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2012
SAG
VN
TVM
-EX
TRA
-13 SAGVNTVM
PAPELES DEL LABORATORIO DE ARQUEOLOGÍADE VALENCIA
EXTRA-13
2012
FACULTAT DE GEOGRAFIA I HISTÒRIA
Departament de Prehistòria i d’Arqueologia
WOOD AND CHARCOALEVIDENCE FOR HUMAN AND NATURAL HISTORY
WO
OD
AN
D C
HA
RC
OA
L
ERNESTINA BADAL – YOLANDA CARRIÓN – MIGUEL MACÍAS – MARÍA NTINOU
(COORDINATORS)
SAGVNTVM-Extra 1, C. Aranegui (ed.), Los Íberos, principes de Occidente. Las estructuras de poder en la sociedad ibérica, Barcelona 1998 (Agotado).
SAGVNTVM-Extra 2, J. Bernabeu, T. Orozco (eds.), II Congrés del Neolític a la Península Ibèrica, València 1999.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 3, C. Mata, G. Pérez Jordà (eds.), Íbers. Agricultors, artesans i ramaders. III Reunió sobre Economia en el mon ibèric, València 2000.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 4, C. Aranegui (ed.), Lixus. Colonia fenicia y ciudad púnico-mauritana. Apuntes sobre la ocupación medieval, València 2001.
SAGVNTVM-Exra 5, E. Badal, J. Bernabeu, B. Martí (eds.), El paisaje en el Neolítico Mediterráneo. Neolithic Landscapes of the Mediterranean, València 2002.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 6, C. Aranegui (ed.), Lixus-2. Ladera Sur. Excavaciones arqueológicas marroco-españolas en la colonia fenicia. Campañas 2000-2003, València 2005.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 7, M. Kbiri Alaoui, Revisando Kuass (Assilah, Marruecos). Taller cerámico y enclave fenicio, púnico y mauritano, València 2007.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 8, C. Aranegui, H. Hassini (eds.), Lixus-3. Área suroeste del sector monumental [Cámaras Montalbán] 2005-2009, València 2010.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 9, C. Mata, G. Pérez Jordà, J. Vives (eds.), De la cuina a la taula. IV Reunió d’Economia en el primer mil·leni a.C., València 2010.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 10, C. Gómez Bellard, E. Díes Cusí, V. Marí. Tres paisajes ibicencos: un estudio arqueológico, València 2011.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 11, E. Badal, Y. Carrión, E. Grau, M. Macías, M. Ntinou (eds.), 5th International Meeting of Charcoal Analysis. The Charcoal as Cultural and Biological Heritage, València 2011.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 12, J. Bernabeu, M.A. Rojo, LL. Molina (coords.), Las Primeras Producciones Cerámicas: el VI Milenio cal AC en la Península Ibérica, València 2011.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 13, E. Badal, Y. Carrión, M. Macías, M. Ntinou (eds.), Wood and charcoal. Evidences for human and natural history, València 2012.
SAGVNTVMPAPELES DEL LABORATORIO DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DE VALENCIA
EXTRA – 13
2012
Wood and charcoalEvidence for human and natural History
Ernestina Badal, Yolanda Carrión, Miguel Macías, María Ntinou(Coordinators)
Departament de Prehistòria i Arqueologia
Title: Wood and charcoal. Evidence for human and natural HistorySeries: SAGVNTVM Extra
Coordinators:Ernestina Badal Yolanda Carrión Miguel MacíasMaría Ntinou
Information and exchanges:Departament de Prehistòria i d’ArqueologiaFacultat de Geografia i HistòriaBlasco Ibáñez 28 – Valencia 46010 (España)Fax [email protected]
All titles of this series are available from:Sevei de PublicacionsUniversitat de València (PUV)C/ Arts Gràfiques, 13, 46010 Valè[email protected]
Published by: UNIVERSITAT DE VALÈNCIADepartament de Prehistòria i Arqueologia de la Facultad de Geografía i Història.Funded by MINISTERIO DE CIENCIA E INNOVACIÓN.
Book with international referee system
Design and layout by Coordinators.Printed by La Imprenta.
