitional employment was generally recognised as a process for extending
current work arrangements of older workers beyond traditional retirement age (60 years)
when superannuation pensions can be accessed and was agreed by all respondents. Focus
group discussions reflected on the need to increase work opportunities for older workers, an
increase in investment of their skills development. The value of learning and development for
skills development is recognised, but the absence of any direct involvement or engagement of
older workers in the planning or prioritising of skills development programs was also evident.
Key concerns were raised about the delivery styles of some facilitators and the value of some
learning outcomes to improve capacity or work for the future. Older workers are seeking
work opportunities and an extension to their working lives, but feel that the current corporate
learning system is tokenistic. If services or support were available within their councils, some
respondents did not know where to go or how to apply. The inconsistency of levels of access
and information sharing regarding learning and development opportunities was evident. Most
respondents concurred that this disadvantaged individuals to improving their chances for
future employment and career options.
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5.8.2 Capacity for learning and development services
Emerging concerns frequently reflected the differences between managers and
supervisors in their commitment to learning and development services for their staff.
Perceptions reflected the inconsistency of individual managers and their own preferred and
biased styles and attitudes, a disadvantage to older workers. Respondents support transitional
employment, albeit under other terms such as flexible employment, new types of work, work
opportunities; and agreed that their own managers and supervisors should “lead by example”
and assist employees towards such a arrangements, where such options do not currently exist.
Managers’ heavy workloads and poor time management was occasionally proffered as
possible reasons for no action or limited commitment in this area.
5.8.3 Education awareness of learning and development services
Communications about learning and development opportunities in the workplace are not
consistent, not effective and deemed to be quite unfair in some sections and departments of
local government councils. Respondents frequently referred to finding information out after
the event. This often left the general feeling and view that some workers were
disadvantaged, particularly when new, incoming individuals had limited or no knowledge of
the local government industry; but provided with access to new information and support
systems. There is a need for a review of current policies to reflect operations is this was
frequently referenced. There appears to be a general desire to increase workplace
opportunities for older workers, towards negating their imposed permanent exit from the
workforce at their traditional retirement age.
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Current workplace arrangements are not supporting or enabling older workers to access
options for extending their working lives, despite strong evidence of support for this.
Fourteen key issues are presented within the revised TEM (refer Figure 2, p.263) and is
discussed further in Chapter Six. The revised TEM is intended to reflect key emerging issues
that are negatively impacting on older workers in the workforce and thus disabling them from
accessing transitional employment arrangements. The study reaffirms that access to and
support for transitional employment options is well supported and recognised, but is not
evident or accessible within the local government workforce today.
The focus groups were established to discuss themes from the literature review and study
one realised different issues for both stakeholders and current corporate policies and
operations.
Employers were identified as being most responsible for adult learner issues with regards
to their work and responsibilities and were identified as providing limited access to learning
and development, frequently as a result of workforce undersupply and inability of some
workers to attend – identified as a responsibility for employers. In addition, intergenerational
working relationships resulted in biases and different levels of access which led to different
personal attitudes and self development, reflective more on the value employers held for their
workers, particularly older workers.
Employees sough stronger, more decisive and evident leadership and management roles
to better reflect on the value of older workers and their value in the workplace.
Corporate policies do not exist to support older workers, and issues such as creating
career pathways for them, recognising personal achievements and different levels of support
again led to the realisation of levels of inequity and biases that exist over younger workers in
local government councils. Previous learning experiences were not included in design of
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programs for adult learners, which was reflected in attitudes to learning and development and
levels of motivation for older workers to seek out and engage in future learning and
development – a key issue was current communications and how workers find out about
services that are available to support them in their future employability.
In reflecting on issues impacting within the current workforce, opportunities for
learning and development are limited if non existent for some older workers, leading to lower
self esteem for realising or achieving aspirations for extending their employability in the
future. The most frequent issues impacting on (i) employers or (ii) employees or references to
(iii) corporate operations or (iv) corporate policies are presented as key findings of this study;
views, opinion and experiences of current workers. These issues are presented within the
revised TEM (refer Figure 2, p.263).
The initial TEM is the result of a qualitative case study and is intended to convey
themes currently impacting on access to transitional employment for older workers. Those
themes are presented within the quadrant that was identified as deemed to be most responsible
for leading changes in the future, and presented in either Quadrant 1, 2, 3 or 4. A revised
TEM presented the four quadrants as levels of responsibility for future changes and included
issues currently impacting on access to transitional employment.
A 3-dimensional final TEM is presented as (i) four quadrants reflecting perceived
levels of responsibility in the future (ii) issues impacting on access to TE and finally (iii) a
key finding in each quadrant intended to reflect possible responses for encompassing issues
presented. The final TEM is presented for consideration by councils and policy makers in the
future, if organisations are to better manage their ageing populations through access to
transitional employment.
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Figure 2: Revised Transitional Employment Model
1 Adult learner issues 2 Limited Access to learning
and development 3 Workforce undersupply
Queensland Local
Government Councils:
Issues for accessing TE
4 Intergenerational working Relationships 5 Personal attitude/self development
1. Leadership/Management
1. Workforce opportunities for learning and development 2. Self Esteem
1. Career Pathways 2. Personal achievements 3. Levels of support for access to learning and development 4. Previous learning experiences 5. Attitudes to learning and development 6. Motivation 7. Communication 7.
