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ABSTRACT

DOCUMENT RESUME

FL 801 142

Gillespie, Marilyn K.Learning To Work in a New Land: A Review and Sourcebook forVocational and Workplace ESL.Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C.Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, New York, N.Y.96

166p.; A product of the Project in Adult Immigrant Education(PAIE).

NCLE, 1118 22nd Street N.W., Washington, DC 20037.Guides Non-Classroom (055) Reports Descriptive (141)MF01/PC07 Plus Postage.Acculturation; Adult Education; Curriculum Design; *English(Second Language); Government Role; *Immigrants; *LaborForce Development; *Limited English Speaking; LiteracyEducation; Postsecondary Education; Program Design; ProgramDevelopment; School Business Relationship; Second LanguagePrograms; Secondary Education; *Vocational Education;Vocational English (Second Language); Work Environment

The study looks at the role of immigrants in the workforce,status of English language learning in vocational and workforce education,and ways the system can enhance opportunity and productivity forlimited-English-proficient adults. It begins by examining characteristics ofthe current immigrant workforce and future labor requirements. The secondchapter discusses the current service delivery system for adult vocationaland basic education, focusing on the problem of fragmentation, design ofexisting major programs, and the funding outlook. Chapter three reviewsresearch and trends in this area over two decades. In chapter four, aspectsof program design and planning are examined, including models for integratinglanguage and vocational training, need analysis, development of support andresources, recruitment, multiculturalism, instructional componentdevelopment, support services, staffing, and program evaluation. The fifthchapter outlines steps in setting up a workplace English-as-a-Second-Languageprogram, presents four models for creating a partnership between aneducational organization and workplace, features of the partnershiparrangement, need analysis, approaches to curriculum development, and programevaluation. The final chapter lists ten steps for enhancing the state andlocal role in this aspect of labor force development. Contains 192references. (MSE) (Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse on Literacy Education)

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EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.Minor changes have been made to

4%N.1improve reproduction quality. 44Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy.

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Lemthng to Workin a New Land:

A Review and Sourcebookfor Vocational and Workplace ESL

3

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

Introduction 1

I. The Role Of Immigrants in the Changing Workforce 3Who Are the New Immigrants? 3

Requirements of the Future U.S. Workforce 12

The Implications for Immigrants 15

II. The Service Delivery System 17Overcoming Fragmentation: Increasing Federal and State Concerns 17

A Description of Existing Programs 22

The Funding Outlook for the Future 41

III. The Research Base: What Has Changed in Two Decades? ....43Case Studies of Vocational Services for Limited English Proficient Adults 43

Studies of the Linguistic Demands of the Workplace 50

Key Trends in Adult Second Language Instruction 53

Getting Beyond Stating the Problem 54

IV. Vocational Education for Adult Immigrants: What Works? 57Program Design 57

Models for Integrating Language and Vocational Training 61

Planning Programs and Services 72

Determining Local Market Needs and the Need for Services to LEP Adults 72

Developing Institutional Support and Assessing Existing Resources 74

Outreach, Recruitment, and Intake 76

Multicultural Awareness 78

Developing the Instructional Component 80

Support Services 99

Staffing and Staff Development 102

Program Evaluation 103

Learning from Experience 104

V. The Promise of ESL in the Workplace 107Steps in Setting Up a Workplace ESL Program 108

Establishing the Partnership: Four Models 110

The Partnership Arrangement 112

The Needs Analysis Process 116

Approaches to Curriculum Development 122

Evaluating Program Effectiveness 131

Conclusion 133

VI. Meeting the Need: What Will It Take? 135Immigrant Numbers, Education, and Employment: A Summary 135

What States and Localities Can Do: Ten Steps 136

Sink or Swim? 141

References 143

List of Figures and Boxes 159

Other Publications from the Issues in Workplaceand Vocational ESL Instruction Series

The Vocational Classroom: A Great Place to Learn Englishby Elizabeth PlattUsing examples from actual vocational classrooms, this paper explores how vocational teachers,ESL teachers, and vocational program administrators can maximize opportunities for limited-English-proficient students to improve their English as they master vocational content.

Workplace ESL Instruction: Programs, Trends, and Issuesby Miriam BurtBased on interviews with over a dozen providers of workplace ESL instruction, this paper discussessuch issues as securing funding, customizing curricula, demonstrating results, and developing a pro-fessional workforce for service delivery.

5

Issues in Workplace and Vocational ESLInstruction Series

Learning to Work in a New Land:A Review and Sourcebook for Vocational and Workplace ESL

by Marilyn K. Gillespie

The Vocational Classroom:A Great Place to Learn English

by Elizabeth Platt

Workplace ESL Instruction:Programs, Trends, and Issues

by Miriam Burt

CAL© 1996 by the Center for Applied LinguisticsAll rights reserved. No part of this paper may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permissionin writing from the publisher. All inquiries should be addressed to Miriam Burt, Center for Applied Linguistics,1118 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20037-1214. Telephone (202) 429-9292.

Printed in the United States of America

Issues in Workplace and Vocational ESL Instruction 1Editorial/production supervision: Miriam BurtCopyediting: Miriam Burt, Lucinda BranamanEditorial assistance: Lucinda Branaman, Toya LynchProofreading: Amy Fitch, Martha Hanna, David AkersDesign, illustration and production: SAGARTdesign

This publication was prepared with funding from The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. The opinions expressedin this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

Learning to Workin a New Land:

A Review and Sourcebookfor Vocational and Workplace ESL

by Marilyn K. Gillespie

PA /E CALProjed Ark Invaigrani [drew Center for Applied Linguistics

Acknowledgements

A wide range of adult educators representing organizations across the United States have made thispublication possible. Several deserve special mention both for their willingness to share difficult-to-obtain materials as well as for their personal insights resulting from years of experience in the field.They include John Wiley of the Career Resource Development Center in San Francisco, LindaMrowicki of the CenterResources in Education in Illinois, Kate Si lc of Falls Church, VA, FrancineBoren-Gilkenson of the Consortium for Worker Education in New York City, Klaudia Rivera of ElBarrio Popular in New York City, Ann Savino of El Paso Community College, Elizabeth Platt ofFlorida State University, Laura Franklin of El Camino Community College in Torrance, California,Inaam Mansoor and Suzanne Grant of the Arlington Education and Employment Program (REEP) inVirginia, Robin Carvajal of the San Diego Community College Workplace Learning Resource Center,Myrna Adkins of the Spring Institute in Denver, Jo Ann Crandall of the University of MarylandBaltimore County, Donna Manley of the University of Wisconsin, and Joyce Campbell, SarahNewcomb, and Cindy Towsner of the U.S. Department of Education in Washington, DC.

At the Center for Applied Linguistics many staff members labored to bring this project to fruition.Judy Jameson offered invaluable assistance both during the conceptualization and review stages.Miriam Burt undertook the onerous task of editing the publication and made significant contributionsto the final product. Lucinda Branaman, Toya Lynch, and Amy Fitch assiduously tracked downmany reference sources and also assisted with copy editing and layout.

Finally, I would like to thank Allene Guss Grognet, Director of the Project in Adult ImmigrantEducation at the Center for Applied Linguistics, for her tireless efforts toward assuring that everyadult immigrant has a chance at achieving the American dream.

Marilyn Gillespie

Introduction

This study is an important work. For the first time, workplace ESL and vocational education are seentogether as part of a continuum. They form a natural bridge, but are most often separated by fundingsource and delivery system. Here they are reviewed and linked together. The study is also important asit is a review of the adult education system for workplace and vocational ESL as that system has ex-isted for the last 25 years.

In November of 1994, the composition of Congress changed, and the agenda and priorities of the104th Congress seemed to reflect the growing mood of the country: anti-immigrant, anti-welfare, andto some extent, anti-adult education on the federal level. The bills introduced in CongressH.R. 1617,the CAREERS Act, in the House of Representatives and S. 143, the Workforce Development Act in theSenatewould have consolidated federal adult education, vocational education, and job trainingprograms into a system of block grants to the states. According to the legislation, the Secretaries ofLabor and Education would both have had jurisdiction over the programs. The bills adopted andencouraged the idea of a one-stop "shopping center" for workforce development, with a network (ormultiple accesses to core services) of comprehensive and fully integrated career centers. Such centerswould have included outreach; intake; initial assessment; career counseling; workforce education,including ESL; referral to appropriate employment or vocational rehabilitation; and auxiliary services,such as child care and transportation.

These bills languished in limbo: They were never passed or vetoed. The Congress that begins sessionin 1997 (or the next) will certainly work on the reform of vocational and workforce ESL, and manyof the ideas of the Goodling and Kassebaum bills will be resurrected. The ESL world needs to beready for them.

This book takes a definitive look at where we have been in vocational and workforce education andwhere we need to go if we are to maintain and augment our work for limited English proficient adults.

Allene G. GrognetDirector, Project in Adult Immigrant Education (PAIE)

1

Chapter One

The Role of Immigrants inthe Changing Workforce

In the past decade, two trends in federal policyhave profoundly shaped the patterns of immi-gration and the role immigrants play in U.S.society (Fix & Zimmerman, 1993). On the onehand, the United States has developed themost inclusive immigration policy since theturn of the century. During the 1980s, onethird of the nation's net population growthcame from immigration. Since the passage ofthe Immigration Act of 1990, the numbershave increased even more. This reality has sig-nificant implications for the character of ourworkforce. Many of those who reach the coun-try come at a prime working age, and since thenumber of working-age, native-born adults isdeclining, they will make up a larger and largerportion of the workforce of the future. By theyear 2000, more than 29% of new entrants tothe U.S. workforce will be immigrants (U.S. De-partment of Education, 1991).

On the other hand, a second trend, a hands-off, laissez-faire federal immigrantion policy, re-flected by recent reductions in federal support forprograms targeting immigrants and refugees,has meant that these new arrivals have hadlimited access to the kinds of vocational andworkplace training they need to play a produc-tive role in the changing workforce. The sheernumbers of immigrants and their increasingethnic and linguistic diversity are having aprofound effect on many state and local gov-ernments as they struggle to meet immigrants'needs for education, health, and human ser-vices. Although, in the long run, immigrantsand refugees contribute much more than they

take from the nation's economy, in the shortrun, the burgeoning numbers of newcomershave fueled a recent increase in anti-immigrantsentiments and suggestions of yet further cutsin services.

The first two chapters of this book provide de-tailed information to illuminate the facts be-hind these two complex trends and toillustrate why denying preparation to new im-migrant workers, while cost effective in theshort term, may limit the productivity andstrength of the nation in the long term. Thischapter discusses who the newcomers are, theresources they bring to the country, their edu-cational and training needs, and the role theymay be predicted to play in the workforce ofthe future. Chapter II explores in more detailhow federal, state, and local governments, aswell as the private sector, have responded (orin many cases failed to respond) to the lan-guage, vocational education, and workplacetraining needs of immigrant and refugee adults.

Who Are the New Immigrants?

In 1990, the U.S. Congress significantly alteredthe Immigration and Nationality Act, the basicimmigration code of the United States. TheImmigration Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-649) modi-fied the process for legal immigration, creatinga new preference system to distribute visas.Most visas (71%) were to be granted for familyreunification of relatives of U.S. citizens and per-manent resident aliens. A full 21% of the newvisas were to go to those who possess special

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Figure 1-1 Legal Immigration to the United States, 1820s to 1980sFrom U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1993). Adult Literacy and the New Technologies: Tools for a Lifetime, p. 51. Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Office.

employment-related skills, advanced degrees,or professional experience useful in the UnitedStates. The remaining 8% were to go to whatare called "diversity immigrants"personsfrom countries awarded few visas in previousyears. As a result of the new legislation, immi-gration, already generally on the increase sincethe 1960s, grew significantly (see Figure 1-1).By 1995, the number of visas for legal immi-gration rose to 675,000 (Morse, 1994, p. 13).

In addition to legal immigrants, two other cat-egories of immigrants have also increased."Humanitarian admissions" (primarily refugeesand asylees) doubled in the period from 1985to the early 1990s. And, although their num-bers may not be as high as current anti-immi-grant rhetoric implies, illegal entrants do makeup a significant portion of those entering theUnited States. Adjusting for various factors re-lated to border crossings and "commuters"

across borders, the Urban Institute estimatesthat the net annual flow of unauthorized mi-grants intending to live permanently in theUnited States is roughly 200,000 (Morse, 1994,p. 18).