Print I.S.B.N.: 978-84-370-9062-7 Online I.S.B.N: 978-84-370-9061-0
Print Legal deposit:Online Legal deposit:
CONTENTS
List of authors .................................................................................................................................................................... 7
ErnEstina Badal, Yolanda Carrión, MiguEl MaCías, María ntinouIntroduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 11
ErnEstina Badal, ValEntín VillaVErdE, João ZilhãoMiddle Paleolithic wood charcoal from three southern Iberian sites: biogeographic implications .................................. 13
PatriCia diogo MontEiro, lYdia ZaPata, nuno BiChoWood charcoal analyses from the Muge shell middens: results from samples of the 2010/2011excavations at Cabeco da Amoreira (Santarem, Portugal) ................................................................................................. 25
ElEni asoutiRethinking human impact on prehistoric vegetation in Southwest Asia: long-term fuel/timberacquisition strategies at Neolithic Çatalhöyük ................................................................................................................... 33
Maria ntinou, gEorgia stratouliCharcoal analysis at Drakaina Cave, Kephalonia, Ionian islands, Greece. A case study of aspecialized Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic site ................................................................................................................ 43
tiM M. sChroEdtEr, roBErt hofMann, nils MullEr-sChEEssEl, JohannEs MullEr, oliVEr nEllELate Neolithic vegetation around three sites in the Visoko basin, Bosnia, based onarchaeo-anthracology – spatial variation versus selective wood use ................................................................................. 53
alExa dufraissEFirewood and woodland management in their social, economic and ecological dimensions.New perspectives ............................................................................................................................................................... 65
ErnEstina Badal, BErnat Martí oliVEr, ManuEl PérEZ-riPollFrom agricultural to pastoral use: changes in neolithic landscape at Cova de l’Or (Alicante, Spain) .............................. 75
raquEl Piqué, sílVia Vila MorEiras, natàlia alonsoChanges in vegetation and fuel use from the Neolithic to the Middle Ages in the western Catalan plain ........................ 85
Mª oliVa rodríguEZ-ariZaPalaeovegetation and plant-resource management in the district of La Loma (Jaen, Spain) duringrecent Prehistory ................................................................................................................................................................ 97
isaBEl figuEiral, laurEnt faBrE, ChristoPhE tardYCharcoal analysis in the A750-A75 motorway (Clermont l’Herault / Saint Andre de Sangonis- Beziers, southern France): a case-study in Preventive Archaeology ............................................................................... 105
luCiE ChaBal, isaBEl figuEiral, ChristoPhE PEllECuEr, iouri BErMondEvidence of paleogeographic constraints on woodlands on the shores of a coastal lagoonduring Antiquity: charcoal analysis of the Pres-Bas villa and Le Bourbou (Loupian, Herault) ........................................ 115
ErnEstina Badal, Yolanda Carrión MarCo, JEsús f. JordáCharcoal analysis at the San Chuis hill fort (Allande, Asturias, Spain) ............................................................................ 125
María Martín-sEiJo, Yolanda Carrión MarCoShaping wood: woodworking during the Iron Age and Roman period in the northwest of theIberian peninsula ................................................................................................................................................................ 135
Yolanda Carrión MarCo, JaiME ViVEs-fErrándiZ sánChEZ, guillErMo tortaJada CoMEChE,hElEna BonEt rosadoThe role of wood and fire in a ritual context in an iberian oppidum: La Bastida de les Alcusses(Moixent, Valencia, Spain)................................................................................................................................................. 145
sonia dE haro PoZo, aMParo BarraChina Charcoal analysis of a burnt building at the Iron Age site of Los Morrones I, Cortes de Arenoso,Castellón, Spain ................................................................................................................................................................. 153
andrés tEira Brión, María Martín sEiJo, arturo dE loMBEra-hErMida, raMón fáBrEgasValCarCE, xosé PEdro rodríguEZ-álVarEZForest resource management during Roman and Medieval cave occupations in the Northwest of theIberian Peninsula: Cova do Xato and Cova Eirós (Galicia, Spain) ................................................................................... 159
Maria litYnska-ZaJaCForest plant remains from the Late Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age in Poland .............................................................. 167
CharlenE BouChaud, roMain thoMas, MargarEta tEngBErgOptimal use of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) during Antiquity: anatomical identification ofplant remains from Mada’in Salih (Saudi Arabia) ............................................................................................................. 173
giaMPiEro Colaianni, franCEsCo sCElZa, girolaMo fiorEntino, angEla Pontrandolfo, alfonsosantoriEllo, daniEla orriCoThe use of wooden linings in the archaic wells of Fratte (Salerno-Italy) .......................................................................... 187
angEla stEllati, girolaMo fiorEntino, raffaElla Cassano, CustodE silVio fioriElloThe last firewood of a late ancient limekiln in Egnatia (SE Italy) ..................................................................................... 193
ValEntina CaraCuta, girolaMo fiorEntinoWood for fuel in Roman hypocaust baths: new data from the Late-Roman villa of Faragola (SE Italy) .......................... 199
anna Maria grasso, girolaMo fiorEntino, gioVanni straniEriBrick in the wall: an archaeobotanical approach to the analysis of dry stone structures (Puglia – Italy) ......................... 209
MiChEllE ElliottAn anthracological approach to understanding Late Classic period cultural collapse in Mesoamerica’snorthwestern frontier ........................................................................................................................................................ 217
MóniCa ruiZ-alonso, agustín aZkaratE, José luis solaun, lYdia ZaPataExploitation of fuelwood in Gasteiz (Basque Country, northern Iberia) during the Middle Ages(700-1200 AD) ................................................................................................................................................................... 227
CarME CuBEro i CorPasShrubs and trees from medieval l’Esquerda (7th-13th centuries AD) ............................................................................... 237
thoMas ludEMannAirborne laser scanning of historical wood charcoal production sites – A new tool of kiln siteanthracology at the landscape level ................................................................................................................................... 247