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Chapter 6 Findings and Conclusions
6.0 Introduction
The underpinnings of this study were based on warnings to organisations about the
global ageing phenomenon. In light of the global ageing phenomenon, this study focused on
the willingness and commitment to transitional employment in local government councils in
Queensland. The changing demographics of an ageing populace are leading to a decreasing
workforce in traditional labour markets (OECD, 2005a) in Australia for which Local
Government is identified as a key employer in Queensland (ALGA, 2006). Research
undertaken by the LGAQ highlighted the negative impacts of the global financial crisis,
looming skills and labour shortages and State-led amalgamations of local government
councils in Queensland (LGAQ, 2007). This led to warnings for all councils to adopt
strategies to maintain a sustainable workforce in the future (ALGA, 2006). This study
investigated transitional employment as a possible strategy.
The study investigated the role for workplace learning and development as a key factor
for enabling future employability. Themes were initially identified from the literature review
and were validated through Study One which led to the initial TEM; themes impacting on
access to transitional employment. Study Two investigated and validated those themes which
led to most frequent and significant issues impacting on access to transitional employment,
and to a revised TEM. Comments, opinions and views from the focus groups in Study Two
led to sharing of possible corporate responses as a key finding in each quadrant.
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The study argued for improved access to transitional employment which was supported
by the majority of respondents. The study posed three key research questions:
1. What are the current local government workforce issues impacting on skills and labour
retention?
2. What are perceptions about the current workplace environment? And,
3. What are the expectations about learning and development towards extending
employability of older workers within the local government sector?
6.1 Structure of the Chapter
This chapter commences with a discussion on transitional employment as a possible
corporate strategy for the future in Queensland local government councils. Findings from the
study are presented within a 3-dimensional final TEM with a discussion on the four quadrants
and (i) how they complement each other. A second dimension is presented as (ii) issues
currently impacting on access to transitional employment which are discussed, with an
explanation as to the quadrant they have been placed in. Finally, (iii) four key findings are
presented reflecting possible corporate responses for future consideration towards a
synthesized and final TEM. Limitations of the research are raised towards a presentation of
findings and their links to the three research questions for this study. The Chapter finishes
with a summary and some future research options.
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6.2 Transitional Employment: A Recruitment and Retention Strategy
Transitional employment was investigated as an industry reform strategy for maintaining
a sustainable workforce in response to the global ageing phenomenon and diminishing work
pools in local government councils. The majority of respondents support the concept of
transitional employment. However, significant issues emerged for councils if they are to
retain their older workers as a response to the current exodus of corporate knowledge and
skills (LGAQ, 2006). Whilst the “value” of older workers is recognised, concerns about poor
levels of support and limited access to learning and development services are key issues.
These issues are considered as inherent barriers for older workers (DEETYA, 2006) which
also reflects tokenistic approaches in what has been described as ineffective human resource
planning (Burns, 2000).
The changing patterns of work and inability to recruit new employees in to the local
government industry (ALGA, 2006) are concerns for the future. Study One found that
learning and development is a key driver for employability. However, the procurement of
current corporate learning services is based on corporate cost effectiveness towards
“maximising” productivity which is resulting in reactive corporate situations (Ferrier, 2008),
and ineffective training. Current corporate training is a response to reactive work demands,
rather than a mutually agreed and planned approach to achieving key corporate goals;
application of adult learning principles to maximise the value of human capital.
Study Two found that a “one size fits all” corporate approach (LGAQ, 2006) is generally
applied to support services for older workers and this continues across Queensland councils
today. Current practices negatively impact on individuals seeking or accessing opportunities
as a “stepping stone” and investment to their lifelong learning (Walker, 1998; Tikkanen,
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2006); a recognised approach to skills development and future employability. Skills
development helps increase knowledge and attributes of workers so they can remain in the
workforce which inevitably impacts on the future sustainability of the workforce (OECD,
2006). Social issues such as contemporary perspectives of age management and successful
ageing practices in terms of access to services and support for older workers were not
evidenced. These are considered to be significant issues for local government councils’
management to review. There is overwhelming support to better meets the needs of older
workers, towards changing employers’ attitudes about their older workers (Taylor, 2011;
Walker, 1996). The absence of age management policies, a key finding in this study
(Quadrant 1), was frequently raised with majority support for corporate responses in the
future. There are no corporate policies or strategies to support older workers. However, other
cohorts such as indigenous, employees with disabilities or young employees were
sporadically referred to as having more support and opportunities than older workers. This
was reflected in references to imposed legislation promoting equal employment opportunities.
Where some best practices by managers were shared, they were frequently referred to and
perceived as either “tokenistic” or “one-off” situations. Corporate reactions to increasing
work demands suggested a lack of organisational level strategy and confusion about the role
of manager, a key finding in this study (Quadrant 2), as leaders.
Consequently, ongoing stereotypical approaches to learning and development by
managers has the potential to negatively impact on future engagement of older workers,
hindering their future employability prospects. No training plans were evidenced, a key
finding (Quadrant 4) in this study, which led to unfair practices for accessing learning support
services. Where new work roles emerge, in response to changing work dynamics such as
technology or amalgamations, employees frequently cited an absence of collaboration or
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engagement between stakeholders (Quadrants 1 and 2) for planning strategies for service
delivery. Further evidence highlighted the value of effective appraisal systems, to recognise
individual achievement and future individual development needs through mutually agreed
work performance goals, a key finding in this study (Quadrant 3). New work opportunities
for older workers are not available, resulting in some of the “hardest and best older workers”
reacting negatively to ongoing, increasing and changing work demands within perceived,
unrealistic timeframes. Inevitably in these circumstances, majority of comments reflected on
the perceived role of older workers to “lead those changes”, a result of their previous
experiences and strong work commitments and ethics. Such forced and unplanned
arrangements frequently reflected minimal support or guidance from their managers which
resulted in no acknowledgement or value for work completed.