Settlement PatternsThe impact of this increase in immigration ismagnified by the fact that recent immigrantshave tended to settle in a few key states. In fact,according to one study, 80% of all immigrants(and 73% of all limited English proficientadults) reside in just six statesCalifornia,Texas, Florida, New York, New Jersey, and Illi-nois (Chisman, Wrigley, & Ewen, 1993). As canbe seen in Figure 1-2, many states in the nationremain only marginally affected by immigra-tion, with fewer than 100,000 people over theage of five speaking a language other than En-glish at home. There are, however, severalstates, such as New Mexico and Hawaii, that

4

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From U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1993). Adult LiteracyGovernment Printing Office.

have relatively high proportions of non-Englishspeakers, even though the total numbers do notseem high because their overall populations arenot large.

Of all the states, California has sustained thelargest influx of immigrants. Today, more than30% of all limited English proficient adults(3.6 million people) reside in California alone.They make up 17% of the state's population(Chisman, Wrigley, & Ewen, 1993, p. 8). Notonly do more people immigrate directly toCalifornia, but a great deal of secondary migra-tion from other states also brings newcomersto the West Coast. Moreover, this phenom-enon is relatively recent. Half of all these refu-gees and immigrants have arrived since 1980.As a result, California, it is predicted, will soonbecome the first state in the continentalUnited States with the majority of residentshaving a Third World ethnic heritage

Number of People, Ages 5 and Above,a Non-English Language at Home, by State, 1990and the New Technologies: Tools for a Lifetime, p. 53. Washington, DC: U.S.

(Grognet, 1995). Overall, it is expected that theSouth and the West will not only experiencethe most overall growth in the next decade,but also the largest increases in immigration.

Even within these highly impacted states, thelinguistic minority population is not evenlydistributed. Figure 1-3 shows the ten U.S. citieswith the highest percentage of adults who mayneed English language instruction. A majority(53%) of the adult population in Miami, forexample, can be characterized as limited En-glish proficient. Within the state, however, thevast majority of immigrants are concentratedin just three counties. In California, 49% ofthe population in Santa Ana in OrangeCounty, 29% of the adult population in LosAngeles, and 12% of the residents of San Diegoare limited English speaking. In Texas, limitedEnglish speakers are concentrated along theMexican border and in cities such as El Paso

12

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%LA Boston NY San Diego SF Santa Ana El Paso Houston Miami Chicago

Figure 1-3 Percent of Adult Population in Selected Cities Who May Need English ServicesReprinted with permission from Chisman, F., Wrigley, H.S., & Ewen, D. (1993). ESL and the American Dream, p. 9. Washington, DC: Southport Institute for

Policy Analysis.

and Houston. In New York City, where one infive residents is foreign born, it is not unusualto have more than 100 languages representedin a single school district (Chisman, Wrigley, &Ewen, 1993, p. 9).

Although major cities have been most affected,sometimes small towns and localities may alsoattract an influx of immigrants. In Lowell,Massachusetts, for example, the population ofCambodian refugees grew dramatically whenmembers of the existing Cambodian commu-nity were able to raise funds to establish thefirst Buddhist temple on the East Coast in thatcity. The availability of this religious commu-nity caused a large secondary migration to thearea. Lowell now is home to more than 20,000Cambodians, representing about 20% of thecity's population (Morse, 1994, p. 49). In

Wausau, Wisconsin, with a population of37,500, citizens initially decided to sponsor agroup of Southeast Asian (Hmong) refugees inthe late 1970s. With secondary migration andexisting refugees acting as sponsors for others,Wausau has now found that more than a quar-ter of its elementary school enrollment is

made up of immigrants. The new influx hasincreased the diversity of the small town, buthas also strained its financial infrastructure(Beck, 1994).

Ethnic and Linguistic RepresentationThe numbers and locations of the immigrantpopulation have changed, as have its ethnicand linguistic composition. The European influxof the turn of the century has given way to anew group of newcomers who are primarilyLatin American or Asian, but who also represent

6 13

a wide diversity of ethnic and language back-grounds. The 1990 census found that 31.8million Americans (14% of the total Americanpopulation) speak a language other than En-glish at home. Of these, 17 million (54%)speak Spanish. This represents an increase ofover 6 million since 1980. Spanish is the pre-vailing non-English language spoken in 39states, among both those born in and outsidethe United States (Macias, 1994). Vietnamese,Korean, and Chinese language populationshave more than doubled over the last decade.Many others speak French, German, or Italianat home. The ethnic and linguistic makeup ofimmigrant and refugee populations can changedramatically, based on political realities. In1991, for example, the largest and fastest grow-ing group of legal immigrants came fromcountries that were formerly part of the SovietUnion (Chisman, Wrigley, & Ewen, 1993).

Although there is a fairly accurate sense ofhow many people speak a language other thanEnglish at home, estimating the number ofthose who are also proficient in English ismuch more difficult. Most surveys, includingthe 1990 census, are based on self-reported re-sponses. When asked by the census how wellthey spoke English, about 75% of those whospeak a language other than English in theirhome responded that they speak English wellor very well. The remaining 25%, a total of 5.8million adults, reported that they speak En-glish not well or not at all (see Figure 1-4).These data, however, may be inaccurate, sincemany people may overstate their languageabilities and since the census questions do nottell about people's skills in reading or writingEnglish. In their study of the issue, theSouthport Institute concluded that there are

probably 12 to 14 million adults in theUnited States whose native language is notEnglish and who have serious difficultiesspeaking, understanding, reading, or writingthe English language (Chisman, Wrigley, &Ewen, 1993, p. 4).1 They estimate that 76% ofthese are immigrants, while the remaining24% were born in the United States and grewup in what the census calls "linguistically iso-lated households" and communities or wereborn here but spent much of their lives inother countries or in Puerto Rico. An earlierstudy, conducted by Development Associates,projected the figure to be 11.6 million by1990 and to reach 17.4 million by the year2000 (Fleischman & Willette, 1988).

Educational BackgroundThe education levels of immigrant adults tendto represent a bipolar distribution. On oneend is a large group of immigrants with ad-vanced education and on the other is anothercluster of adults with very limited education.About one quarter of foreign-born adults inthe United States have an associate,bachelor's, or some other advanced degree.Many brought these credentials with them. Alarge number are doctors, engineers, mathe-maticians, and skilled tradespeople. Manyothers were entrepreneurs in their homecountries. According to the Office of Technol-ogy Assessment, available data on the amountof schooling immigrants have received intheir native countries reveal some interestingtrends.

A higher proportion of these immigrantshave attended college (38%) than havepeople born here (32%). But a greaterproportion of these immigrants are also

' The term most commonly used within the field to refer to persons who have difficulties with the English languageis limited English proficient (or LEP). This term commonly refers to individuals whose first language is a language otherthan English and who have sufficient difficulty speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language todeny them the opportunity to learn successfully in classrooms where the language of instruction is English or toparticipate fully in our society. Although many within the field are unhappy with the fact that this term tends to focusattention on the deficiencies of non-native speakers, it continues to be used in specific ways in much existinglegislation and research. Unfortunately, no alternative has yet been agreed upon.

14 EST COIN HAMM

7

25.5 million adults (ages 18 andabove) speak a language otherthan English at home

When asked how wellthey spoke English...

Figure 1-4 Self-Reported Ability to Speak English in Non-English Speaking Homes: 1990 CensusFrom U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1993). Adult Literacy and the New Technologies: Tools for a Lifetime, p. 52. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

found at the lowest education levels (31%have less than 9 years of schooling com-pared with 17% of U.S.-born). In contrastto this bimodal distribution for these im-migrants, the largest proportion of the U.S.population clusters toward the middle ofthe distribution at the high school comple-tion level. (U.S. Congress, Office of Tech-nology Assessment, 1993, pp. 50-51)

In the case of refugees, many of those in the ear-lier immigration wave of the late 1970s and early1980s represented more educated professionalsand military personnel. Those who came laterwere often from rural villages and lacked, in manycases, even basic literacy skills. In addition, asHemphill and his colleagues point out, it takesmany refugees as long as 6 to 8 years to maketheir way from their countries of origin to theUnited States (Center for Literacy Studies, 1992).

Countless refugees have faced conditions of ex-treme adversity and violence as part of their mi-gration experience, and they have frequently beenforced to interrupt any education or professionalexperience they might have begun previously.

Unfortunately, many people who do arrive inthe United States at a young age and begintheir schooling in this country fail to over-come that most basic hurdlehigh schoolcompletion. One study (Steinberg, Blinde, &Chan, 1984) found that students from homeswhere a language other than English is spokenare four times more likely to drop out of schoolthan are students from English-dominanthomes and had, at that time, an actual drop-out rate of 40%. The statistics for Hispanicpopulations are especially troubling. In the lasttwo decades, drop-out rates overall havedecreased slightly, and considerable progress

8 15

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Figure 1-5 Dropout Rates for Persons Ages 16 to 24, 1972-91From U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1993). Adult Literacy and the New Technologies: Tools for a Lifetime, p. 52. Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Office.

has been made in decreasing the number ofAfrican-American dropouts. However, the drop-out rate for Hispanics has remained high. In1991, more than 35% of all Hispanic personsaged 16 to 24 dropped out of school, as com-pared to about 15% for all groups (see Figure 1-5).

Given the precarious economic situation of themost recent immigrants and refugees, manyamong this group may drop out of schoolearly in order to go to work to help supporttheir families. But this does not completely ex-plain the alarmingly high drop-out rate, par-ticularly among Hispanics. Clearly, moreinformation is needed about how the cultureof school supports or fails to support linguisticminority students in their educational andcareer goals.

Literacy RatesAnother topic of growing concern relates tohow to obtain a better picture of the literacylevels of limited English proficient adults.Getting accurate data on the actual literacyrates of this population is perhaps even moredifficult than estimating language proficiency.To date, no widescale surveys using directmeasures (such as tests) have been conductedboth in English and in the native languagesof linguistic minority adults. Most surveys inthe United States have tended to equate lit-eracy with English literacy. This reality oftennot only inflates the perception of the literacycrisis, but also stigmatizes those who are liter-ate in languages other than English. Thewidely reported National Adult Literacy Sur-vey (Kirsch, Jungeblut, Jenkins, & Kolstad,1993) found that 25% of adults who scored atthe lowest level on their English literacy test

16

were immigrants. These data may be somewhatmisleading, however, since immigrants mayhave scored lower on the test due to limitedEnglish proficiency. To date, only the 1979National Chicano Survey has measured biliteracy.Secondary data analysis of this survey indicatedan overall self-reported literacy rate of 74%(52% English literate, 42% Spanish literate, and22% biliterate). Interestingly, if only the Englishliteracy rate had been reported, it would haveappeared that 48% of the population was illiter-ate. If literacy abilities in any language are takeninto account, however, the illiteracy rate falls to26% (Wiley, 1994).

As Wiley (1994) points out, attempts to esti-mate the national level of literacy are fraughtwith many problems, both theoretical and lo-gistical. There is considerable debate over howliteracy should be defined. As a result, the de-velopment of operational definitions necessaryfor the design of research studies remains prob-lematic. While for many years researcherstended to set up a rigid boundary betweensomeone who is "literate" and someone who is"illiterate," today researchers argue that literacycannot be treated as an autonomous or singu-lar construct, but must be looked at in termsof what people do with literacy in the socialcontext of their everyday lives. Moreover, stud-ies frequently undercount language minoritygroups due to sampling biases and blur thelines between language, race, and ethnicity. Forexample, the term "Hispanic" is often used asa racial or ethnic designation as well as a lin-guistic one. As will be seen later, the develop-ment of survey information to determine theliteracy levels of those who are limited Englishproficient has increasingly been cited by advo-cates of programs for immigrant adults as a vitalstep in the process to design better educationalprograms.

Economic StatusLike the newcomers of yesterday, today's immi-grants come to the United States with a dreamof prosperity. Many, over time and often byworking long hours, do pull ahead and areable to buy their own homes, start businesses,or move ahead in careers. But the path to eco-nomic security is often a long and arduousone. For those who never learn English, theconsequences are severe. Indications are that,without further training, many immigrantsmay never make it beyond the poverty level.Limited English proficient adults, according toa 1988 study (Fleischman & Willette, 1988),are more than twice as likely to live in povertythan non-limited English proficient adults. Inaddition to English fluency, other key factorsrelated to economic success are the educationallevel attained in the home country, the lengthof time in the United States, and the size ofthe immigrant household (with those in multi-family households able to pool their financialresources to move ahead economically). Giventhe income figures shown in Figure 1-6, it iseasy to see the importance of combining mul-tiple incomes to ensure family survival.