gina faraCo BianChini, rita sChEEl-YBErtPlants in a funerary context at the Jabuticabeira-II shellmound (Santa Catarina, Brazil) – easting or ritual offerings? ................................................................................................................................................. 253
WErnEr h. sChoChInformation content of Anthracology ................................................................................................................................. 259
arnE PaYsEnCharcoal research before modern Anthracology ................................................................................................................ 269
EllEn o’Carroll, frasEr J.g. MitChEllCharcoal sample guidelines: new methodological approaches towards the quantification andidentification of charcoal samples retrieved from archaeological sites ............................................................................. 275
María solEdad garCía MartínEZ, alExa dufraissECorrection factors on archaeological wood diameter estimation ....................................................................................... 283
ingElisE stuiJts, lorna o’donnEll, susan lYonsCloud-computing in Anthracology – Experiences with the WODAN online database in Ireland .................................... 291
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LIST OF AUTHORS
natàlia ALONSODpt. de Història. Universitat de Lleida. 25003. Lleida, [email protected]
ElEni ASOUTIDepartment of Archaeology, Classics and Egyptology, University of Liverpool. Brownlow Street, L69 3GS Liverpool, [email protected]
agustín AZKARATEUniversity of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). Tomás y Valiente s/n. 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, [email protected]
ErnEstina BADALDepartment of Prehistory and Archaeology. University of Valencia. Avda. Blasco Ibáñez, 28, 46010 Valencia, [email protected]
aMParo BARRACHINAServicio de Arqueología de la Diputación de Castellón. Av. Hermanos Bou, 28 12003 Castellón, Spain. [email protected]
iouri BERMONDUMR 5140 Archeologie des Societes Mediterraneennes. DRAC Languedoc-Roussillon. Service Regional de l’Archeologie. 5 rue de la Salle-L’Évêque. CS 49020. 34967 Montpellier cedex 2, [email protected]
nuno BICHOUniversidade do Algarve, Faculdade de Ciências Humanas e Sociais, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal. [email protected]
hElEna BONET ROSADOServicio de Investigación Prehistórica, Museo de Prehistoria, Diputación de Valencia, C/Corona 36, 46003, Valencia, Spain. [email protected]
CharlenE BOUCHAUDUMR 7209, Archeozoologie, Archeobotanique. Societes, Pratiques, Environnements (Museum national d’histoire naturelle). 55, rue Buffon 75005 Paris, [email protected]
ValEntina CARACUTALaboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology (L.A.P.). University of Salento-Lecce. Via Birago 64, 73100, Lecce. Italy. Department of Human Science. University of Foggia. Via Arpi, 71100, Foggia. Italy. [email protected]
Yolanda CARRIÓN MARCODepartment of Prehistory and Archaeology. University of Valencia. Avda. Blasco Ibáñez, 28, 46010 Valencia, [email protected]
raffaElla CASSANODepartment of Antiquity, University of Bari, Italy. [email protected]
luCiE CHABALCBAE UMR 5059 CNRS Univ. Montpellier 2 EPHE. Institut de Botanique. 163 rue A. Broussonnet. 34090 Montpellier, [email protected]
giaMPiEro COLAIANNILaboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology. University of Salento. Via Dalmazio Birago 64, 73100 Lecce, [email protected]
CarME CUBERO I CORPASMuseu Arqueològic de l’Esquerda. 08510 Roda de Ter, [email protected]
sonia DE HARO POZOCl. Enseñanza, 11, 12001 Castellón, Spain. [email protected]
arturo DE LOMBERA-HERMIDAGrupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do NW Iberico (GEPN). Departamento de Historia I. USC. 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES), C/ Marcel·lí Domingo s/n Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3) 43007, Tarragona, Spain. Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Catalunya 35, Tarragona 43002, [email protected]
PatríCia DIOGO MONTEIRONúcleo de Arqueologia e Paleoecologia da Universidade do Algarve. Faculdade de Ciências Humanas e Sociais da
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[email protected] Maria GRASSOLaboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology, Università del Salento, 73100 Lecce, [email protected]
roBErt HOFMANNGraduate School “Human Development in Landscapes”, Christian-Albrecht-University (CAU) D-24098 Kiel, Germany.Institute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology CAU, D-24098 Kiel, [email protected]
JEsús F. JORDÁDpto. de Prehistoria y Arqueología. UNED. 28040 Madrid, [email protected]
Maria LITYŃSKA-ZAJĄCInstitute of Archaeology and Ethnology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow Branch, Sławkowska 17, 31-016 Kraków, [email protected]
thoMas LUDEMANNUniversity of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Dept. of Geobotany. Schaenzlestrasse 1, D-79104 Freiburg, [email protected]
susan LYONSDepartment of Archaeology, University College Cork, Cork, [email protected]
BErnat MARTÍ OLIVERMuseu de Prehistòria de València-SIP. C. de la Corona 32, 46003 València, [email protected]
María MARTÍN-SEIJOGEPN-Grupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do Noroeste Iberico. Dpto. Historia I. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Praza da Universidade s/n. 15782, Santiago de Compostela, [email protected]
frasEr J.G. MITCHELLBotany Department, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, [email protected]
JohannEs MÜLLERGraduate School “Human Development in Landscapes”, Christian-Albrecht-University (CAU) D-24098 Kiel, Germany.Institute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology CAU, D-24098 Kiel, Germany.
Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, [email protected]
alExa DUFRAISSECNRS, UMR 7209 “Archeozoologie, archeobotanique”, 55 rue buffon 75005 Paris, [email protected]
MiChEllE ELLIOTTUMR 8096 “Archeologies des Ameriques”, CNRS. Maison Rene Ginouvès. 21, allee de l’Universite. F-92023 Nanterre Cedex, [email protected]
laurEnt FABRE INRAP Mediterranee, 561 Rue Etienne Lenoir, Km Delta, 30900 Nîmes, France Thau agglo, Jardin antique Mediterraneen, Rue des Pioch, 34540 Balaruc les Bains, FranceCBAE, CNRS /Univ. Montpellier 2/EPHE, Montpellier, [email protected]
raMón FÁBREGAS VALCARCEGrupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do NW Iberico (GEPN). Departamento de Historia I. USC. 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain. [email protected]
gina FARACO BIANCHINIDepartamento de Antropologia, Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Quinta da Boa Vista, 20940-040, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. [email protected]
isaBEl FIGUEIRALINRAP Mediterranee, 561 rue Etienne Lenoir, km Delta, 30900 Nîmes, France.CBAE UMR 5059 CNRS Univ. Montpellier 2 EPHE. Institut de Botanique. 163 rue A. Broussonnet. 34090 Montpellier, [email protected]
CustodE silVio FIORIELLODepartment of Antiquity, University of Bari, Italy. [email protected]
girolaMo FIORENTINOLaboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology (L.A.P.). University of Salento-Lecce. Via Birago 64, 73100, Lecce. [email protected]
María solEdad GARCÍA MARTÍNEZDepartamento de Prehistoria, Arqueología, Historia Antigua, Historia Medieval y Ciencias y Tecnicas Historiográficas, Facultad de Letras, Universidad de Murcia. C/ Santo Cristo, 1. 30001-Murcia, Spain.