6.3 Trends within the Local Government Sector Fifteen issues were identified as having the most impact in enabling and supporting
transitional employment arrangements for older workers. These are integrated in the final
TEM (refer Figure 3, p.270). It is inevitable that some older workers will seek permanent
retirement when it best suits them, and others may not wish to pursue extended employment
arrangements and their working lives (Nicolini, 2006). The research considered transitional
employment for the sole purpose of providing work choices for older workers, where none
currently exist. The study has also reinforced views that accessing transitional employment is
dependent on commitment to undertaking learning and development. This study provides an
insight into issues hindering willingness and commitment to transitional employment. The 3-
dimensional final TEM represents four quadrants which were aligned to levels of
269
responsibility in councils. The four quadrants are presented in bold in the outer circle of the
model and are applicable to any of the four sections and subsequent issues presented. Whilst
all four quadrants each represent the level of responsibility they also enabled the design of
questions in Studies One and Two to gather richer data and further validate levels of
responsibility, and findings.
In presenting the first dimension as quadrants, Quadrant One (Employers) is seen as the
most responsible agent for responding to adult learning issues which is one of five issues
presented, the key finding is presented in bold print in each quadrant. The four quadrants are
flexible in reflecting different levels of responsibility at different times. All quadrants impact
on issues presented for accessing transitional employment; the centre of the final TEM. In
any organisation it is absolutely critical to have a high level of consensus between the
employer and employees’ aspirations to ensure its optimal functioning. Hence the
demarcation of the findings between Quadrants 1 and 2 was necessary to appreciate and
identify the most responsible agent for leading Age Management Policies as future strategies.
The second dimension presented 15 most significant and frequently identified issues
from this study. They have been sorted into the quadrant from which questions had been
designed, reflecting levels of responsibilities. Study One questions were designed to gather
further data and to validate findings from the literature review. Issues can equally be
impacted by any one of the four quadrants, as previously discussed.
The third dimension of the TEM is a presentation of the four key findings which are
aligned to either Quadrant 1, 2, 3 or 4; perceived lead agent for future changes. The key
finding for each quadrant is reflective of most frequent comments, opinions and views shared
about future and possible responses by councils, for improving access to transitional
employment. A synthesis of the final (3-dimensional) TEM is presented.
270
Figure 3: Final (3-dimensional) Transitional Employment Model
* (Key findings)
*Key Finding: Age Management Policies
Queensland Local
Government Councils:
4 x key Findings and 15 x issues
Adult learning issues Limited access to l &d Workforce undersupply Intergenerational working Personal attitudes (x 5)
Leadership/ Management (x 1)
[inc. HR, flexibility and communications]
*Key Finding: Role of managers as
leaders
*Key Finding: Workplace Performance appraisals
Workforce opportunities for learning and development Self esteem (x 2)
*Key Finding: Training Plans
Career pathways Personal achievements Levels of support
Previous learning experiences Attitudes to l & d Motivation Communications (x 7)
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The Employers’ role (Quadrant 1) has been mostly related to a lack of leadership in the
management of learning issues for older workers and for providing adequate access to
learning and development services. Stereotypical attitudes and negative behaviours of
employers led to inconsistent support for older workers. Behaviours usually reflect the work
environment in which workers operate in and which is led by employers. A key finding
within this quadrant is Age Management Policies which is intended as a corporate process for
changing behaviours and approaches to better recognise the value of older workers. Whilst
Quadrant 4 (Corporate Policies) discusses issues about current corporate policy documents,
Quadrant 1 reflects on the process for Employers to adopt to reflect behavioural changes
needed as a corporate approach and should be read separately.
The Employees’ role (Quadrant 2) focussed on confusion about the role of manager as
leader, particularly in the management of older workers. The negative behaviours of some
managers caused majority of issues in accessing learning and development services and there
was a noted absence of mutually agreed work plans. Within the established hierarchical
corporate structures, older workers respond to authority. Work is completed frequently
knowing that other, more effective ways of working were possible. However, as a result of
the authoritative and non-collaborative approach of some managers, workers did what “they
were told to do”. Commitment to and trust for management was minimal, and frequently
cited as the result of a dictatorial approach, rather than a collaborative engagement based on
mutual respect. A key finding in this quadrant is clarification of the role of managers as
leaders, which should be encompassed with a revised approach to Age Management Policies
(Quadrant 1), another key finding.
Corporate Operations (Quadrant 3) reflected on current day to day operations, which is
tokenistic and not reflective of “best practices”. Whilst several corporate models were cited
272
and discussed, they were recognised as “one offs” aligned to department, but not implemented
across the whole of the organisation. The absence of engagement and collaboration with
managers by workers were frequently referenced as a result of increasing work demands. A
key finding is that performance appraisal systems require revision. This includes effective
implementation to may enable opportunities to engage with, and discuss future goals to secure
feedback about and agree work performance targets; mutually agreed outcomes.