A November 1989 population survey conductedby the U.S. Department of Labor reveals someof the most current information available con-cerning the relationship of employment ratesand wages for immigrants to several key factors,including level of schooling completed, lengthof time in the United States, and fluency in En-glish (Meisenheimer, 1992). Contrary to currentpublic opinion, the survey showed a high levelof labor force participation among immigrants.Among men under age 55, there was little dif-ference between immigrants and U.S. natives inthe labor force participation rate, nor was theremuch variation in labor force participationamong immigrants by the number of yearsthey had lived in the United States. The num-

10 17

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30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%$0 to $3,800 $3,801 $7,601 $12,294 $18,441 Above $35,353 Income Range

to $7,600 to $12,293 to $18,440 to $35,353

Figure 1-6 Income Distribution for Limited English Proficient AdultsReprinted with permission from Chisman, E, Wrigley, H.S., & Ewen, D. (1993). ESL and the American Dream, p. 7. Washington, DC: Southport Institute forPolicy Analysis.

ber of men who were either working or ac-tively looking for work was 97% for those hav-ing lived in the United States for 3 to 8 yearsand 95% for those having lived here for 8 to17 years. (The notable exception was immi-grant men who had lived in this country forfewer than 3 years. These men were less likelyto participate in the labor force than were im-migrants who had lived in the country forlonger periods.) Immigrant women, particu-larly those of childbearing age, were also some-what less likely to participate in the labor forcethan native women.

For most population groups, the study noted,labor force participation rates rise with thelevel of education. This suggests that the in-vestment of more time and money in school-ing heightens people's realization of expandedjob opportunities and higher earnings. How-

ever, it was found that immigrants participatein the labor force regardless of their level ofeducational attainment. In fact, many immi-grants prefer to take even the most menialentry level job rather than remain unemployed.

Entry level jobs are often the only ones immi-grants are able to find. Among the populationstudied by the Bureau of Labor, 19% of recentimmigrantsversus 9% of U.S. nativesworkedin service occupations, including such jobsas food preparation, child care, and janitorialservice. One fourth of recent immigrants, com-pared with one fifth of natives, worked asoperators, fabricators, and laborers. Farming,forestry, and fishing occupations accounted for9% of employment among recent immigrants,but for only 4% among natives. U.S. nativeswere more concentrated in higher-paying jobs

11

18

than were immigrants who arrived here duringthe 1982-1989 period (Meisenheimer, 1992).

The survey also looked at the relationship be-tween English fluency and labor force partici-pation through self-reported responses regardinglanguage ability. Twenty-four percent of immi-grants surveyed who were age 16 and olderspoke only English at home. Another 45%spoke a language other than English at leastsome of the time and spoke English "verywell" or "well." The remaining 32% spoke En-glish "not well" or "not at all." Hispanic immi-grants, the study found, were much less likelythan non-Hispanic black, white, and Asian im-migrants to be fluent in English. This may inpart be due, the study postulates, to the factthat many non-Hispanic immigrants camefrom countries in which English is the primarylanguage, such as the United Kingdom, Ire-land, and Jamaica or from countries such asIndia and the Philippines where English is notthe primary language but is commonly spo-ken, particularly among educated people. His-panic immigrants, by contrast, largely, camefrom countries where English is not spoken.Hispanics have also, on the whole, been in thecountry less time. In addition, in urban areas,large groups of Spanish speakers have createdneighborhoods where there may be little needto speak English. With a working-age popula-tion of about 6 million, Hispanics representthe largest immigrant group. Spanish is the na-tional language of virtually all Hispanic immi-grants (as opposed to Asian populations wherethere is considerable language diversity). Fur-thermore, many of the 7.2 million working-ageHispanics born in the United States also speakSpanish. Finally, the fact that there are so manySpanish speakers in the United States may enableHispanic immigrants to create labor markets thatare somewhat independent of the larger labormarket where English is spoken. Thus, for

Hispanic immigrants who live in these areas,English fluency may be less vital for labor mar-ket success than it is for Asian and black immi-grants or for Hispanics living outside theseethnic enclaves.

With respect to the relationship between En-glish fluency and earnings, the Bureau of Laborstudy confirmed the findings of earlier research.Among immigrant men who spoke a languageother than English at home at least some ofthe time, those who were not fluent in Englishearned only about half as much as those whowere. The earnings differential between fluentand nonfluent women, although not so largeas the gap among men, was also substantial.Education may also have been a factor, sincenearly a quarter of 25- to 54-year-old immi-grant men and women had completed fewerthan 9 years of school, compared to only 4%of native men and 3% of native women.

Requirements of the FutureU.S. Workforce

In recent years, a great deal of attention hasbeen given to the fact that the pool of Ameri-cans who will enter the workforce in the nextdecade is ill equipped for the jobs that cur-rently exist and for those jobs that will beavailable in the future. Europe and Japan, whOhave embraced new models of diversity andflexibility in production and invested more inhuman capital and education than has theUnited States, have increasingly moved aheadof the United States in many areas such as theproduction of chemicals, steel and primarymetals, electronic machinery, and transporta-tion equipment. In addition, economists pointout, manufacturing jobs themselves are declin-ing while service jobs are increasing dramati-cally as the country moves out of themanufacturing and into the information age.

12 19

Retail service jobs are the fastest growing cat-egory, along with business services such as com-puter-related occupations (Carnevale, 1991).

One of the key reasons for the country's eco-nomic problems, according to the U.S. Con-gress Office of Technology Assessment (1990)and the Business Council for Effective Literacy(1991), is that too many U.S. employers stillembrace strategies geared to the mass produc-tion system that was once so successful, butthat no longer responds to current economicrealities. In the old system, work was brokendown into the simplest possible tasks. Mostworkers required little training and were, there-fore, easy to replace. Rather than as assets tobe developed to add value, most front lineworkers were looked at in terms of costs to bereduced. A small number of white collar andtechnical elites at the top of organizations ex-ercised considerable decision making power; iftraining was provided by organizatfons, it wasat this level rather than for those who per-formed the relatively narrow tasks at the bottom.

Many new forces, according to Carnevale, nowshape the economy. There is increased wealthoverall and, since people can afford more, theybuy more (although this often requires mul-tiple incomes in a family). The marketplacehas now become globalized; countries increas-ingly compete for international customers.People are demanding diversified products andservices, and, since they are working morehours, more convenient, time-saving services.Low cost is no longer the only factor as busyconsumers look for quality, customized prod-ucts, and good customer service in addition toa good price. All of this has led to a demandfor new, flexible technologies geared towardsmaller, individualized markets and timely re-sponses to changing needs and away frommass production. New technology has helped

make this possible: software that can be modi-fied quickly and at little added cost has al-lowed for more variety. Faxes, satellites, theWorld Wide Web, and other communicationtechnology have aided globalization (Camevale,1991).

All of these changes imply a demand for newkinds of workplace relationships. In some largeorganizations, the pyramid shape of the workstructure is flattening. According to the Busi-ness Council for Effective Literacy (1991, p. 7),the "work teams, operating at the point of pro-duction, service delivery, and customer inter-face, are being empowered with more directresponsibility for quality control and produc-tion decisions. The new role of managers is toprovide organizational integration and tomonitor outcomes." These new internal net-works, in turn, are becoming linked to otherorganizations that are suppliers, customers,regulators, and financial backers, each ofwhom is dependent on the other for economicsuccess. Increasingly, the cooperative flow ofinformation back and forth between variousnetworks has become paramount to success.Although these changes are taking place veryslowlywith entrenched attitudes and habitsdying hardthere is a general agreement onthe overall direction of the change and of thedanger to the United States role in global com-petition if it fails to keep up.

One of the key areas where the United States isfailing to keep pace with other countries is inworker education and training. In the neweconomy, "learning will be the factor that de-termines earnings" (Business Council for Effec-tive Literacy, 1991, p. 8). The fSstest growthwill be in large organizations and, to functionwithin these, higher standards will be needed,even for entry-level jobs. Hard work alone willnot be enough to advance beyond the entry

2013

level. People with the most access to learningon the job will do the best. Often, educationbeyond the high school level will be neededfor new workers. At the same time, however,the number of entry-level workers from tradi-tionally better educated labor pools is declin-ing; women, minorities, and immigrants willmake up increasingly larger proportions of newworkers.

Different skills are needed in this new work-place. Those on the front line who are dealingwith suppliers, making the product, deliveringthe service, and interacting with customers willneed to become part of what is often nowtermed learning organizations. Workers willhave to juggle multiple tasks, solve problemsas they come up, and supply creative solutionsthey encounter on a daily basis, rather thansimply to perform repetitive tasks. Many willneed strong interpersonal skills both to getalong with customers and to participate inplanning with co-workers. To move ahead,workers will need leadership skills to organizeteams of workers. They will also need to beadaptable since they are likely to change jobsfrequently during their working lives. Insteadof reducing the skills required of workers, tech-nology, for the most part, is increasing theneed for basic reading, writing, and mathskills.

Other skills are increasingly being identified bytask forces such as the Secretary's [of Labor]Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills

(SCANS) (U.S. Department of Labor, 1991). Themembers of this task force identified six categoriesof skills needed by workers:

1. Reading, writing, and computation;2. Learning to learn;3. Communication (speaking and listening);4. Adaptability (problem-solving and creative

thinking);5. Developmental skills (self-esteem, goal setting,

motivation, and career development); and6. Group effectiveness (interpersonal skills, nego-

tiation, and leadership skills).(BCEL, 1991, p. 8)

While each of these skills is important, it isemphasized, new ways must be found to teachthem. Traditional academic classrooms thatcontinue to break information down intosmall component pieces and use teacher-centered approaches are not effective in gettingacross the kinds of information and interdisci-plinary processes most needed for the newworkplace.

Although economic necessity may well forcegovernments and employers to invest in edu-cation in the future, currently American com-panies are just beginning to increase funds forworkforce education. Carnevale (1991) esti-mates that only 15,000or one half of onepercentof employer institutions provide anyformal workplace training. Of that, most goesto college graduates rather than to entry-levelworkers. The irony, he says, is that researchshows training does pay by increasing produc-tivity. European and Asian companies, who in-vest considerably more in learning at work,have already learned that lesson. According tomany, the nation will either develop a high-wage, high-skill workforce, or it will not beable to increase productivity and will lose itsability to compete (National Center on Educa-tion and the Economy, 1990).

14 21

The Implications for Immigrants

What are the implications of these changingrealities for those new workers who are immi-grants? One thing is certain, whatever changesdo take place, immigrants will play a growingrole. Currently newcomers from other coun-tries make up 8% (14.9 million) of the nation'sworkforce. Perhaps more importantly, by theyear 2000, they will constitute a full 29% ofnew entrants to the workforce (U.S. Depart-ment of Education, 1991). Many of the newentrants will be immigrants who tend to arrivein their twenties, at prime working age. Incontrast, by the year 2000, the number ofyoung, native-born workers aged 16 to 24 willdecline by about 8%, while the average age ofthe workforce will increase from 36 to 39.(Johnston & Packer, 1987).

While the recent backlash against immigrantshas spawned the notion that they take jobsaway from native workers and tend to lowerwages, economists show this is not the case.According to a report by the National Confer-ence of State Legislatures (Morse, 1994), recentreviews of fiscal studies on immigration havefound that, overall, the consequences of immi-grant labor on the earnings and employmentof American workers are "weak or insignifi-cant." In fact, immigrants will increasingly beneeded to fuel the growth of the economy.

Yet in the current economy, the old "sink orswim" approach to immigrant employmentwhere immigrants receive little or no languageeducation or job trainingwill no longer pre-pare these workers for the kinds of jobs avail-able. For one thing, routine factory assemblyand labor jobs, jobs most often associated withimmigrants at the turn of the century, are dis-appearing and, even among those manufactur-ing jobs that do exist, the demand for more

skills is increasing. Moreover, hard work alonecan no longer guarantee upward mobility. Thedays when an immigrant starting out on thesewing room floor could, through drive andambition alone, end up owning his own fac-tory may well be a thing of the past. Todaythat kind of mobility often requires a largeinvestment in specialized education. With thegrowing number of jobs dependent on strongcommunication and interpersonal skills, theability to speak, read, write, and understandEnglish and to interact within the Americanculture will be, in the future, the key to unlockingupward mobility for immigrants. Without it,even those immigrants who arrive with strongeducational backgrounds in desirable fieldssuch as engineering, health care, or computerscience may continue to languish in entry-level jobs that do not take advantage of theireducational background and previous experi-ence. And without further education and train-ing, that one third of all immigrants whopossess less than a ninth-grade education willfall even further behind.