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xosé PEdro RODRÍGUEZ-ÁLVAREZInstitut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES), C/ Marcel·lí Domingo s/n Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3) 43007, Tarragona, Spain.Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Catalunya 35, Tarragona 43002, [email protected]
Mª oliVa RODRÍGUEZ-ARIZAInstituto Universitario de Arqueología Iberica. Universidad de Jaen. Edif. C-6, 23071 Jaen, [email protected]
MóniCa RUIZ-ALONSOGrupo de Investigación Arqueobiología (CCHS, CSIC). Albasanz, 26-28. 28037 Madrid, [email protected]
alfonso SANTORIELLOLaboratory of Archaeology “M. Napoli”, University of Salerno. Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (Salerno), [email protected]
franCEsCo SCELZALaboratory of Archaeology “M. Napoli”, University of Salerno. Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (Salerno), [email protected]
rita SCHEEL-YBERTDepartamento de Antropologia, Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Quinta da Boa Vista, 20940-040, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. [email protected]
WErnEr h. SCHOCHLabor für quartäre Hölzer, Unterrütistrasse 17, 8135 Langnau a. A. [email protected]
tiM M. SCHROEDTERGraduate School “Human Development in Landscapes”, Christian-Albrecht-University (CAU) D-24098 Kiel, Germany.Institute for Ecosystem Research CAU, D-24098 Kiel, [email protected]
José luis SOLAUNUniversity of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). Tomás y Valiente s/n. 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.. [email protected]
angEla STELLATILaboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology, Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Salento, via D. Birago 64, 73100 Lecce.Department of Antiquity, University of Bari, Italy.
[email protected] MÜLLER-SCHEESSELRoman-Germanic Commission, Plamgartenstr. 10-12, 60325 Frankfurt a.M., [email protected]
oliVEr NELLEInstitute for Ecosystem Research CAU, D-24098 Kiel, [email protected]
Maria NTINOUHellenic Open University, Aggelou Sikelianou 2, GR – 452 21 Ioannina, [email protected]
EllEn OCARROLLBotany Department, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, [email protected]
lorna O’DONNELL14 Rockstown Park, Tooban, Burnfoot, County Donegal, [email protected]
daniEla ORRICOLaboratory of Archaeology “M. Napoli”, University of Salerno. Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (Salerno), [email protected]
arnE PAYSENInstitut für Ökosystemforschung der CAU Kiel, Olshausenstr. 75, 24118 Kiel, [email protected]
ChristoPhE PELLECUERUMR 5140 Archeologie des Societes Mediterraneennes. DRAC Languedoc-Roussillon. Service Regional de l’Archeologie. 5 rue de la Salle-L’Évêque. CS 49020. 34967 Montpellier cedex 2, [email protected]
ManuEl PÉREZ-RIPOLLDepartment of Prehistory and Archaeology. University of Valencia. Avda. Blasco Ibáñez, 28, 46010 Valencia, [email protected]
raquEl PIQUÉDpt. de Prehistòria. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, [email protected]
angEla PONTRANDOLFOLaboratory of Archaeology “M. Napoli”, University of Salerno. Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (Salerno), [email protected]
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Dynamiques des Systèmes Anthropises – 1 rue des Louvels 80037 Amiens cedex, [email protected]
guillErMo TORTAJADA COMECHEServicio de Investigación Prehistórica, Museo de Prehistoria, Diputación de Valencia, C/Corona 36, 46003, Valencia, [email protected]
sílVia VILA MOREIRASDpt. de Història. Universitat de Lleida. 25003 Lleida, [email protected]
ValEntín VILLAVERDEDepartment of Prehistory and Archaeology. University of Valencia. Avda. Blasco Ibáñez, 28, 46010 Valencia, [email protected]
JaiME VIVES-FERRÁNDIZ SÁNCHEZServicio de Investigación Prehistórica, Museo de Prehistoria, Diputación de Valencia, C/Corona 36, 46003, Valencia, [email protected]
lYdia ZAPATAUniversity of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). Tomás y Valiente s/n. 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, [email protected]
João ZILHÃOICREA Research Professor at the University of Barcelona, [email protected]
gioVanni STRANIERICentre d’histoire et d’archeologie medievales - Universite Lumière Lyon 2, 69365 Lyon, France. [email protected]
gEorgia STRATOULIIZ΄ Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, Aristotelous 16, GR – 582 00 Edessa, [email protected]
ingElisE STUIJTSDiscovery Programme, 63 Merrion Square, Dublin 2, [email protected]
ChristoPhE TARDYINRAP Mediterranee, 561 Rue Etienne Lenoir, Km Delta, 30900 Nîmes, [email protected]
andrés TEIRA BRIÓNGrupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do NW Iberico (GEPN). Departamento de Historia I. USC. 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain. [email protected]
MargarEta TENGBERGUniversity of Paris 1, UMR 7209, Archeozoologie, Archeobotanique. Societes, Pratiques, Environnements (Museum national d’histoire naturelle). 55, rue Buffon 75005 Paris, [email protected]
roMain THOMASUniversite de Picardie Jules Verne. Ecologie et
Firewood and woodland management in their social, economic and ecological dimensions. new perspectives
CNRS, UMR 7209 “Archéozoologie, archéobotanique”, 55 rue buffon 75005 Paris. [email protected]
Summary: In this paper, we assume that fire production is a technical act and that firewood management is a human eco-technology with its own limiting factors. The analytic approach of technologists is first adopted to propose an analytic grid in order to frame wood supply and woodland management in their social, economic and ecological dimensions. Then we focus the analysis on three principal variables: species, diameters and territory, based on methodological, ethnobotanical and archaeological perspectives.
Key words: Anthracology, wood use, human ecology, Neolithic, Alps.