Corporate Policies (Quadrant 4) considered current policy documents reflecting either
management or support for of older workers, for which none exist. Whilst several corporate
policies were referenced, they were in response to legislative requirements more than any
other purpose. An absence of documented policies identifying the role and value of the older
workers was noted and led to issues in local government. These included an absence of career
pathways, an absence of relevant learning and development services reflecting on individual
needs, and consistent poor communications about access to support services. A key finding
was that the establishment of training plans could enable 1:1 discussions to better complement
corporate goals, identify managers’ needs whilst recognising individual aspirations; a strategy
for maximising the value of human capital and for this study, older workers.
An overview of the issues for each quadrant is presented culminating in a key finding.
Whilst the key finding is intended as a possible response by councils to issues presented, it
can be read for encompassing one or all issues within the section presented.
Quadrant One
Quadrant One (Employer) presented five issues which are presented in no particular
order, towards enabling access to transitional employment by older workers. These included:
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(1) Adult learner issues are not currently reflected or embedded into the design or delivery
of corporate learning programs. Whilst employers are recognised as the key purchasers
of learning and development programs, the role for improved leadership is identified as
a key finding in Quadrant 2.
(2) Limited access to learning and development by older workers exist. Within the current
day to day operations there is an increased need for new work opportunities that could
lead to career paths which is identified as an issue in Quadrant 4.
(3) Workforce undersupply is impacting on availability of older workers to undertake
learning and development. Quadrant 2 presented issues about communications and the
current role of managers as leaders, particularly to increase levels of support, a key
finding in Quadrant 4; mutually agreed training plans.
(4) Intergenerational working relationships create opportunities “to learn from each
other”. Current workplace operations do not permit or encourage such arrangements.
The absence of opportunities leads to low self esteem and a key finding in Quadrant 4,
training plans to enable more structured and planned learning and development in the
workplace.
(5) Personal attitudes to self development are more reflective of past learning experiences
than any other factor. This was reaffirmed through discussions about current
procurement of learning and development programs and the role of managers as leaders,
a key finding (Quadrant 2).
The above issues reflected trends that were perceived to be the responsibility of
Employers (Quadrant 1) for enabling and supporting access to transitional employment which
included subsequent wellbeing factors of employees; successful ageing. The findings
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interrelate with issues from the other three quadrants and can be cross referenced to different
levels of responsibility for applying new approaches to managing older workers. However,
Employers are identified as key drivers for any changes, Age Management Policies could lead
to a revised cultural approach and change in attitudes to management of older workers in the
workplace.
Overwhelmingly, focus group respondents agreed that the role of Employers (Quadrant
1) should be as a “lead agent” in determining support services through mutual agreement with
their older workers to extend their working lives beyond retirement age.
Quadrant Two
Quadrant Two (Employees) presented two issues reflecting concerns about leadership
and management which have been collapsed into one issue. This was because the respondents
could not differentiate between the roles of leadership and management. Frequent and
significant comments were made about the absence of policies to either guide or require
managers to undertake a more collaborative approach to workforce planning, resulting in
negative behaviours. This study argued that learning and development is a key driver for
future employability. It was also recognised that managers need to be trained in leadership
roles for maintaining a sustainable workforce. Furthermore, without changes or new
approaches, tokenistic ways of working pervade which reinforces negative cultural behaviours
which have to be changed, if transitional employment has any chance of success in the future.
The issues presented are negatively impacting on individuals, working teams and overall
workplace performance.
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(1) Leadership/Management
Current leadership and management is perceived to be inconsistent, biased and in some
cases non-existent regarding support and directions for skills development. Negative
behaviours of some managers reflected tokenistic stereotypical views of older workers’
capabilities and their willingness to extend their working lives. There was overwhelming
support for all managers to be trained in leading and managing the ageing workforce; a
phenomenon. It can be argued that in the absence of Age Management Policies which is a
key finding in Quadrant 1, no guidelines exist to improve management strategies or
behaviours. In addition, unless access to new work opportunities is revised to enable
improved learning and development as part of day to day operations, tokenistic approaches to
learning and development programs will ensue.
A key finding for Quadrant Two is the clarification of the role of managers as leaders in
the future, to better manage older workers. This could reflect corporate commitment in Age
Management Policies, a key finding in Quadrant 1.
Quadrant Three
Quadrant Three (Corporate Operations) presented two issues:
(1) Lack of workforce opportunities for older workers to learn new skills, lead to low levels of
(2) self esteem for older workers.
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The majority of respondents concurred that there were no employer sponsored
opportunities for establishing performance measures or targets, for which neither recognition
or acknowledgement was evidenced. This led to an absence of feedback on performance and
inability to mutually agree work priorities for the future. Whilst this was also reflected as a
possible cause for non-engagement in learning and development, workforce undersupply was
frequently raised as another issue (Quadrant 1). This led to the realisation that the working
partnership (Quadrants 1 and 2) were at best “on the run” as responses to increasing work
demands with subsequent limited levels of support, an issue in Quadrant 4 for workers. This
was also perceived to be a key factor leading to low levels of self-esteem for some older
workers and was reflected in their unwillingness to pursue or commit to skills development.
Actual day to day operations of the workforce did not reflect strong or consistent leadership
(Quadrant 2). A key finding in Quadrant 3 is a review of performance appraisal systems to
better meet and agree individual work aspirations based on mutually agreed goals and
performance measures. This concurs with the overwhelming discussion on negative
stereotyping of older workers in the current literature which also reflected limited value for
current appraisal systems.