Perhaps the greatest tragedy associated withlimited language and job training opportunitiesfor immigrants is not the lack of employmentso much as the chronic underemployment ofthose whose skills, if tapped, could contributemuch more to the U.S. economy and culture asa whole. This is especially true in those citiesand states most populated by immigrants, for,as Chisman and his colleagues point out:

The large urban areas in which this population

is concentrated are among our majorengines for economic growth and our majorsocial, political, and cultural centers. It isimpossible to imagine a prosperous and civilAmerica without a prosperous and civil LosAngeles, New York, Chicago, Houston, andMiami (Chisman, Wrigley, & Ewen, 1993, p. 11).

2215

Americans in the late 1990s face a challenge notunlike one encountered at the turn of this cen-tury. Then, just as now, anxiety about the eco-nomic and cultural future has manifested itself ingrowing anti-immigrant sentiments. Immigrants,it was feared then; threatened the cultural andmoral fiber of American society. Public discourseassociated with immigration today focuses moredirectly on economics: Immigrants drain moneyfrom the nation's already stressed health caresystem, fill up the prisons and the educationalsystem, and take jobs needed by native-bornAmericans. Such an image, however, may notbe founded on reality. Although, as will be

16

discussed in the next chapter, states and localsystems may share an unfair burden, on a federalscale, immigrants contribute much more finan-cially than they cost. According to the UrbanInstitute, the foreign-born pay $25 to $30 billiona year more than they consume (Topolinicki,1995, p. 130). Just as in the early 1900s, the vital-ity, industriousness, and entrepreneurial spirit ofAmerica's newcomers have the potential tostrengthen the economy and culture in signifi-cant ways. But for this to happen, language,vocational, and workplace education for adultimmigrants must improve.

23

Chapter 11The Service Delivery System

Overcoming Fragmentation:Increasing Federal and StateConcerns

Currently, the field is at a critical juncture inthe delivery of adult basic education (ABE) andvocational services. Among many policy mak-ers across the country, there is a call for re-duced federal bureaucracy and a shift indecision making from the federal to state andlocal levels. Concerns regarding how to reducethe federal deficit and at the same time makegovernment more responsive to local constitu-ents predominate national political dialogue.The demand for change comes at a crucialtime for many federal education programs tar-geting adult and vocational education. Two ofthe most important federal acts, the Adult Edu-cation Act (AEA) and the Carl D. Perkins Voca-tional and Applied Technology (Perkins) Act,were scheduled for reauthorization in 1995. Asmentioned in the introduction, various proposalsfor change have been set forth, and althoughfunds were finally appropriated, the acts were notreauthorized. The next years hold both challengeand promise as new directions will be established.

The existing fragmentation of adult educationand vocational education services has beenwell documented in recent years. In 1993, theCongressional Office of Technology Assess-ment, after an extensive study, reported toCongress that "providers of adult educationservices are diverse and do not form a compre-hensive system for addressing the needs of thenation. Students seeking adult education assis-

tance are confronted with a web of discon-nected, often overlapping programs" (U.S.

Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,1993, p. 93). A widely reported GovernmentAccounting Office study found as many as 125different federal programs training adults andout-of-school youth, under the supervision of14 federal departments or agencies (Morse,1994). A 1992 COSMOS Corporation study offederal funding sources and services for adulteducation identified 27 programs in whichadult education service delivery is explicitlystated as a priority objective in the program'sauthorizing legislation (Alamprese & Sivilli,1992). On a state level, this maze of federal,state, and local programs makes it difficult forany but the most seasoned adult educationprofessional to understand the conditions ofexisting services. Figure 2-1 illustrates the com-plexity of funding sources just within the stateof Massachusetts. Within that state, the Na-tional Commission for Employment Policyfound 31 training programs funded at $320million in FY1992. Thirteen were funded bythe federal government, nine by the state, andsix were funded jointly by federal and stategovernment (Morse, 1994, p. 41).

Some efforts have been made to correct thisproblem. Job Opportunities and Basic Skills(JOBS) programs and Job Training PartnershipAct (JTPA) programs, for example, have beenurged to coordinate services with each other.In addition, many stateslike New Jersey,which administers 63 different basic skills andliteracy programshave begun to create their

17

24

MASSACHUSETTS STATE AGENCY AND PROGRAMFEDERAL AGENCY

DEPARTMENT OFEDUCATION

'Department of Education:

AEA

McKinney Homeless

DEPARTMENT OF. HEALTHAND HUMAN SERVICES

DEPARTMENT OF. LABOR

Workplace Literacy

LOCAL PROVIDER

CBOs

SLIAG,v ,0/10, aik-*ow

'Secretary of Health-and'HUman ServiCes 044";#4S\ 44;,,,I,Refugee Targeted Assist.

Refugee Ed. and Employ.

JOBS AOIikiel.. IPV,14

rilftUAV-if PY 40:11//&Alow .fr

g-virw,..NPo4k

, i A atifilver

State-funded ABE

VocationaVState Rehab.

DMH Employ. and Training

Secretary of. EconOMiCAffairs.

JTPA II-A

JTPA II-B

Secretary of,Lator

State Title III/JTPA II

KEYAEA - Adult Education ActSLIAG - State Legalization Impact Assistance GrantsABE - Adult Basic EducationJOBS = Job Opportunities and Basic SkillsJTPA a Job Training Partnership Act

CBO = Community-based organizationLEA = local education agenciesSDA = service delivery areaRehab... rehabilitation

LEAs

Corrections

Municipalities

Vocational schools

SDAs

Proprietary schools

Employers

Universities

Community colleges

Private colleges

Rehab. centers

Job Corps entities I

Figure 2-1 Programs, Agencies, and Funding Streams: The Massachusetts ExampleFrom U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1993). Adult Literacy and the New Technologies: Tools for a Lifetime, p. 138. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office,

18

EST COPY AVAILABLE

.5

own state-level coalitions to coordinate ser-vices. This task is not easy, however, because ofconflicting eligibility requirements among pro-grams. A lack of uniform terms and definitionsfor key populations such as the "economicallydisadvantaged" frustrates meaningful coordina-tion (U.S. Congress, Office of TechnologyAssessment, 1993, p. 96). Within adult Englishas a second language (ESL) programs, forexample, there is no mandated or generallyagreed upon course or curricular sequence asthere is in the K-12 system, and no thrust towardnational standards or reform as there is in otherarenas of education. Often there is no require-ment to conduct evaluations and no recognizedsystem for accountability, although efforts arebeing made in this direction. Most funds foradult education are concentrated in the provi-sion of direct educational services. Support forimportant areas that might contribute to thebuilding of an infrastructure within the field arelimited indeed. The COSMOS study, mentionedearlier, found that "while other activitiessuchas research, dissemination, and staff traininghave been funded, they represented only about4% of the monies accounted for in FY1989.Support for these areas is critical to the improve-ment of the overall system for adult education"(Alamprese & Sivilli, 1992, p. viii).

Clearly, it has become widely recognized thatsignificant improvements are needed in thefield. Morse (1994, p. 42) describes the situa-tion as follows:

Is diversity an advantage or a problem? Onthe one hand, the many programs enrichthe field with a multiplicity of resources,approaches, and techniques. On the otherhand, this potentially rich resource is

squandered without a system that makes itpossible to share what works and avoidwhat does not, that fills in the gaps andavoids duplication. The complicated web of

services makes it difficult for policymakers tosee the whole picture, define problems, andidentify pressure points where long-termchange can be instituted.

Given these realities, it is not surprising thatestimating a total amount of funding is com-plicated. Most programs receive support from avariety of public and private sources. In addi-tion, many federal programs authorizing mul-tiple activities do not require that obligationsor expenditures for adult or vocational educa-tion activities be reported separately (and evenwith programs that do report separately onadult and vocational education, most do notidentify which of their clients are limited En-glish proficient). There also exist no aggregatefigures on the amount spent by business andindustry on basic skills and ESL. What isknown is that, in spite of the large numbers ofprograms, the actual dollars spent are surpris-ingly low, particularly at the federal level.Overall, although spending for adult and voca-tional education has increased significantly inrecent years, the total amount is still meager incomparison with other major federal educationexpenditures (Figure 2-2). Funding is a con-tinuous concern. Unstable and short-termfunding make it difficult to develop a solideducational program, to purchase neededequipment or materials, or to develop and pro-vide for a professional staff.

The Growing State and Local Burdenfor Immigrant ServicesWithin adult and vocational education, anoften contradictory relationship exists betweenfederal and state governments. As the Officeof Technology Assessment (U.S. Congress, 1993, p.

95) observed, "although state funds now predomi-nate, unlike the elementary and secondary educa-tion, where a mature state and local infrastructureexisted before the federal government entered thefield, public adult education is in many ways

26 19

$ billions

8

6.7

2.9

1.2

0.27

6.9

AdultEducation

Act

VocationalEducation

Special Chapter 1 Student AidEducation

Figure 2-2 Funding for Select Department of Education Programs, Fiscal Year 1992From U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1993). Adult Literacy and the New Technologies: Tools for a Lifetime, p. 141. Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Office.

a federal creation." On a national level, statesspend about four dollars for every dollar spentby the federal government, although amountsvary considerably from state to state (Figure 2-3). Many states have developed their own pro-grams to carry out state-identified priorities.However, many of the major programs andpolicies, such as those developed through thePerkins and Job Training Partnership acts, arelargely defined at the federal level with match-ing funds provided from states.

Nowhere is the contradiction more profoundthan when it comes to serving immigrants. Thefederal government has exclusive jurisdiction overimmigration policy, including the terms and con-ditions for entry into the United States. No com-prehensive federal policy exists, nonetheless, toprovide adequately for the resettlement of refu-

gees and immigrants. Within the realm of adultand vocational education there exists no govern-ing body specifically charged with overseeing andcoordinating the needs of immigrants and refu-gees. At best, as Chisman and his colleagues(1993, p. 44) assert, "ESL is always a guest insomeone else's house." In most federal programs,ESL is considered to be a subcategory within basic

skills or vocational training programs and often,since no separate administrative oversight, com-mon definitions,2 or reporting requirements exist,it is nearly impossible to identify how many im-migrants are served and the nature of those ser-vices. In fact, as will be discussed later in thispaper, numerous studies contend that immigrantsand refugees are actively discouraged from partici-

pating in many programs. Over the years, only avery few federal grants specifically targeting thelanguage and employment training needs of

The term basic skills, for example, can range from ESL for a newly arrived immigrant to relatively advanced math-relatedskills for a computer technician. In numerous final project reports reviewed for this study, the fact that the majority oflearners were limited English proficient was acknowledged nowhere in the reports.

202

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Fiscal year 1980 dollars in millions`

BFederal Spending

I I I I I I I I I I I I I IState Spending

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991d 1992d 1993d

Figure 2-3 A Comparison of Federala and State /Local" Expenditures for Adult Education,Fiscal Years 1980-1993

a Federal dollars are Federal basic grants to States under the Adult Education Act.b State/local expenditures for 1991, 1992, and 1993 are estimates by the U.S. Department of Education.

Fiscal year 1980 dollars were calculated using the Congressional Research Service's Implicit Deflator for State and Local Government Purchases of Services.

° Estimated State/local expenditures.

From U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1993). Adult Literacy and the New Technologies: Tools for a Lifetime, p. 99. Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Office.

immigrants and refugees have been funded.' But,even these have been reduced or constrained bythe federal government in recent years.'

As a result, as a recent study by the National Con-ference of State Legislatures found, state and localgovernments have been compelled to create im-migrant policy but without sufficient resources(Morse, 1994). This is particularly troubling be-cause, according to Georges Vemez of RAND, "the

fiscal burden of immigrants increases as the size ofthe jurisdiction decreases, ranging from neutral oreven positive at the national level, to neutral tonegative at the state level, to negative at the local

(county/city) level" (cited in Morse, 1994, p. 45).The study also revealed that "economists showthat two thirds of the income provided by im-migrants flows to the federal level, while onlyone third flows to states and localities" (1994,p. ix). Given the fact that immigrants' demandfor services is outstripping the ability of statesto provide services, economists contend that"the federal jurisdiction over immigrationmust be adjusted to equitably respond to theneeds of both the new immigrants and stateand local governments, as partners in the inter-governmental system" (p. x).