ALEXA DUFRAISSE
WOOD AND CHARCOAL. EVIDENCE FOR HUMAN AND NATURAL HISTORY. SAGVNTVM EXTRA-13, 2012: 65–74. 65
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to explore wood supply and woodland management as representing technical acts within their social, economic and ecological di-mensions as an approach to refine the interpretation of archaeological charcoal analysis. Two main questions are raised: 1) how particular cultural, technical or eco-nomical features can have crucial consequences both on the chaine opératoire which lead to the production of fire and on the charcoal assemblage? 2) how can the study of carbonized wood in archaeological con-texts document this technical act and the processes of
“reciprocal influences” between environmental and social systems in a given ecotechnological structure?
A chaîne opératoire from wood supply to fire pro-duction is first proposed to present an adapted ana-lytic grid of the socio-economic aspects of firewood management. Our intention is not to propose a general model but rather a methodological framework for de-veloping models that will deal with small-scale proc-esses of vegetation-culture interactions as proposed by E. Asouti and P. Austin (2005). We base our reflection on methodological, ethnobotanical and archaeological perspectives and on three approaches: species, diame-ters and territory. Anthracological examples are drawn
alexa duFraisse
WOOD AND CHARCOAL. EVIDENCE FOR HUMAN AND NATURAL HISTORY. SAGVNTVM EXTRA-13, 2012.66
from prehistoric communities, especially Neolithic ones, from a period which foreshadows numerous aspects of modern social organisation, especially re-lated to technical evolution and transformation of the environment. We turn especially to the very well-pre-served Neolithic lakeshore settlements from the Alps.
FROM FIREWOOD GATHERING TO FIRE PRODUCTION
In this part, the analytic approach of technolo-gists is adopted in order to deconstruct a “total fact” (Mauss, 1950) –here the production of fire– and to propose an adapted analytic grid which facilitates a systematic collection of data suitable for clarifying a particular aspect of the technical world of a group.
From firewood resources to the production of fire, the chaine opératoire is represented as a succession of tasks (Fig. 1):
1- Firewood selection (possible choices)2- Extraction of firewood (collecting, breaking,
felling, etc.);3- Transport of firewood (distances, modes of
transport);4- Firewood sectioning/splitting; 5- Firewood drying (cut wood, standing wood,
etc.); 6- Firewood storage (short or long term); 7- Ignition (elaboration of hearths is considered
here as belonging to another chaîne opératoire);8- Production of fire (production of flames, em-
bers, etc. depending on the use).
Some of these tasks are “strategic” and “cannot be altered, cancelled, or replaced without causing a significant perturbation” (Lemonnier 1980: 9), such as extraction, transport and ignition. Furthermore, each stage represents a distinct operation, which at the same time combines with the others to form a well-organized succession. For instance, wood drying can occur before transport or after storage, it depends on
the availability of dry wood in the environment and on the method of wood extraction.
In order to understand the social, economic, or symbolic dimensions, each task can be contextualized with regard to other activities or contingencies spe-cific to the environment.
The wood resources that are present (biomass, spe-cies diversity, forest productivity, presence of stand-ing/dead woods, etc.) condition directly, but only partially, the use of the species and the diameters that are exploited. Availability and proximity of resources have an impact on the distances that must be travelled.
The modes of subsistence could condition the choices made in gathering (fruit trees can be avoided as fuel sources) and the distances that will be travelled (cf. time allocation). Because they have an impact on the environment, modes of subsistence themselves can determine the wood resources that are available (grazing pressure may constitute a significant factor).
The status and duration of a settlement can also in-fluence wood storage and the types of wood extraction used. Wood discarded from architecture can be reused as fuel. Hearths themselves and their functions play a fundamental role in the collection of wood.
Lastly, culture can be framed by technology, popu-lation density and time allocation. Technology for in-stance includes tools to cut trees but also their other uses (axes can be both tools and prestige items).
Therefore, the production of fire for heating, de-
Figure 1. Proposition of an analytic grid for the socio-economic as-pects of firewood management.
Firewood and woodland management in their social, economic and ecological dimensions. new perspectives
WOOD AND CHARCOAL. EVIDENCE FOR HUMAN AND NATURAL HISTORY. SAGVNTVM EXTRA-13, 2012. 67
fense, light, cooking and production of goods consti-tutes in itself a socio-economic activity dependant on the social context. In this sense, firewood supply is a technical act. While the various stages that lead to the production of fire are shaped in part by numerous environmental constraints, humans may still choose, more or less consciously, from among technologically and functionally viable alternatives (raw materials, source of energy, tools, actors, where and when things should take place) (Lemonnier 1993).
Even if notions of efficiency and performance func-tion derive from cultural conventions, which render them unpredictable and infinitely variable (Lemon-nier 1993: 1-35), the major issue for anthracology is to investigate the intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of the complex ecological and cultural processes af-fecting species availability and firewood management, and for which the mechanisms of adaptation and feed-back are still poorly understood. This raises important theoretical and methodological issues.
FIREWOOD SPECIES MANAGEMENT
ETHNOBOTANICAL PERSPECTIVES
Generally, we consider two opposite plant manage-ment strategies: selection and opportunism. Moreover, we assume in archaeological charcoal analysis that there exists a deterministic relationship between spe-cies collected for firewood and their occurrence in the environment according to the Principle of Least Effort (e.g. Shackleton and Prins 1992; Théry-Parisot et al. 2009). However, the situation is much more complex as several intermediate degrees of management for wild botanical resources are possible: gathered plant, plants under incipient management and cultivated plant (Gonzalez and Caballero 2007). Different forms of incipient management exist to increase the frequen-cy and guarantee the availability of plant resources. These strategies include tolerance (preserving plant) and protection (eliminating competitors). There are additional practices that lead to an increase in popu-
lation density such as pruning, shearing or trimming. In this sense, we can assume that firewood gathering could also be a form of incipient management when it includes actions such as selection of desirable species or adoption of rotational use of different gathering ar-eas to allow for generation of favored species.