Quadrant Four
Quadrant Four (Corporate Policies) presented (7) most frequent and significant issues:
(1) Career pathways do not exist for older workers, and is reflected in the absence of
workforce opportunities, an issue in Quadrant 3.
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(2) Personal work achievements are neither recognised nor valued by management. A key
finding in Quadrant 3 reflected on ineffective appraisal systems which do not enable
opportunities to recognise individual achievement or agree future work goals or career
aspirations (Pillay et al, 2008).
(3) Levels of support for access to learning and development are either limited or non-
existent. The key finding in Quadrant 2 seeks to clarify the role of managers as leaders
in providing improved support for older workers.
(4) Previous learning experiences are not considered in the design or procurement of
corporate learning and development programs. The responsibility for procurement was
aligned to Quadrant 1 (Employers) which found that Age Management Policies could
lead to a revised approach to managing older workers and subsequent realisation of their
value to organisations.
(5) Attitudes to learning and development appear to be driven more by the negative
behavior of some supervisors and managers, than any other factor. This has been
discussed as a key finding in Quadrant 2 in that the role of managers as leaders needs to
be defined and clarified.
(6) Motivation for undertaking learning and development is more dependent on the
behaviour of managers as leaders and is reflected in the key finding in Quadrant 2, the
role of manager as a leader. Overwhelming support for transitional employment was
evidenced but an absence of corporate policies has led to limited or no workforce
opportunities which is an issue in Quadrant 3; unwillingness to undertake learning and
development; an absence of purpose or goals.
(7) Communications within the workplace were deemed to be very poor or poor. This was
also consistent with themes from the literature review and reflected on limited
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information about learning and development services available which were perceived to
be the responsibility of Employers (Quadrant 1).
Policies are generally identified as the macro approach to corporate operations which
tend to be operationalised in different ways within diverse work environments; local
government councils. This study has argued that where policies do exist, they may not be
fully understood or consistently applied which leads to negative behaviours of some
managers. However, in this study evidence reflected that no policies, guidelines or
approaches for managing older workers exist – a significant concern in light of the current
ageing phenomenon and management behaviours that pervade. The absence of policies is
negatively impacting on the workforce. There was no evidence of commitment from local
government councils for enabling access to transitional employment by older workers.
6.4 Summary of Four Key Findings
The above discussions can be summarized into four key findings which are presented in
the TEM as a bold heading in each quadrant. The findings are intended as representative
statements as responses for encompassing issues presented in each of the quadrants. The four
key findings reflected majority views, opinions and comments for responses by councils to
improve access to transitional employment by older workers. A discussion of each quadrant
has been presented followed by an overarching statement covering issues and culminating in a
key finding statement. The key findings are presented as a synthesis:
279
1. Quadrant One (Employers)
Key finding: Establishment of Age Management Policies reflecting effective and appropriate
management of older workers, a key response to managing any one or all of the five issues
presented.
2. Quadrant Two (Employees)
Key finding: Expectations of the role of managers to lead in the management of older
workers are currently confusing and should be defined and clarified in local government
councils. This is a key response for reviewing roles and responsibilities and particularly in
leading improved management approaches to older workers and the merged issue which was
discussed.
3. Quadrant Three (Corporate Operations)
Key finding: Current appraisal systems do not reflect mutually agreed planning of work,
goals or learning opportunities for older workers. A revised appraisal system is intended as a
response to improve communications between both stakeholders towards a collaborative
approach to assessing individual achievements and planning future work goals, and agreeing
future training needs.
280
4. Quadrant Four (Corporate Policies)
Key finding: Agreed training plans reflecting individuals’ work aspirations and personal
preferences could lead to improved commitment to learning and development by older
workers. This response could encompass the seven issues presented as a strategy for policy
makers to enable and improve current access to transitional employment.
Four key findings are reflective of possible corporate responses to issues presented in
the final TEM (refer Figure 3, p.270); a three-dimensional model for conceptualising and
understanding (i) levels of responsibility for improved management of (ii) current issues
impacting on older workers, through (iii) responses as four key findings for councils. The
model presents an overview of factors limiting or hindering transitional employment by older
workers, through what has already been identified as a corporate approach to improving
learning and development services (Pillay et al., 2006). This study argued for increased and
improved corporate support for older workers for which organisations need to consider
alternative employment options (Dimopoulos, 2007).
As a result of the above four key findings, it is also suggested that further research is
needed about the role of managers as leaders of older workers and the value of older workers
to organisations in the future. This reflects an overarching need for older workers to have
greater access to work opportunities (Queensland Government, 2007d) and for organisations
to be sustainable in the future (OECD, 2008).
281
6.5 Limitations of the Research
An identified limitation to the study is the engagement of small numbers, which is
typical for a qualitative study. Respondents were all similar in that they were local
government full time employees and had agreed to their voluntary participation in the study
which was conducted across different methodologies. The findings can not be seen as
providing a comparison to or with any other industry and may only be verifiable within
cohorts of a similar composition and industry. A further limitation is the nature of the
research itself, in that qualitative research findings can be subjective and cannot be
generalized to other settings (Bryman, 2001). However, by using three separate empirical
studies to cross-validate the data mitigated some of the subjectiveness.