3 The issue of whether or not it is desirable to create "targeted" populations for services has been heavily debated withinthe field. Some claim targeting programs for immigrants and refugees, particularly within highly impacted localities, wouldensure better access to services. Others contend that this can be a screening device rather than a means for inclusion sincethis group can then be excluded from mainstream programs.' In addition, no preparations have been made to meet the demand for services of the large numbers of limited Englishproficient adults who participated in the State Legalization Impact Assistance Grant program (SLIAG).

EST COPY MIURA LE 2821

A Description of ExistingPrograms

To plan a new, better integrated service deliv-ery system, it is important to know as much aspossible about the strengths and weaknesses ofthe existing system. The sections that followdescribe what has been learned about the majorfunding sources and categories of programsthat provide these services. More details aboutthe nature of those services will be addressed inlater chapters. As will be seen, the most readilyavailable information comes from the largest

service deliverers: the various federally sponsoredprograms. Information about state initiatives, oreven the state contributions to these federal pro-grams, was much more difficult to obtain. As hasbeen noted, most state funds for basic education,vocational training, and workplace initiativesrepresent a complex web of interrelated services.None of seven key states contacted had availablecomprehensive documentation summarizing allof the relevant projects offered on a state leveland their funding patterns, much less on howlimited English proficient adults are served

within that system.

U.S. Department of Education Program: Box 2AThe Adult Education Act

AuthorizationThe Adult Education Act (AEA) (as amended by the National Literacy Act of 1991). Scheduled for reauthoriza-

tion in FY95. (P.L. 91-230). Was not reauthorized but appropriations were made at the FY95 level for FY96.

PurposeTo assist states and local districts in the provision of adult education, basic skills, and literacy services, including

ESL instruction, to educationally disadvantaged adults.'

Funding$278.9 million for FY95. $252.3 million goes to formula grants administered at the state level. The remainder go

to workplace literacy partnerships, programs for homeless adults and prisoners, the National Institute for Literacy

(NIFL), State Literacy Resource Centers and other national programs. For FY96, $259.9 million was appropriated,

$250 million for the formula grants, the remainder to NIFL and literacy programs for prisoners.

Current Program AccessPublic and private nonprofit entities are eligible to apply.

The 1991 National Adult Literacy Act formulated a new definition of literacy as "an individual's ability to read, write,and speak in English, and compute and solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job andin society, to achieve one's goals, and develop one's knowledge and potential" (Public Law 102-73, Sec. 3, NationalLiteracy Act of 1991). By including the clause "in English," the authors implied the importance of English as a secondlanguage as a key component of adult basic education.

22 29

Although the focus of this report is onemployment-related language and literacytraining rather than general ESL, it is importantto mention programs funded through theAdult Education Act, simply because, forcountless immigrants and refugees, these pro-grams offer the first opportunity for ESL andliteracy education. Basic ESL (often offered atvarious levels such as beginning, intermediateand advanced) and ESL literacy classes (forthose with no reading or writing skills in English)are often the precursors to vocational training,since students who attempt to enroll in voca-tional training or academic courses and wholack advanced ESL skills, are often sent back toAdult Education Act-sponsored programs to gainfurther language skills before being permitted tore-apply for other kinds of programs.

For many immigrants who enter jobs in theUnited States, AEA-sponsored classes representthe only language training ever received. Manylimited English proficient adults have very lim-ited access to other kinds of employment-relatedtraining, and adult basic education programscontinue to offer the lion's share of language andliteracy training available to immigrants.

The Basic State Grants, awarded to states on aformula basis, provide services primarilythrough local education agencies, communitycolleges, and, less frequently, through private,nonprofit organizations. Initially authorized in1966, the Adult Education Act was the firstmajor program to provide services to adultslacking basic education and has done much toshape the character and direction of adult edu-cation in states and localities today. Prior to1966, few states had developed adult basiceducation programs on their own. Over theyears, activities designed to encourage staff de-velopment, promote program improvement,and expand services to include various special

populations have encouraged states to augmenttheir activities. Increasingly, however, althoughfederal policy still provides much direction,federal funds have grown to represent smallerproportions of the total budgets for adult basiceducation.

In recent years, ESL has come to represent alarger and larger proportion of the total popula-tion funded by the Act. In 1980, it constituted19% of the total enrollment. By 1989, it wasup to 34% (U.S. Department of Education,1991). In 1992, the National Evaluation ofAdult Education Programs found that the fig-ure was up to 51% and was continuing togrow. Moreover, since ESL students remain inprograms longer than others, their percentageof total instructional hours was even higher(Fitzgerald, 1995).

In spite of the growth in ESL, the demand forservices continues to outstrip the availability ofclasses. In many areas students have to wait aslong as one to three years before getting aspace in a program. A study reported in theNew York Times (Sontag, 1993) found that, in1990, 17,000 immigrants were on waiting listsfor ESL classes in New York City. This numberincluded only those on lists for programs thatreceived federal funds, not those waiting forcommunity-and church-sponsored programs.In large urban areas, the demand for ESL farexceeds the demand for ABE. Administratorshave to struggle with the issue of whether tobase their service offerings on need or demand.In some states, one solution has been to splitthe enrollment 50-50 between ESL and ABE.

Once students do get into ESL classes, limitedbudgets may mean that the quality of instruc-tion will be less than optimal. While the cali-ber of programs is generally improving, manyclasses are overcrowded (with up to 40 students

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in a single class) and taught by teachers withlittle formal training. Many teachers work parttime and have limited resources to develop cur-ricula geared to the particular needs and interestsof students. Many smaller programs must copewith multilevel classes of students with ability lev-els ranging from those lacking basic literacy tothose with advanced degrees.

A study conducted by the Southport Institute forPolicy Analysis found that ESL service remains a"neglected backwater" of the educational system(Chisman, Wrigley, & Ewen, 1993, p. 1). Al-though the numbers are increasing, serving theneeds of this population is too often given onlypassing attention by policy makers. In fact,within the Adult Education Act, only one tar-geted program has ever been devoted to limitedEnglish proficient adults. In 1988, the NationalCouncil of La Raza, along with a coalition ofother national organizations, worked with a bi-partisan group of legislators to sign into law theEnglish Literacy Grants Program as amendmentsto the Adult Education Act. This program wasoriginally designed to provide grants to states for

English literacy programs, staff training, supportservices, and demonstration projects. Althoughfunds were authorized for up to $32 million ayear, the program never received more than $1million and ceased to exist by FY1993. Over theyears, funds for the project went to a highlyacclaimed national research study to identifyeffective and innovative instructional approachesin adult ESL literacy (Wrigley & Guth, 1992); to aresearch and demonstration project to exploreeffective means to help students make the transi-tion between various levels of programs; and tothe National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Edu-cation (NCLE), housed at the Center for AppliedLinguisticsthe only national organization spe-cifically devoted to providing the field with infor-mation and referral services related to adult ESLliteracy education. For the past six years, NCLEhas served as a key link between practitioners,researchers, policy makers, and government repre-sentatives; their digests, books, and issue paperson state-of-the-art topics in the field, includingmany addressing workplace literacy issues, havebeen among the few in existence specificallyfocused on adult ESL issues.

U.S. Department of Education Program: Box 2BNational Workplace Literacy Grants

AuthorizationThe Adult Education Act (as amended in 1988). This program was not scheduled to be reauthorized in 1996.

PurposeTo develop partnerships between education and business to enhance the productivity of the workforce through

the improvement of the basic skills of employed workers.

Funding:$12.7 million for FY95; $0 for FY96

Current Program AccessEducation and business partnerships apply to the Department of Education.

24

In the late 1980s, in response to increasingconcerns related to the literacy skills and pro-ductivity of this country's workforce, the U.S.Department of Education introduced a newprogram, the first in its history designed fordemonstration partnerships between businessand industry. The purpose of the NationalWorkplace Literacy Project was to provide basicskills and ESL instruction, adult secondary edu-cation, and training to upgrade workers' skillsand improve their competencies in speaking,listening, reasoning, and problem solving.Financial support was provided to workplaceliteracy demonstration projects operated bypartnerships of businesses, labor organizations,and educational organizations.

Thirty-seven projects were funded in theprogram's first year (FY1988) and 39 inFY1989. Funding more than doubled duringthe first 4 years from $9.6 million in FY1988to $19.3 million for FY1991. Funding forFY1994 was $18.9 million; competition forgrants was considerable, with over 300 appli-cants competing for 30 three-year awards. Dur-ing the life of the project, the largest numberof business partners has been from the manu-facturing sector, followed by the hospital/health care industry and the hotel/hospitalityindustry. About a quarter of the projects haveinvolved labor organizations. The majority ofeducation partners are community colleges,although local school districts, community-based organizations, and institutions of highereducation have also received many grants.

Compared to other federal programs, the Na-tional Workplace Literacy Program has a fairlystrong record relative to serving language-minority workers. During its first year, a studyconducted by Pelavin Associates found that, inthe 27 (out of 37) projects for which data wascollected, 24% of those served were Hispanic,20% were black, and 9% were of Asian descent

(Kutner et al., 1991). In 1992, the Departmentof Education estimated that 22% of the pro-grams in their first three grant cycles servedlimited English proficient students exclusively.Nearly half during 1990-1991 reported servingat least some limited English proficient work-ers, although programs do not report the ac-tual numbers of students served in variouscategories of instruction (U.S. Department ofEducation, 1992).

Although grants have been relatively small(most have averaged a yearly budget of onlyaround $275,000), National Workplace LiteracyProjects have represented a significant sourceof innovation in the area of workplace literacy.Although hard data is not available, anecdotalevidence indicates that these projects havedone much to provide incentives for generaladult educational programs to broaden anddeepen their expertise in dealing with specific,work-based literacy requirements, includingthose related to workplace ESL.

Many positive outcomes have been reportedfrom the programs, including high student re-tention rates, possibly as a result of curriculamore closely targeted to the immediate needsof learners. Challenges remain, however. Al-though plans for institutionalization and repli-cation must be built into each project,encouraging businesses and unions to con-tinue workplace literacy programs once thefederal grant money has ended remains a diffi-culty. Programs continue to struggle with howto demonstrate improved employee perfor-mance to businesses, thus creating stronger in-centives for businesses to fund projects. Afederally funded evaluation of the 3-yearprojects includes case studies of five projects,four of which have ESL instruction. This evalu-ation, when published, should provide someinsight into these issues.

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U.S. Department of Education Program: Box 2CThe Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act

AuthorizationThe Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984, reauthorized as the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Ap-

plied Technology Act in 1990. The act was not reauthorized, but appropriations were made in FY95 and FY96.

PurposeTo prepare adults and youth for employment through vocational/technical (occupation specific) instruction

with basic academic instruction.

Funding$956 million, FY95, Basic Grants to States and $0, FY95, to the Community-Based Program. Both are adminis-

tered by the states. In FY96, $972.5 million was allocated in the Basic Grants to States, and in FY97, the

amount allocated was slightly more than $1 billion.

Current Program AccessState and local public education agencies, including institutions of higher education and community-based or-

ganizations.

For most of this century, various vocational edu-cation acts have been written into law to assiststates in maintaining, extending, and improvingvocational education to high school studentsand adults. It was not until 1976, when amend-ments to the Vocational Education Act of 1963were passed, that serious attention was given toguarding against sex bias and discrimination.This was landmark legislation for the limitedEnglish proficient in that, for the first time, therestrictions on their ability to profit from voca-tional education resulting from their limited En-glish speaking ability were recognized and theirimpact on their employment opportunities ac-knowledged. (See Bradley & Friedenberg, 1988;Friedenberg, 1993; and Friedenberg & Bradley,1984 for a complete discussion of this issue.)This legislation followed a decade in which theneeds and interests of language minorities werereceiving increased attention. Title VI of the1964 Civil Rights Act prohibited exclusion fromprograms and denial of benefits to any personon the basis of race, color, or national origin. In

1970, the Office of Civil Rights found thatwhere inability to speak and understand the En-glish language excludes national origin minoritygroup children from effective participation inthe educational programs offered by a schooldistrict, the district must take affirmative stepsto rectify the language deficiency in order toopen its instructional program to these stu-dents. These same principles, it was found,apply to vocational education students, whocannot be denied vocational education solelyon the basis of limited English skills. The Bilin-gual Education Act, passed in 1968, continuedthis trend by mandating equal educational op-portunity for limited English proficient children(as well as those in accredited trade, vocational,and technical schools). In 1974, the Lau v.Nichols Supreme Court decision further enforcedthe necessity of providing special programs forstudents who do not understand English.