In the 1990’s, an important movement in ethno-botany sought to develop new methods to permit the researcher to describe and quantitatively analyze man-agement strategies. O. Phillips and A. Gentry (1993) proposed a relatively simple data-processing tech-nique that can be applied to large ethnobotanical data sets, to generate a quantitative use-value index (UV). Later, many ethnobotanical studies tested the appar-ency hypothesis, using UV and diversity indices (e.g. Begossi 1996; Cunha and Albuquerque 2006; Lucena et al. 2007).
While the relationship between relative impor-tance measured by use-value and plants’ local avail-ability has been confirmed in some parts of the world, other studies have not identified such close relation-ships between these variables, indicating that the rela-tionship is not so simple or even always present (e.g. La Torre-Cuadros and Islebe 2003). For instance, Sal-ick and colleagues (1999) demonstrate that: i) useful species are a function of species diversity, ii) when there are more useful firewood species, there are also more unused species, iii) the number of kinds of uses correlate with the total number of plant species.
Finally, both ethnological and ecological factors contribute to patterns of people’s use of plants. Simi-lar conclusions can be reached from archaeological contexts.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
Lakeshore settlements where uncarbonized and carbonized plant assemblages are preserved are espe-cially suitable for testing this approach.
Charcoal analysis of Clairvaux XIV dated to the end of the fourth millennium and attributed to the Middle Neolithic shows the exploitation of 20 taxa.
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It appears that: i) the highest UVs are associated with oak forest in the category of construction wood due to a strong selective preference. In contrast, the weakest UVs are connected to the category of litter and fodder which reflects a more diverse collection carried out in several different vegetal communities. For firewood, we note an intermediate strategy, with a relatively diverse collection in the mixed oak forest but a rather selective use of the beech forest, where only 2 taxa are represented. ii) Within a vegetal forma-tion, it is not necessarily the same species that are ex-ploited, and the main species do not have the same im-portance according to their use. Thus, some taxa were favored for use as firewood, such as beech, even when it was necessary to cross greater distances to obtain it. In contrast, other taxa seem to have been carefully preserved, such as the hazelnut, which appears to have occurred abundantly in the environment, according to pollen data as well as thousands of nuts found at the site of Clairvaux XIV.
Moreover, the use of diversity indices and eco-logical indicators allows us to demonstrate that wood management strategies can be connected to a qualita-tive change of the forest environment according to the conceptual model published by C.M. Shackleton and F. Prins (1992) (Dufraisse forthcoming). The study, based on 9 sites and 18 occupation levels, brings to light two strategies of wood management: first, a se-lective strategy connected with pioneer/post-pioneer phases of habitat, and a second more exhaustive strat-egy linked to phases of strong density of villages and of occupational continuity.
To sum up, the exploitation of firewood is not independent from other activities that require wood. Rather, it is incorporated into the overall exploitation of woody resources. The selection of taxa for firewood should not necessarily be perceived in terms of wood fire properties or the ease of collection, but rather in a broader socio-ecological context. Consequently, fire-wood and more globally plant management appears clearly as a significant filter conditioning the charcoal assemblage.
The floristic list and the percentages are coherent with the vegetal ecology, the past vegetation reconstructed from the pollen data and the modern vegetation of the current landscape of Combe d’Ain. Nevertheless, if we add the ligneous taxa used for twigs, timber, pro-duction of objects and fruits/seeds, we count a total of 40 woody taxa. Therefore, it is clear that all of the taxa present in the surroundings of the site were not used as firewood (Dufraisse et al. forthcoming).
At this point, it becomes interesting to apply the UV index (Fig. 2). For that, we adapted the equations of Philipps and Gentry (1993) to archaeological data as follows:
UV of a species: UV(s) = cF(s) * uF(s)UVs per kind of use: UV(s) use1 = UV(s) use1/ Σ taxause1
UVs per vegetal community: UV(s)veg1 = UVs / Σ taxaveg1
where UV = Use-Value index, use = kind of use, s = species, cF = frequency calculated from absolute counts, uF = frequen-
cy calculated from ubiquity, veg = vegetal community.
Figure 2. Results according to UV index calculated at Clairvaux XIV. A- UVs of the 5 first species according to the use B- UVs per vegetal community and according to the use.
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The study of wood diameters carried out at lacus-trine Neolithic sites surrounding the circum Alpine area and focused on the main taxa (ash, beech, oak), show that the diameters exploited are most often less than 10 cm (e.g. Dufraisse and Leuzinger 2009; Du-fraisse 2011). These studies lead to several remarks:
1) Dead wood in the beech forests rarely occurs
in small diameters. Estimation of available diameters for fallen and standing dead wood through modern re-search in northwest Europe indicates that whatever the age of the forests, diameters greater than 25 cm occur systematically and they represent a significant volume of wood per hectare (Christensen et al. 2005).
2) The exploitation of small wood could reflect a very specific technological demand, related to ac-commodating a hearth inside a wooden construction in order to control the height of the flame, temperature and projection of sparks. When the communities were forced to exploit new areas and select larger diameters for firewood, we note a simultaneous increase in the frequency of splitting mauls in the archaeological stra-ta (Dufraisse 2008).
3) Stone axes do not constitute a technical limit. Nevertheless, experimental works indicate that, com-pared to a steel axe, a stone axe took much more time and energy in order to accomplish the same task (Mathieu and Meyer 1997). Ethnographic work shows that axes and adzes are used only when it is absolutely necessary (Pétrequin and Pétrequin 1993). Thus, wood that is less than 10 cm in diameter could easily come from the snapping of young trees - by hand or foot -, waste from stumps, or from branches.