The research cohort is not representative of the total population but every attempt was
made to reflect a cross section of workers in Queensland local government councils. The
findings are only indicative of what might be occurring for other underrepresented cohorts
such as women, indigenous employees or employees with disabilities. Caution must be
applied when interpreting and extending the findings to other subsets of the local government
employee population. The intention of this study was to engage with volunteers as
participants to lessen any preconceived biases and overcome any perceived expectations from
their employers. Participants were supported to share open and honest opinions and views
within a safe and conducive environment which may not have been achieved otherwise. It is
also noted that this approach may have limited the capacity to generalise findings to other
local government councils in Australia.
Another potential limitation to the study is the pre-existing and current relationship of
respondents with their local government employer. It is possible that some of the participants
282
may have felt a sense of obligation to their employer and provided responses reflecting on that
relationship, although every action was taken to encourage voluntary participation. The
research participants’ insights, feelings and attitudes are essential parts of the interview
process and may be more reflective of their current work environment than previous or future
employment outside of local government. This may have revealed more of an individual’s
subjective meanings (Neuman, 1994). However, the researcher is generally not privy to the
thoughts or intentions that sit behind participants’ responses. Therefore, the researcher was
limited to literal interpretation of the respondents’ replies, at that time and in that situation.
Given the adoption of a case study approach, the outcomes of this research are only pertinent
to the Queensland local government sector. The scope of the research did not extend to
examining transitional employment outside of the local government industry.
6.6 Linking Findings to the Three Research Questions
The research questions were designed to investigate a study problem, willingness and
commitment to transitional employment as a corporate strategy for maintaining a sustainable
workforce. A range of findings facilitated a deeper appreciation of what transitional
employment might mean for employers and employees in the workplace. The study provided
details of the complexity of knowledge achieved through a constructivist approach as some
reassurance for enabling access to transitional employment.
Much of the reviewed literature advocated the adoption of new organisational strategies
to engage older workers in the future. An investment in skills development leads to future
employment (Walker, 1998). Three research questions led to key outcomes which are
presented.
283
6.6.1 Research Question One: What are the current local government workforce issues
impacting on skills and labour retention?
The most significant issues noted were the lack of current workforce learning and
development opportunities for older workers. Older workers are not valued by their
employers; hence an investment in their learning and development is not a priority which is
impacting on skills and labour retention. Local government councils have an ageing cohort
and there is an exodus of older workers exiting the industry but there is no corporate
commitment to respond to this phenomenon. A key finding (Quadrant 1) is Age Management
Policies as a process to reflect the value of and investment in older workers now and in the
future, a strategy for responding to issues impacting on skills and labour retention.
6.6.2 Research Question Two: What are perceptions about the current workplace
environment?
In light of findings from research question one, research question two sought to
ascertain perceptions about the current workplace and are summarized in Quadrants 2 and 3
of the final TEM. Most frequent and significant themes included the role of older workers in
the workforce in the future, and led to identification of issues negatively impacting on them.
Inactions by local government councils for recruiting and retaining older workers led to
concerns about maintaining a sustainable workforce. No concerns regarding productivity or
capability of older workers were raised at any time. However, biases in the management of
younger workers led to views of inequity and unfair practices by some managers. Increasing
workloads for older workers were prevalent, and was determined by stereotypical views that
284
older workers had stronger work ethics and commitment and always “got the job done”. Such
views of younger workers were not so evident. Any retirement plans were relative to access
to and final payouts of superannuation but, retirement intentions were not shared with
managers for fear of being considered as “not staying much longer”. Older workers are
seeking future employment choices which are overwhelmingly supported by their co-workers.
Perceptions about the shorter working lives of older workers led to limited support and
investment in skills training; a result of limited or no “return on their investment”, over
younger workers. The role of manager as leader (Quadrant 2) through adopted and revised
workplace appraisal system (Quadrant 3) are two key findings in this study for changing
negative cultural attitudes and stereotypical behaviours in the current workplace environment
about older workers.
6.6.3 Research Question Three: What are the expectations about learning and development
towards extending employability of older workers within the local government sector?
Research questions one and two sought issues impacting on skills and labour retention
and then perceptions about the current workplace environment. Research question three
focussed on expectations for learning and development which was overwhelmingly supported
as a key driver for future employability, and is summarised in Quadrant 4. There is limited or
no access to learning and development courses and programs by older workers for extending
or building on their future employability. Workforce undersupply led to unavailability of
older workers to undertake learning and development. Older workers were frequently deemed
to have “a limited working life to retirement” which led to less investment in their learning
and development. Current courses were either not relevant or did not “value add” to their
285
current competencies. Promotional opportunities are limited, a result of limited or no formal
qualifications, which led to the absence of career pathways for them.
Training plans are presented as a key finding in Quadrant 4 to reflect the need for
improved planning, collaboration and engagement between employers and employees
(Quadrants 1 and 2). Such an approach should enable mutually identified skills gaps and
agreed strategies to retain and build on current skills and formalise if sought, competencies for
future employability; a key expectation, particularly for older workers.
6.7 Conclusion and future research
Findings and limitations identified in connection with this study suggest various avenues
for future directions. Further research is needed in to the appropriateness of the final 3-
dimensional Transitional Employment Model to confirm or contest its validity for guiding
workforce approaches about management of older workers in the future. If the model was
adopted, then an exploration of its effectiveness in implementing transitional employment and
promoting employers’ and employees’ critical thinking about future strategies with larger
sample sizes and in different domains would offer some directions for the future. Such
research as a primary focus of Quadrant One (Employers’ role) could provide further insights
into the Employer’s role and value for retaining older workers in the workplace.