In the 1976 legislation, specific funds were des-ignated for a new kind of program called Bilin-

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gual Vocational Training and for supplementsto this program to provide for instructor train-ing and the development of special methods,materials, and techniques. Although the provi-sion of this program represented a significantstep forward, overall funding was relativelysmall ($2 million in FY1993). Of key impor-tance remained the integration of limited En-glish proficient persons into the regularvocational education programs. In that area,numbers remained small. Lopez-Valadez (1989)reports that, according to the Office of Voca-tional and Adult Education, only 1% of all voca-tional enrollments were limited English proficientstudents in 1981. By 1984, a Vocational Educa-tion Civil Rights Survey found the numbers tobe up to 1.3% of total vocational enrollments.That represented 131,101 limited English profi-cient students out of a total enrollment of9,237,701. Although small gains were beingmade, the limited English proficient populationwas still seriously underrepresented, particularlyat area vocational centers (Lopez-Valadez, 1989).Unfortunately, the Vocational Education DataSystem (VEDS), a systematic process that al-lowed for the collection of enrollment datafrom states, was suspended in 1983. Thus, fig-ures that would enable the field to evaluatehow many limited English proficient adultshave had access to appropriate vocational edu-cation services are no longer available(Friedenberg, 1993).

The next major legislation, the Carl PerkinsVocational Education Act of 1984, also statedthat limited English proficient persons were tobe actively sought and given the opportunityto enroll in any occupational area and type ofvocational program, including occupation-specific courses, cooperative education, andapprenticeship training. Programs were to informlimited English proficient students and theirparents about vocational opportunities andeligibility requirements and provide them

with appropriate counseling, assessment, andspecial services to ensure their participation.Guidelines for vocational programs issued bythe Office of Civil Rights reiterated that limitedEnglish proficient students could not be de-nied admission solely on the basis of limitedEnglish skills. Although no numeric surveyswere conducted, during the eighties, severalcase studies examining the impact of the voca-tional mandates on services to limited. Englishproficient persons were undertaken. Each studyfound that, for the most part, programs werenot actively recruiting limited English profi-cient adults, and most programs continued touse the results of standardized tests to screenout limited English proficient students ratherthan provide remediation for them. The detailsof these studies will be examined in muchmore detail in the next chapter.

Such findings led some advocates to recom-mend separate set-asides (Fleischman &

Willette, 1988) for limited English proficientstudents in upcoming legislation; however, thisrecommendation was never translated intopolicy. In fact, although the Carl D. PerkinsVocational and Applied Technology EducationAct of 1990 targeted funds to sites with highconcentrations of special populations (whichincludes all those who are economically disad-vantaged, are physically challenged, or havelimited English proficiency), it relaxed the re-quirements for assessment, guidance, counsel-ing, and transition for special needs studentsand altered language in the act that protectedthe civil rights of special needs students.

No one knows for sure how many limited En-glish proficient adults (or youth) receive services(Boesel & McFarland, 1994). In 1993, whenJoan Friedenberg, a vocational ESL specialist,was asked by the National Assessment of Voca-tional Education (NAVE) to review existing lit-erature in the field, she found that even though

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the numbers of limited English proficient youthand adults have increased in recent years, fund-ing has been reduced, and enforcement of regu-lations to protect them has been loosened.According to Friedenberg (1993, p. 73),

Despite the lack of reliable data, it is evi-dent from the literature that the stated anddocumented policies of most postsecondaryvocational education programs require certainlevels of English proficiency before a studentcan enroll in a vocational program deny ordelay access based on limited English profi-ciency, a direct violation of civil rights regula-tions. This seeming lack of concern for theseviolations in the literature was surprising.

Although the facts seem grim, the potential fordeveloping high quality programs does exist.Models for program designs that are effective inmeeting the needs of limited English proficient

students can be found within many BilingualVocational Training Programs and other innova-tive programs around the country, some ofwhich will be detailed in Chapter 5.

In the 1976 Vocational Education Act, Congressfirst authorized the national Bilingual VocationalTraining (BVT) program as a key component ofits new effort to determine what effective and ac-cessible programs for limited English proficientadults and out-of-school youth should be like.Programs may be designed as either job prepara-tion for the unemployed or as job skill enhance-ment for working adults, although the former ismore common. Three areas of emphasis werespecified: 1) the funding of local programs (con-sisting of at least 75% of all funds); 2) the train-ing of instructors, called Bilingual VocationalInstructor Training (BVIT); and 3) special grantsfor materials development, research, dissemina-tion of promising practices through training and

U.S. Department of Education Program: Box 2DThe Bilingual Vocational Training Program

AuthorizationThe Vocational Amendments of 1976, reauthorized in the Carl D. Perkins Vocational Acts of 1984 and 1990.

This program was not scheduled to be reauthorized in FY95 and was zeroed out.

Purpose

To support programs in the provision of occupational skills instruction and job-related English-as-a-second-

language instruction to limited-English-speaking adults and out-of-school youth. Bilingual Vocational Instructor

Training (BVIT) and Bilingual Vocational Materials, Methods, and Techniques (BVMMT) are related programs

authorized at the same time.

Funding$2.9 million in FY94 for the Bilingual Vocational Training Program. $0 in FY95, FY96, and FY97.

Current Program AccessLocal education agencies, state agencies, postsecondary educational institutions, private vocational training or-

ganizations, and nonprofit organizations are eligible to respond to federal requests for proposals. In 1994, ap-

proximately 1,600 to 2,000 adults were served.

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technical assistance, and experimental projects,termed Bilingual Vocational Materials, Methods,and Techniques Program (BVMMT). Since 1976,approximately 10 BVT programs have beenfunded each year (generally with each receivingbetween 150 and 250 thousand dollars per year).In 1994, approximately 1,600 to 2,000 adultswere served by the program. BVIT programshave received about 300 to 500 thousand dollarsper year and the special grants for materials de-velopment, research, and dissemination of prom-ising practices have received about 300 to 400thousand dollars per year. After nearly twodecades, however, and despite many successesassociated with the project, in 1995 this pro-gram was discontinued as part of the generaleffort toward consolidation.

In the late seventies and early eighties, a num-ber of significant research and development ac-tivities took place as part of the establishmentof this program, including the further definitionof the emerging field of vocational English as asecond language (commonly referred to as

VESL) and the establishment of what came tobe known as the "BVT Model" (Friedenberg &Bradley, 1984). Within this model, both Englishand the native language are used to allow voca-tional training to begin immediately. Gradually,the use of the native language decreases whilethe use of English increases. Job-specific lan-guage instruction (VESL) is offered concurrentlywith vocational training. Most often, two pri-mary lead teachers are involved: a vocationalinstructor and a VESL teacher. Vocational in-structors may be bilingual or employ bilingualteachers aides, use peer teachers, or use othermethods to make instruction comprehensible tostudents. Teachers in both components ideallycoordinate closely with one another to makesure that the language curriculum is geared tothe communication needs of a particular occu-pational skill and that the students are under-

standing the job skills content taught in the vo-cational classes. Attention is also given tocross-cultural issues students will face in theclassroom and the workplace. Several othersupport components are also advocated by theprogram, including intake and assessment pro-cedures that are both appropriate and diagnos-tic rather than exclusionary; recruitment,counseling and support services; and job devel-opment and placement geared to the specialneeds of limited English proficient individuals(Friedenberg, 1987).

Many of those who have conducted case studiesof vocational education programs serving limitedEnglish proficient adults have found the BVTmodel to be very effective for teaching jobskills and English language skills simulta-neously (Cichon, Grover, & Thomas, 1990).More recent research related to learning languagein the content area reinforces the notion that us-ing language to complete authentic tasks (ratherthan simply as an end in itself) enhances the lan-guage learning process. Unfortunately, however, aswill be discussed in the next chapter, existing re-search has been descriptive in nature. No ex-amples of systematic inquiry that mightdemonstrate the effectiveness of this strategy forlanguage learning, how it impacts the acquisitionof specific vocational skills, or the extent to whichsuch a process leads to successful, long-term em-ployment have been found. Nor was data uncov-ered concerning how many BVT programs havebeen continued once their federal funding ranout. Nevertheless, even with its limited fundingand scope, the BVT program has contributedmuch to the field. Many of the innovativeprojects mentioned in Chapter 4 are the result ofprojects funded under this grant program.

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U.S. Department of Labor Program: Box 2EThe Job Training Partnership Act

AuthorizationJob Training Partnership Act, as amended by Job Training Reform Amendments of 1992.

PurposeTo prepare youth and adults facing serious barriers to employment for participation in the labor force by pro-

viding job training and other services that will result in increased employment and earnings, increased educa-

tional and occupational skills, and decreased welfare dependency, thereby improving the quality of the

workforce and enhancing the productivity and competitiveness of the nation.

FundingFor projects related to adults: $996 million for FY95 for Title IIA, $850 million for FY96, and $850 million for FY97.

Current Program AccessTitle II is a state formula grant program in which 77% of state funds are distributed to the local service delivery

areas (SDAs) within each state and 23% is held at the state level for incentives, educational coordination, and

capacity building. Programs operate at the local level through the SDAs and private industry councils (PICs). Lo-

cal programs usually contract with other local providers to deliver the required services.

The Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) is thelargest of all federal job training program sys-tems. Funding for all programs totals approxi-mately $4 billion. Many programs exist withinJTPA. Title II programs serve economically dis-advantaged adults and youth (with Title IIAbeing the largest program serving adults).Older and dislocated workers are served byTitle III. Title IV serves migrant and seasonalfarmworkers, programs for Native Americansand others who face significant employmentbarriers as well as the Job Corps for at-riskyouth (Morse, 1994). Services within JTPA in-clude basic skills education (including Englishas a second language); on-the-job-training, as-sessment, and counseling; education-to-worktransition activities; bilingual training; and cus-tomized training. Training-related and supportservices include job search assistance, outreach,and services to enable participation in the pro-

gram, such as child care. In 1991, about704,000 adults were served through Title IIA(Chisman, Wrigley, & Ewen, 1993).

As was the case with the Perkins Act, the firstmajor federal effort toward job training for thedisadvantaged began in the early 1960s withthe Manpower Development and Training Act.In 1973, Congress expanded and consolidatedemployment training efforts with the Compre-hensive Employment and Training Act (CETA),which at its peak in 1979 was funded at $10.3billion. In 1982, CETA was replaced by JTPA.Funding was significantly reduced, and thepublic service "jobs" programs were elimi-nated. There was a new focus on jobs in theprivate sector and decision making was del-egated to the states and channeled through localPrivate Industry Councils (PICs). The new J IPAcontracts were "performance-based," providing

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for scaled levels of payment on the contractbased on the completion of such outcomes asparticipant intake, retention in the trainingprogram, successful completion, and job place-ment. Serious concerns have surfaced over therole of this performance-based system in en-couraging programs to neglect the hardest toserve clients. As a result, the most recent 1992amendments designated target groups withbarriers to employment. At least 65% of thoseserved must fall in one or more of the listedtarget groups (including those deficient in ba-sic skills such as English reading or computingskills at or below the eighth-grade level)

(Morse, 1994). In addition, in 1992 legislation,there is an 8% set-aside for state educationalcoordination and service grants, one of whoseallowable activities is the provision of literacyservices. Programs are increasingly beginningto use these funds to establish linkages withother federal programs such as Perkins, JOBS,food stamps, and Head Start, and with localeducation agencies.

Since many limited English proficient adultsfall under the JTPA definition of "economicallydisadvantaged," it might be expected that JTPAwould be a major source of language and em-ployment training for immigrants and refu-gees. Indications are, however, that it is not.The Southport Institute cites U.S. Departmentof Labor estimates of 1991 showing that ap-proximately 17,000 limited English proficientadults were served under Title IIA. This, theypoint out, is only about 2.4% of the adultsserved and is disproportionately low given thesize of the limited English proficient popula-tion in the United States. Moreover, usingJTPA's definition of "economically disadvan-taged," they estimate that limited English profi-cient individuals should constitute 16 to 21% ofthe population eligible for JTPA service

(Chisman, Wrigley, & Ewen, 1993). A few years

earlier, a study by the National Council of LaRaza uncovered similar findings. Hispanics andother limited English proficient groups, theydiscovered, comprised fewer than 5% of JTPAadult and youth enrollments and 3% of thosewho complete training (Romero & Gonzales,1989). (Equally troubling was the fact thatamong these 5%, few were young high schooldropouts with limited English proficiency, agroup likely to face severe employment barriers.)