4) This exploitation strategy could also have a so-cial significance. According to ethnoarchaeological studies in Papua, axes and adzes are mainly intended for men (Pétrequin and Pétrequin, 1993). This raises the possibility that firewood gathering (and perhaps fireplace management) is the responsibility of women and children, as it is often mentioned in current stud-ies.
Therefore, studies of firewood supply strategies
WOOD DIAMETERS
THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL PER-SPECTIVES
While the attributes of woody taxa as raw material used for timber, litter, fodder (mechanical properties, size, diameter, nutritive value, waterproof qualities and so on) should be crucial criteria for understand-ing wood gathering, the selection of firewood could be carried out without taking into account species proper-ties but instead by integrating diameter and rate of hu-midity (Chabal 1994). Therefore wood diameter may be a variable for characterizing the technical system of wood acquisition. Technological choices concern modes of wood procurement, tools, criteria of selec-tion, actors, in order to effectively manage a fire with regard to the particular uses of the fireplace.
Thereby, combined with species lists, diameters appear to be a criterion which should be taken into ac-count more systematically in charcoal analysis. Thus, in the program DENDRAC (financed by the French National Research Agency, for more information, see http://dendrac.mnhn.fr), we have been developing the study of wood diameter at two levels: dendrometric tools and data processing (for a state of the art, see Du-fraisse and García 2011). The testing of measurement tools on different taxa show that the trigonometric tool is always much more reliable than the circle tool and can be applied to fragments larger than 2 mm. Nev-ertheless, it overestimates diameters less than 10 cm while it underestimates more significantly, diameters greater than 10 cm. Henceforth the establishment of correction factors linked to species and shrinkage is in progress (García and Dufraisse this volume).
ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Archaeological application contributes to a better understanding of firewood management and thereby brings new hypothesis to the interpretation of charcoal assemblages and firewood management.
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water, firewood is a resource so basic and vital that the distance to obtain it must be minimized. In this sense, current studies of firewood gathering allow us to conclude that: i) wood collection has the potential to conflict with the demands made by child-care on women’s time and energy (Biran et al. 2004), ii) fire-wood collection articulates around 3 criteria: where to collect, how often to collect, how much time to spend on collection (Brouwer et al. 1997). Therefore, for instance, when communities are faced with decreas-ing fuelwood availability, several responses are pos-sible. These may include collection at longer distanc-es away, spending more time on collection, enlisting younger or older members, and adjusting the weight of the bundle collected. Adaptations may also occur in the type of fuel used, by switching to fuel of inferior quality to reduce the collection time.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
In archaeological contexts, only a few of these re-sponses can be observed with charcoal analysis, such as increase in distance travelled, switching to twigs or fruit trees or using the by-product of timber shap-ing. Distances can be distinguished in the archaeologi-
enlighten the processes of “reciprocal influences” be-tween choices made by man, technical and environ-mental constraints.
FIREWOOD GATHERING AND THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION: A TERRITO-RIAL APPROACH
THEORETICAL AND ETHNOBOTANICAL PER-SPECTIVES
This part focuses on a territorial approach toward firewood economy and its integration to the socio-economic context. C. Vita-Finzi and E. Higgs (1972) defined the “exploitation territory” of a site as “the territory surrounding the site which is exploited ha-bitually”. The same authors defined site catchment analysis as “the study of the relationships between technology and those natural resources lying within economic range of individual sites”. T. Carlstein (1981), studying human ecology and ideas of carrying capacity, explained the need for models and methodo-logical stamina in order to help to articulate many of the mechanisms and socio-environmental processes involved. For this, he proposed the notion of carrying capacity of terrestrial space-time and defined it as the limited ability of a given area to accommodate space-demanding people, organisms, artefacts, materials and the activities associated with them. Since space can be more or less continuously occupied over time, we must deal with terrestrial space-time which may also be called settlement space-time for an area settled by people. In consequence, time, like space, can serve as a descriptive framework for human activity and inter-action. Thus T. Carlstein proposed the notion of daily itineraries which can be described as a graphic sys-tem (Fig. 3). This time space area contains the social system and is the setting of everyday life. Depending on the observation period, individual-paths can be re-ferred to as day-paths, year-path or life-path.
We think that firewood collection and management can be thought of in terms of daily-itineraries. Like
Figure 3. Three individual-paths in time-space (according to Carl-stein 1981).
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WOOD AND CHARCOAL. EVIDENCE FOR HUMAN AND NATURAL HISTORY. SAGVNTVM EXTRA-13, 2012. 71
remains at Torwiesen II, a Neolithic site in Federsee (Germany) lead to similar conclusions (Schlichtherle et al. 2010)The distance travelled must be minimized, but nevertheless, it is the reflection of a socioeconomic organization which depends on time allocation. There exists then, a threshold beyond which the collection of firewood can no longer be integrated into the daily activities of a community and other responses must be adopted. Thus, they are relevant parameters both to characterize firewood management and to interpret the charcoal assemblage.
CONCLUSIONS
Because we need the development of a more co-herent theory of the complex ecological and cultural processes affecting species availability and firewood management, the new challenge for charcoal analysis consists nowadays in modelling the wood acquisition strategies based on human behavioural ecology (e.g. Shakleton and Prins 1992; Asouti and Austin 2005; Marston 2009).