A second major research trend could continue to focus on Quadrant Two (Employees) in
light of expectations of leaders in management. Further research into the role of leadership in
the workplace would seem to be unnecessary given the current volume of literature available.
However, further research about the role of leaders in managing older workers would enable
286
increased appreciation of the changing expectations of employees for their future
employability.
Further research is also required in to the appropriateness of day to day Corporate
Operations (Quadrant Three) in light of the ever-changing work demands and subsequent
value of learning and development services to maintain contemporary and relevant skills; a
consequent inclusion in Corporate Policies (Quadrant Four).
Transitional employment through the provision of improved learning and development
services is a significant strategy for enabling older workers’ future employability. There is
majority support for retaining older workers within the workplace and their value is
recognised by their co-workers. The robustness of the 3-dimensional TEM and issues
identified need to be further examined. This would lead to an extension of our understanding
for utilising and managing the key roles of the two stakeholders and two environmental
elements impacting on that working relationship. This would include consideration of key
issues in a broader range of organisations and industries, with other management dimensions
and as a basis for developing future policies for enabling access to transitional employment.
287
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Appendix I
Transitional Employment Questionnaire (TES)
Section One – please tick the appropriate box (This information is for our records only and is totally anonymous)
Name of Council:
When could you officially retire from full-time per manent work? Next 12 months 1 – 3 years 4 – 6 years 6+ years
Highest Qualifications Achieved University TAFE Trade School Other
Field of Employment Technical Trade Professional Management
Operations Labourer Administration Other
Section Two – Select one answer for each Question
1. Are you interested in transitional employment after your official retirement date?
No – please submit your response Yes – please continue with the questionnaire
2. What transitional employment are you interested in? Full-time Part-time Casual Flexible Current, but less responsibility
3. If your health/skills makes it difficult in transitional employment, what would you prefer to do? Re-skill for other jobs Gradually undertake less work Retire permanently Other
4. What is meant by ‘ageing’ within the workforce? An asset An obstacle Does not matter Other
5. What is meant by ‘ageism’ within your present work place? An asset An obstacle Does not matter Other
6. What is meant by ‘ageing’ within your Executive/Senior management teams? An asset An obstacle Does not matter Other
7. How do you value your own ‘work-related’ learning and life skills? Very high High Medium Not at all
8. Who would you prefer to work for as part of your transitional employment? Local Government Council Private business/organisation Government Yourself (consultancy work)
Mixture of employers Other
9. How many days a week would you like to undertake transitional employment? 1 – 2 days 2 – 3 days 3 – 4 days As required Casual basis
10. How would you like your transitional employment to be managed? Fully supervised (no responsibility) Partially supervised (some responsibility) No supervision (full responsibility)
As required within the job
11. What type of work would you be prepared to undertake? Same as now Slightly different Complete change No specific preference
12. What age group would you prefer to work with? Same age group (50+ yrs) Middle aged (30-49 yrs) Younger age (18-29 yrs) Any age group
13. What salary/income would you look for (i.e. in proportion to time worked)? Same rate as now Increased rate Flexible Casual rate
14. Would you be prepared to undertake some form of training/development to prepare for transitional employment? Yes
15. Do you believe that employees who have received limited initial education would be disadvantaged in taking up further learning/development for transitional employment?
Yes
16. When should skills training/development for transitional employment be available? Throughout employment 5 years prior to retirement 2 yrs prior to retirement When required
(Your present position)
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17. Who should be held responsible for training/development and support for transitional employment? My employer Federal Government State Government Other
18. Who should pay for this training/development? Me My employer Government My employer and Government
19. What training/development would you prefer to undertake? Advanced skills/knowledge in my line of work Updated skills/knowledge in my line of work Skills/Knowledge in another type of work Other
20. Who should deliver this training/development? University TAFE Private providers In-house staff Any/all mentioned
21. When should this training/development be delivered? During working hours Evenings Weekends Other
22. What level of training/development would you need? None at all (go to Q.24) Minimal Sufficient Comprehensive As required
23. When would you prefer to undertake this training? Immediately When available When new position begins As required
24. Are you interested in gaining new/additional formal qualifications? Yes No
Section Three – Select between 1 and 3 choices for each Question
25. What should Council Management do to support you in to transitional employment?
Establish a Post-retirement Policy, for all staff Review staff recruitment processes for 50+ yr olds Improve Council’s Performance Appraisal system Meet with me to discuss opportunities Hold workshops on transitional employment Support me in looking for transitional employment
Improve management styles in Council Enable me to contribute to future directions Assist me in skills development Improve Human Resource services available Other:
26. What would you be prepared to commit to, for transitional employment?
Review my own approach/attitude to work Be more aware about the needs of younger employees Better understand Council’s requirements and Corporate Plan Work with management to improve systems Learn new skills, where possible
Learn new skills from my colleagues Share more information with management and colleagues Improve work strategies within the workforce Be more proactive with new ideas Other:
27. What would you personally undertake to do more of in transitional employment?
Sharing skills with others Training younger employees Assist in inducting new staff Assessing other staff in their work
Assist other staff to learn new skills Develop team plans Representing Council when required Other:
28. Three main incentives for you to enter in to transitional employment?
Access to part-Superannuation Offset superannuation against mortgage Part pension payments Private Health Care subsidies Subsidised work travel Discounted public transport Loyalty cards Flexible working hours
Paid membership of Professional organisations Regular, extended leave periods Opportunity to learn new skills Choice of work available Rates rebates All benefits of a retired person Other:
Section Four – Unlimited answers for each Question
29. What are the main benefits to you for transitional employment? (unlimited selection)
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To be respected and valued To be needed Socialising General well being A purpose in life
Maintain friends Income Somewhere to go To keep active Other:
30. Should Council have a ‘pre-retirement plan’ for transitional employment? Yes No
31. Should Council assist you in identifying transitional employment opportunities in Council Yes No
32. Should Council assist you in identifying transitional employment opportunities outside of Council Yes No 33. By achieving transitional employment, what services might you use less of? (unlimited selection)
Doctor Medical prescriptions Centrelink Library services Community Centres Social activities centre/leisure outings for 55+ yr olds Public transport Personal car Clinical services
Physiotherapist Aged care facilities Social worker Health Centres Supermarkets Council services State Government agencies Financial services Other:
34. General comments you would like to make
-
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Appendix II
Sub study (ii) Interview Questions
1. What policies exist to support older workers?
2. How does Council “value” their older workers?
3. How is Council recruiting/managing their older workers?
4. What options or incentives exist to keep older workers in the workforce?
5. Are different jobs/roles available to older workers?
6. Are current communications keeping older workers informed/services available to
them?
7. Are older workers productive? If yes, do corporate plans/learning and development
programs support them?
8. Is Council planning for the future workforce?
9. Does loss of skills/knowledge of older workers impact on the workforce?
10. What productivity measures are in place to evaluate input of older workers?
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Appendix III
LGAQ Letterhead [Dated]: [Name of intending participant]:
Participant Information Letter
Dear [Name of intending participant] Topic: Ageism within the workforce and current trends and interventions that exist to retain older workers Thank you for agreeing to participate in a focus group discussion on [confirmed date here], to be held at [venue details and location here], on [date agreed with HR Officer and attending staff]. The LGAQ in partnership with Queensland University of Technology is undertaking research regarding the value of older workers within our workplace. We thank you for your agreement to attending the above and look forward to working with you. The work shop facilitator, Mrs Kathy Kelly, will be posing a range of key research questions. The focus group process and range of questions will be fully explained at the commencement of the workshop. During discussions, you will be encouraged to provide your own opinions thoughts and views on a range of topics regarding older workers in the workplace. The focus group discussion will be recorded throughout. The Facilitator will take notes throughout and will explain or clarify any areas that attendees are unsure of. Your privacy and anonymity will be maintained at all times during this workshop. Please find attached a brief description of the data collection method and ethical protocols. If you have any questions or queries regarding this please do not hesitate to contact me either prior to the day of the meeting or prior to the meeting itself. We greatly appreciate your time with this project. Yours sincerely, Kathy Kelly Manager – Learning Services Email: [email protected]
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Phone: (07) 3000 2233 Appendix IV
Research Protocols
Older workers in the workplace: A Local Government case study
Researcher: Mrs Kathy Kelly Supervisor: Dr. Hitendra Pillay LGAQ House School for Creating Learning 25 Evelyn Street Learning Description of Project This study investigates the demographics, perceptions and expectations of older workers for learning and development within Queensland Local Government Councils, as a case study. Eligibility You are eligible to participate if you are a full time employee of local government within Queensland Voluntary participation Your participation in this project is entirely voluntary. You may withdraw you comments at any time during the project. Your decision to participate will in now way impact upon your personal standing, your future career, and will not in any way influence the success of you Council. A consent form is provided overleaf for you convenient. Anonymity and confidentiality Information gained during the focus group interviews will be confidential and the identifies of the participants, and the individual councils, will be anonymous. It will not be possible to link your or your Council’s contribution to the research findings. While the focus group meetings will be recorded for transcription purposes, tapes will be cleaned once transcription is complete. Final interview results will be accessible to LGAQ only for research and educational purposes, and will be stored for five years in a lockable filing cabinet, then destroyed. Questions and further information For additional information or questions about this project, you are welcome to contact the project leader, Mrs Kathy Kelly, on 3000 2104 or by email at [email protected]
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Concerns or complaints If you have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of this research you are welcome to contact the Research Ethics Officer 3864 2340 or email [email protected]. Please quote the University Human Research Ethics Committee Reference Number EC00171. Thank you for your support with this study – it is greatly appreciated!
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Appendix V
Consent Form
Demographics, perceptions and expectations of older workers for learning and development
Within Queensland Local Government Councils: A Case Study
CONSENT FORM
By signing this consent form, I am indicating that I:
• have understood the information about this research project;
• have had any questions answered to my satisfaction;
• understand that I may withdraw my comments at any time;
• understand that I may contact the project leader if there are any questions about the project, or the Research Ethics Officer on 3864 2340 or [email protected] if I have any concerns about the ethical conduct of the project; and
• agree to participate in the project
Council: Full name: Position within Council Signature: Date: Please return this form to Mrs Kathy Kelly, use one of the options below: 1. By email to [email protected], OR 2. Fax to Training (attention of Kathy Kelly) on 3252 4473, OR 3. Post to Mrs Kathy Kelly, Learning and Development Services, LGAQ, 25 Evelyn Street, Newstead Queensland 4036
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Appendix VI
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