Why are limited English proficient adults sounderserved? According to a 1991 report bythe Government Accounting Office, severalfactors account for disparities in services pro-vided to minorities (Morse, 1994). By far themost important has to do with the perfor-mance standards system at the core of the pro-gram. Localities funded as service deliveryareas (SDAs) are assigned performance stan-dards that prescribe expected levels of perfor-mance. SDAs are required to place certainproportions of their trainees into jobs withinspecified costs and wage ranges, although theseproportions vary according to policies set bythe state governments. Performance standardsinclude such factors as the proportion of pro-gram participants entering employment, wageat placement, and the average program costper participant. Program contractors, such ascommunity-based organizations and schools,are paid a flat sum for achieving certain "posi-tive" termination goals. Because hard-to-serveclients are more expensive to serve and moredifficult to place in jobs, contractors have astrong incentive for screening applicants in orderto serve those who have the most skills, havethe most education, and can be trained mostquickly and at the least cost. In most states,SDA administrators have established formalstandards that most limited English proficientadults cannot meet, such as that only peoplewho can pass a standardized test in English

3831

reading at the sixth- to ninth-grade level (depend-ing on the SDA) will be admitted into the pro-gram. JTPA has been heavily criticized for

"creaming." Critics claim that the program oftenplays the role of a job screening service by prepar-ing the most desirable employees to fill entry-leveljobs in the private sector instead of serving as aprogram for the disadvantaged.

Even when hard-to-serve clients are acceptedinto the program, the services they receivemay not be enough to prepare them to findgood jobs. Most JTPA programs provide only afew months to a year of training. Even if train-ing for limited English proficient adults doesinclude ESL instruction, quite often this is notenough to bring their language skills up to thenecessary levels. Moreover, as compared towhites, minorities are more often placeddirectly into job placement programs ratherthan training programs. A study by Abt Associ-ates of the impact of Title IIA on earnings andemployment found that although JTPA hadpositive effects on earnings and employment ofadults in general, it did not appear to benefitHispanics; their post-training earnings werelower regardless of age or gender (Bloom, Orr,Cave, Bell, & Doolittle, 1992).

Some private industry councils are beginningto recognize this problem and to work withcontractors such as community-based organiza-tions to find ways to integrate language andjob training. In addition, various componentsof the 1992 amendments were designed to tar-get hard-to-serve populations better (such asmaking bilingual training an allowable activ-ity). Statistics that might show the impact ofthese changes on current limited English profi-cient enrollment rates, however, are not avail-able. Data on JTPA are more frequently availableat the state and local level rather than the federal

level; specific expenditures for literacy educa-tion (which would include the extent to whichjob-related vocational English as a second lan-guage is offered) are not available for JTPA.

In an extensive literature search and phonesurvey of major advocacy groups serving lin-guistic minority adults, the Center for AppliedLinguistics (CAL) was able to uncover no re-cent studies of JTPA's record serving limitedEnglish proficient adults in the 1990s. The1989 study, Falling Through the Cracks: HispanicUnderrepresentation in the Job Training Partner-ship Act, commissioned by the National Coun-cil of La Raza (Romero & Gonzales, 1989)appears to be the only such document in exist-ence. It calls for closer ties with community-based organizations, a higher cap on supportiveservices such as transportation and child care,longer training periods for limited English profi-cient adults, the integration of vocationalEnglish as a second language and vocationalskills training, the selective use of bilingual vo-cational instruction, and better data collectionand dissemination processes.

In addition to Title IIA, one JTPA program ofparticular interest is the Migrant and SeasonalFarmworker Program, under Title IV. This pro-gram provides job training; work experience;job search assistance; literacy, basic skills, andEnglish-as-a-second-language instruction; andrelated supportive services to assist migrant andseasonal farmworkers who are chronically un-employed or underemployed to seek alternativejob opportunities that will enable them to ob-tain stable, year-round employment. This pro-gram, which has been in operation since the1960s, is currently funded for FY1995 at $85million. Ninety-four percent of the funds are al-located to states on a formula basis. States typi-cally contract with public agencies or private

3932

nonprofit organizations to provide educationand training services. Approximately 40,000adults are served each year by the program.According to JTPA officials, about a third of

these are limited English proficient. Onceagain, very little data concerning the kinds ofservices offered are collected at the nationallevel.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Program: Box 2FThe Job Opportunities and Basic Skills (JOBS) Program

AuthorizationThe Family Support Act of 1988

Purpose

To help eligible Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) recipients (primarily women) to obtain the

education, training, and assistance needed to secure employment that will help them avoid long-term welfare

dependency and achieve self-sufficiency.

Funding$970 million for FY95 (capped entitlement) and $1 billion for FY96 and FY97. This is a state formula grant pro-

gram with a significant state-matching requirement.

Current Program AccessState welfare agencies are charged with administering the program. State and local adult education programs

can contract with the state or local welfare agencies to provide education service.

In August of 1996, President Clinton signedwelfare reform legislation into law that, whilenot ending the JOBS program immediately,sets in motion a mechanism for phasing outfederally funded basic adult and ESL instruc-tional programs to be replaced by individualstate programs. Recipients have a five-year life-time limit on benefits, and legal immigrantswill not be eligible to receive benefits the firstfive years they are in the country. Adults re-ceiving welfare have no more than two yearsto find work or engage in work activities.These work activities may include job trainingor vocational education, but all literacy in-struction must be directly linked to job tasks.

There is also a one-year cap on the length oftime welfare recipients can spend in vocationalprograms (Business Publishers, August 15,

1996; September 26, 1996; October 10, 1996).Clearly, this new welfare bill will have a strongimpact on second language learners.

Until recently, major legislation funding welfare-related education has been the Job Opportunitiesand Basic Skills Training (JOBS) Program of theFamily Support Act of 1988. The program targetsAid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)recipients (most often single mothers). They areprovided with some combination of education,work experience, job training, and job search

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services in an effort to assist them to find andkeep a job. Provisions for paid child care andtransportation reimbursements are also part ofthe program. States are given wide discretionin the implementation of their JOBS programs,although, as state resources have become morelimited, states have faced hard choices with re-spect to whom to serve, the kinds and se-quences of services, and on which groups toconcentrate funds. In FY1992, states spentonly about two thirds of the $1 billion appro-priation. Tight budgets precluded many statesfrom finding the required matching funds. Insome states, requirements are met through vol-untary participation. Others, however, man-date participation, cutting clients' monthlyAFDC allotments if they fail to participate.States also vary in the extent to which theyemphasize and invest in basic education andjob training or focus on unpaid work experi-ence and job search processes.

As was the case with J IPA, it is difficult to ascer-tain the extent to which JOBS programs serveimmigrant and refugee adults. Although a majorstudy of the JOBS program was commissioned,data concerning the participation of linguistic mi-norities, particularly services to those who are lim-ited English proficient, was not collected

(Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation,1991). A study by the National Council of LaRaza, Latinos and JOBS: A Review of Ten States and

Puerto Rico, however, found that Latinos as agroup are underrepresented by JOBS (Rodriguez &

Martinez, 1995). (They constitute 17.8% of na-tionwide AFDC cases, but only 12.8% of nation-wide average monthly JOBS participants.) This istrue, La Raza found, in seven of the ten stateswith the largest Latino populations.

Again, as with J IPA, there are external pressureson agencies to produce quick results, leading tothe choice of participants based on their probabil-ity of successful placement rather than their de-

gree of need. JOBS officials report that theyunderserve AFDC recipients with limited Englishproficient abilities, either by not admitting themto the JOBS programs or by placing them in jobsearch and placement activities rather than educa-tion programs. The National Council of State Leg-islatures found that when limited English

proficient adults do receive education, it is oftenin the form of general English-as-a-second-lan-guage classes alone (Morse, 1994). Money to allowcontractors to integrate skills and training instruc-tion with language education is often not avail-able. Some clients are placed in work experienceprograms that provide them with little opportu-nity to develop their language fluency in Englishor learn new job skills (Gillespie, 1992). As withthe JTPA- and Perkins-funded programs, limitedEnglish proficient clients who would like to enrollin occupational skills programs are often deniedaccess due to an inability to pass the placementtests. Since JOBS only provides for ESL classes of a

short duration, for most, the chances of attainingthe language skills that might allow them to entervocational training are also out of reach. As a re-sult, many JOBS clients often continue to lack theskills that would allow them to get a job thatmight yield a living wage for their families.

In a review of welfare-to-work programs duringthe 1980s, the Manpower Demonstration Re-search Corporation (1991) found that participa-tion in programs they studied led toimprovements in earnings and/or employmentgains. Employment and earnings impacts werenot found, however, when resources per eligibleindividual were too low to provide employment-directed assistance, or when programs were oper-ated in rural areas with very weak labor markets.Thus, states face a tough dilemma: to provide low-cost services that may reach greater numbers ofpeople but achieve less long-term impact or toprovide integrated educational programs thatserve fewer clients but permanently reduce theirlong-term welfare dependency.

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U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Program: Box 2GThe Refugee and Entrant Assistance Program

AuthorizationThe Refugee Act of 1980, through the Office of Refugee Resettlement.

Purpose

This program provides direct payments to states for supporting medical assistance, social services, and targeted

assistance for eligible refugees and Cuban and Haitian entrants. Mainstream English Language Training (MELT)

projects funded by the program have supported testing and refinement of assessment instruments, curriculum

development, training and technical assistance, and instruction in English.

Funding$389.2 million in FY94

Current Program AccessResettlement agencies designated by the states.

The Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR),under the U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services, administers the primary U.S.domestic refugee resettlement program throughthe Refugee Act of 1980. In their Report to Con-gress (1993), the Office of Refugee Resettlementestimated that in FY1993, 119,100 refugeesand Amerasian immigrants were admitted tothe United States. (About 43% of these camefrom Eastern Europe and the former SovietUnion, and another 42% came from SoutheastAsia.) During FY1993, a total of $381.5 millionwas appropriated for the costs of assisting refu-gees and Cuban and Haitian entrants. Of this,states received about $214 million to providecash and medical assistance, primarily to refugeesduring the first eight months of their arrival.Other funds went to programs to provide healthscreening and services, social services, and educa-tional programs. Education and training pro-grams are allowable activities under severalspecial programs, demonstration projects, anddiscretionary grants, although data does notappear to be kept on how much of the funding

in each category is actually spent for educationand training.

Of all immigrant groups, refugees have the high-est unemployment rate and dependence on pub-lic assistance. This is perhaps not surprising giventhe traumatic conditions of their escape fromwar-tom countries and often long stays in coun-tries of first asylum. The Refugee Act of 1980assumed the need to provide extensive initialresettlement support to those newcomers specifi-cally invited to the United States as a humanitariangesture. As Figure 2-4 shows, during the early eight-

ies, states were provided with federal categorical aid

for up to 36 months for each refugee and cash andmedical assistance for 18 months. During the lateeighties and early nineties, however, the length oftime refugees could receive federal aid and theamount of aid dropped dramatically. This was notdue to reduced numbers of arrivals. While thenumbers of refugees have increased, theamount of overall funding to attend to theirdomestic resettlement needs has significantlydecreased (Figure 2-5)6.

6 Zimmerman (1994) estimates that federal cash and medical assistance funding per refugee fell by 74% between 1984 and1992, and social service spending fell by 60 percent (after accounting for inflation) (Morse, 1994, p. 76).

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Months of Reimbursement

36 36 36 36 36

31 31

24 24

18 18 18 18 18 18 18

12 12

i I I I I i I 1 I

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1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

Categorical Aid

Figure 2-4 Federal Refugee Assistance: Reimbursement to the States: 1981 to 1991Reprinted with permission from Morse, A. (Ed.). (1994). America's Newcomers: An Immigrant Policy Handbook, p 4. Washington, DC: National Conference of

State Legislatures.

For many refugees, the short duration (oftenless than 8 months) of ESL and cultural orien-tation programs received in the refugee campsis not sufficient to prepare them for work inthe United States. A study by the Urban Insti-tute and the American Public Welfare Associa-tion found that, as funding was reducedduring the eighties, some states had to foregooffering language and job training in order topay for job placement services. The survey re-vealed that, of all social services, states weremost likely to reduce English language train-ing. Eighteen out of 40 states reported eitherreducing the number of sites or hours of lan-guage training, reducing the duration of ser-vices, or eliminating language instructionaltogether (Zimmerman, 1994, p. 77). Theseorganizations question the long-term wisdomof this approach, however, since their studieshave found reducing language services can

have a significant effect on earnings and em-ployment. People in entry-level jobs (the onlyones likely to be available to those with verylimited language skills) are subject to frequentlayoffs, and only those in multiple-incomehouseholds with combined incomes earnenough to be self-sufficient. Refugees with vo-cational training are more likely to be em-ployed and to have more stable jobs withhigher pay (Zimmerman, 1994).