Ethnobotanical and dendrometrical methods offer considerable promise tools for improving our under-standing of the different forms of selection and use of wood. Supported by concepts, these methods pro-vide a deeper understanding of the use of different wood fuels and their availability in the local environ-ment. Ethnoarchaeology applied to the management of plant resources also begins to enrich our frames of reference (Picornell 2011) and should permit us to understand and interpret the functions and mecha-nisms that underlie the chaine opératoire of fire pro-duction.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to warmly thank the organizing committee for invit-ing me. It was an honour to open the final session of the con-gress entitled “Ethnographical data of wood and charcoal use”. I am also grateful to S. Thiébault and M. Elliott for their helpful corrections of the manuscript.
cal context when sufficiently contrasting topographic conditions are present.
According to the concept of daily itineraries, our “working hypothesis” is that firewood gathering can be partially linked to agro-sylvo-pastoral activities. Different arguments are presented for this hypoth-esis.
At Lake Chalain and Clairvaux (Jura, France), studies of wood acquisition areas show that the loca-tions of the gathering areas depend on the position of the village on the lakeshore (Dufraisse 2005). In ad-dition, a close spatial convergence between firewood gathering areas and potential cultivated land could be shown (Dufraisse 2006). At Lake Chalain, the exten-sion of the firewood gathering areas could be corre-lated with both the progressive increase of the number of houses in the village (which is a good picture of the population density) and the number of contemporary villages on the lakeshore. At the same time, dendro-chronology (Lavier 1996) and pollen data (Gauthier 2004) do not indicate a decrease of woodland resourc-es. Therefore, the enlargement of the gathering areas may correspond to a new organisation itself linked to the cultivated areas (Dufraisse 2008).
Firewood management within villages at the lev-el of different domestic units brings also interesting points. Inside a single village, at Arbon/Bleiche 3 for instance, where acquisition areas are very near to the village, we can observe statistically significant varia-tions in the percentages of taxa among contempora-neous houses (Dufraisse and Leuzinger 2009). This would suggest that: i) each domestic unit looks after its own needs for firewood, ii) as the vegetation as-sociations are not represented in the same proportions, houses could gather their firewood at short distances while others had to travel to more distant zones. In the same way, macro-remains analysis indicates that: i) each house is an independent economic unit, ii) each house is characterized by a different assemblage of weeds which suggests that the houses exploited differ-ent territories based on their location and exposition (Jacomet et al. 2004). Analysis of charcoal and seed
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DUFRAISSE, A. (2006): Firewood economy during the 4th millennium B.C. at Clairvaux- lake (Jura, France). Economic and environmental changes during the 4th and the 3rd millenium BC. (Bad Buchau, sep-tembre 2004). Environmental Archaeology (special issue), 87-99.
DUFRAISSE, A. (2008): Firewood management and wood-land exploitation during the late Neolithic at Lac de Chalain (Jura, France). Vegetation History and Ar-chaeobotany 17, 199-210.
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DUFRAISSE, A.; VIELLET, A.; DUPLAIX-RATA, A.; SCHAAL, C.; PÉTREQUIN, P. (forthcoming) : Essai de restitution des modes de gestion de la fo-rêt et de l’état de l’environnement transformé par l’homme au Néolithique Moyen Bourguignon sur le lac de Clairvaux. In: P. Pétrequin ed. Le Néolithique Moyen sur les lacs de Clairvaux-les-Lacs et de Cha-lain (Jura), IV. Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, Paris.
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2012
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PAPELES DEL LABORATORIO DE ARQUEOLOGÍADE VALENCIA
EXTRA-13
2012
FACULTAT DE GEOGRAFIA I HISTÒRIA
Departament de Prehistòria i d’Arqueologia
WOOD AND CHARCOALEVIDENCE FOR HUMAN AND NATURAL HISTORY
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ERNESTINA BADAL – YOLANDA CARRIÓN – MIGUEL MACÍAS – MARÍA NTINOU
(EDITORS)
SAGVNTVM-Extra 1, C. Aranegui (ed.), Los Íberos, principes de Occidente. Las estructuras de poder en la sociedad ibérica, Barcelona 1998 (Agotado).
SAGVNTVM-Extra 2, J. Bernabeu, T. Orozco (eds.), II Congrés del Neolític a la Península Ibèrica, València 1999.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 3, C. Mata, G. Pérez Jordà (eds.), Íbers. Agricultors, artesans i ramaders. III Reunió sobre Economia en el mon ibèric, València 2000.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 4, C. Aranegui (ed.), Lixus. Colonia fenicia y ciudad púnico-mauritana. Apuntes sobre la ocupación medieval, València 2001.
SAGVNTVM-Exra 5, E. Badal, J. Bernabeu, B. Martí (eds.), El paisaje en el Neolítico Mediterráneo. Neolithic Landscapes of the Mediterranean, València 2002.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 6, C. Aranegui (ed.), Lixus-2. Ladera Sur. Excavaciones arqueológicas marroco-españolas en la colonia fenicia. Campañas 2000-2003, València 2005.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 7, M. Kbiri Alaoui, Revisando Kuass (Assilah, Marruecos). Taller cerámico y enclave fenicio, púnico y mauritano, València 2007.
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SAGVNTVM-Extra 9, C. Mata, G. Pérez Jordà, J. Vives (eds.), De la cuina a la taula. IV Reunió d’Economia en el primer mil·leni a.C., València 2010.
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SAGVNTVM-Extra 11, E. Badal, Y. Carrión, E. Grau, M. Macías, M. Ntinou (eds.), 5th International Meeting of Charcoal Analysis. The Charcoal as Cultural and Biological Heritage, València 2011.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 12, J. Bernabeu, M.A. Rojo, LL. Molina (coords.), Las Primeras Producciones Cerámicas: el VI Milenio cal AC en la Península Ibérica, València 2011.
SAGVNTVM-Extra 13, E. Badal, Y. Carrión, M. Macías, M. Ntinou (eds.), Wood and charcoal. Evidences for human and natural history, València 2012.