Recently the Office of Refugee Resettlementhas tried to respond to the need for educationby channeling the special projects and discre-tionary funds they do have toward educationand job training. The Social Services Programs,with about $65 million in FY1993, distributefunds to the states in formula grants for abroad range of services. Once a state's refugee

4336

Millions

$600

$500

$400

$300

$200

$100

$01981

Arrivals

160,000

140,000

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100,000

80,000

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40,000

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1982 19 3 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993Cash, Med'cal & Social 1 Cash Medica & Social Refugee ArrivalsAssistance (Current Dollars) Assistance (1982 Dollars)

0

Figure 2-5 Refugee Resettlement Funds vs. Refugee ArrivalsReprinted with permission from Morse, A. (Ed.). (1994). America's Newcomers: An Immigrant Policy Handbook, p 4. Washington, DC: National Conference ofState Legislatures.

welfare utilization is 55% or more, however,85% of those social service funds must be usedfor English language training, vocational train-ing, employment counseling, and job place-ment. "High impact" areas (counties with largerefugee or entrant populations, a high propor-tion of refugees or entrants to the overallpopulation, and high public assistance use) canalso draw from the $44 million (FY1993). TheTargeted Assistance Program is designed to de-velop programs that get refugees into jobsquickly, usually within one year. Eighty-fivepercent of these funds must be used for em-ployment-related services. The problem of per-sistent welfare dependency is also the impetusfor a series of National Discretionary Projects,funded at $11.9 million. Activities in variousstates include projects to link refugees with localjobs, to provide opportunities for unemployed

A.

refugees to relocate to communities with favorableemployment prospects, and to promote smallbusinesses and self-employment among refu-gees. Finally, the Wilson/Fish DemonstrationProjects ($5.9 million) allow a few projects thechance to experiment with alternative ap-proaches, such as front-loading assistance byproviding a more intensive, integrated lan-guage training, pre-employment, job place-ment, and case management program torefugees during the first few months after ar-rival to judge long-term impact on increasedself-sufficiency (Office of Refugee Resettlement,1993). The fact remains that, without sufficientfederal funds, increasing numbers of refugeesfind themselves competing with other immi-grants for the existing slots in adult educationprograms or, if they qualify for welfare, inJOBS programs. Once again, the burden is oftenshifted to the state and local levels.

4437

Other Federally Funded ProgramsMany other federal agencies provide adult educa-tion services on a more limited scale. Here arejust a few examples: The Department of Defense,the Air Force, Marine Corps, Navy, and Army allprovide some kinds of educational services toimprove the work performance of their mem-bers, including English as a second language, al-though they vary greatly in scope and size. Byfar the largest program is offered by the U.S.Army Basic Skills Education Program. The Armyprovides an English Comprehension Level Testand offers instruction to soldiers who score belowa designated level on the test. Within the U.S.Department of Agriculture, a program exists toprovide education and training to recipients offood stamps, thereby improving their employ-ability, although in many states the extent of ac-tual services, including ESL services, is unclear.Community Development Block Grants underthe U.S. Depattment of Housing and Urban De-velopment also allow for basic education servicesas part of their community development activi-ties, but since budgets for these activities are notcalculated separately, it is difficult to ascertainthe extent to which ESL and training servicesmight be provided (Alamprese & Sivilli, 1992).

Colleges and Community CollegesAcross the United States, universities and com-munity colleges offer a variety of programs andservices to limited English proficient adults.Many programs simply offer non-credit ESLprior to enrollment in community collegeclasses. Others provide non-credit, short-termjob training programs along with ESL or voca-tional ESL. Credit courses in ESL are availableand, in some locations, vocational ESL and/orbilingual support during a student's enrollmentin a certificate or degree program. (Variousmodels for vocational and language trainingwill be detailed in Chapter 4.) One or twolarger community colleges, such as Hostos inthe Bronx, even offer comprehensive voca-

tional ESL master plans for the college as awhole. In addition, some community collegesare also developing and marketing to private in-dustry customized workforce training programs(offered either at the college or at the worksite),many of which are geared toward limited En-glish proficient employees or toward addressingcross-cultural issues in the workplace.

A survey of major national organizations repre-senting universities and community collegesdid not uncover statistics regarding the extentof limited English proficient student participa-tion in these kinds of programs. It does appear,however, that community colleges take thelead in delivering vocationally related servicesto limited English proficient immigrant adultsas compared to universities. Their involvementin this area is growing. A recent study by theAmerican Association of Community Colleges(Thomas, Bird, & Grover, 1992b) has providedthe field with a comprehensive picture of therole community colleges are taking in servingvocational ESL students. The study targetedprograms and services to limited English profi-cient students in 15 states. In those 15 states,the authors contacted about 100 communitycolleges that offered some kind of English lan-guage instruction for second language speakers.About half of these colleges had some kind ofspecial programs and services for limited En-glish proficient vocational students.

Funding for the programs, they found, comesfrom a variety of sources. The largest of thesesources include state and local appropriationsfor colleges and community colleges, tuitionand fees paid by students, Pell Grants, andother forms of financial assistance. In addition,some programs have sought additional sourcesof funding from federal and state grants (suchas Perkins or JTPA grants, Bilingual VocationalTraining Program funds, and others). Thestudy found that many programs and services

38

for limited English proficient students beganwith external funding and were separate frommainstream college structures. Over time, anumber of these programs, or adapted forms ofthem, were integrated into the college. In gen-eral, they observed that the more institutional-ized a program or service became, the betterthe chances for long-term stability. Many ad-ministrators acknowledged long waiting listsfor their ESL-related programs and stated theywould like to provide more services. They echothe funding concerns heard throughout thisreport: They are often at capacity for acceptingstudents, face hiring freezes, or are restrictedfrom developing new program initiatives.Many rely on cost-saving measures such as em-ploying part-time faculty and increasing classsizes to meet the need.

Since many limited English proficient adultsare from low-income families, the availabilityof financial aid is often a determining factor inparticipation in vocational programs. Yet,

winding one's way through the applicationprocedures can be daunting for individuals unfa-miliar with the process. Several institutions pro-vide translations of forms and policy statementsas well as bilingual support to guide studentsthrough the process. Of key importance, manyhave found, is helping students to become awareof financial aid deadlines so that they do not ap-ply too late in the funding cycle to be consideredfor a program. Another obstacle to obtainingfinancial aid is what is referred to as ability to ben-

efit testing. In order to qualify for financial aid,students must be able to show they have suffi-cient prior education (such as a high schooldiploma or GED) or they must pass some form ofstandardized test, in most cases offered only inEnglish.

A number of community colleges have taken thelead in exploring other options to prove astudent's ability to benefit. Based on in-depth

studies of nine community colleges, the study byThomas, Bird and Grover (1992b) found that, al-though a wide variety of models and approachescould be effective; a major academic need at allsites was for ESL specifically linked to the voca-tional program, whether it was offered before thevocational program, concurrently with the pro-gram, or made available through VESL supportcenters. A wide variety of ESL components arebeing explored, including concurrent VESL, pre-employment VESL, VESL with on-the-job train-ing, and "bridge" courses to introduce the fieldwhile working on vocation-specific language andrelated academic skills. Another special challengefaced by many community colleges has to dowith serving students who have had some edu-cation in this country but have either droppedout of school or in other ways not met withmuch success. Many come to college with a poorself-image and need to build self-esteem in orderto become motivated academically. Many alsolack the kinds of family supports that might fa-cilitate their getting an education. Programs serv-ing large numbers of these students stress theimportance of support services such as bilingualcounseling, language tutoring, learning labs, and,in some programs, a case-management approach.

Unfortunately, there exists little comprehensiveinformation about higher education programsspecifically directed toward allowing those immi-grants who come into the country with advanceddegrees to become certified to practice their pro-fession here. Clearly such programs exist. Florida,for example, allows foreign doctors to becomephysician's assistants through a process ofattending one year of education at the Universityof Miami and participating in one year of super-vised practice by a Florida doctor. Brown Uni-versity has a one-to-one program for engineersthat uses technology-specific English trainingand includes preparation for certification. Due toperiodic critical shortages of personnel in medicallyrelated fields, a number of institutions provide

46 39

training to prepare foreign nurses and othermedical personnel for certification. The lack ofcollected information and studies about thesekinds of programs is both surprising and dis-turbing, given the nation's future needs forworkers with advanced training.

Privately Funded ProgramsWhat is the investment of business and indus-try in language training and workplace educa-tion for immigrant adults? No one knows forsure. In recent years, studies of adult educationhave lamented the relatively small proportionsof training dollars that go to training entry-level workers.

The Office of Technology Assessment's majorstudy Worker Training: Competing in the New Inter-

national Economy (U.S. Congress, Office of Tech-nology Assessment, 1990) found that corporateAmerica spends between $30 and $44 billion onworker training each year. However, $27 billionof that amount is spent by just 5% of U.S. em-ployers. Only a small number spend more than2% of their payrolls on employee training pro-grams, and the vast majority spend little ornothing on formal training for their employees.The American Society for Training and Develop-ment estimates that only one in ten employeesreceives training on the job (Carnevale, 1991).Among those companies that do spend moneyon training, two thirds of the total funds aredevoted to services for college-educated employ-ees. Training for literacy and language educa-tion, it is estimated, represents only a tinyfraction of total spending. And, a survey doneby the Bureau of Labor Statistics (U.S. Depart-ment of Labor, 1994) revealed that only 3% ofthe 12,000 businesses surveyed offered trainingin basic skills or in ESL.

However, as will be discussed in Chapter 5, in-dications are that interest on the part of privatebusiness and unions in workplace education has

been growing during the 1990s as workplace lit-eracy programs for entry-level workers have be-come more sophisticated and as programs havelearned to market their services to the privatesector. (And, given the limited funds in generalfor basic skills education for adults, even a smallincrease in business and labor contributions canhave a significant impact.) In some states, suchas Illinois, state government has offered incen-tives by providing matching funds of $10,000to any business that invests in a workplace lit-eracy program. There is evidence that some ofthese programs and others, such as thosefunded through the National Workplace Lit-eracy Program, have continued operation (albeitsometimes on a reduced level) after the outsidefunding has ended. Unions have also played astrong role by negotiating for workplace educa-tion programs.

In addition, community colleges have recentlybecome more adept at marketing customizedtraining services to the private sector. A recentnational study of customized training by theLeague for Innovation in the Community Col-lege (Doucette, 1993) found that 73% of therespondents (763 of the 1,042 two-year col-leges responding) had programs in place de-signed to deliver workforce training foremployees in business, industry, labor, andgovernment. Most of these initiatives werefairly new, with the majority having come intobeing in the last five years. Such activities areexpanding the mission and focus of commu-nity colleges, but, because many programs arestill so new, relatively little is known about themix of services offered to businesses. Manyeducators speculate, however, that workplaceESL may well represent a significant part of theoverall workplace literacy effort. Employersconcerned about the basic skills of their work-ers may be more likely to identify languageproblems among front-line workers before theyare able to note more subtle difficulties with

40 47

literacy or mathematics. In addition, improvedcommunication skillsin areas such as bettercustomer satisfactionrepresent a training pri-ority for many program managers.

A recent study of 21 Illinois businesses helps toilluminate why businesses offer basic skills andESL programs for front-line workers (IllinoisLiteracy Resource Development Center, 1993).

Among the 14 companies that did offer services,they found that the major deciding factors werea drive for quality improvement, commitmenton the part of top management, or the sales effortof an educational vendor. Most of those citingquality improvement were manufacturing firmsthat found they were unable to implement newproduction techniques successfully until basicskills and communication needs of employeeswere addressed. The major deterrent to offeringprograms on the part of employers was cost,although the study found that many managerswere unaware of the actual costs and often tendedto overestimate the potential expense.

With notable exceptions, existing workplace ESLprograms have been criticized for their limitedscope and duration. Some programs are as shortas six to eight weeks. The focus of instruction isoften on narrow, very specific job-related tasks.While short-term, targeted training to meet animmediate need can be useful in many contexts,critics argue that such programs do not providesufficient language education and cultural orien-tation to the American workplace to allow work-ers to become fluent in the English language andmay neglect the long-term needs of the employeein favor of short-term requirements of employers.Interestingly, the Illinois study mentioned earlierrevealed data indicating that, as managementbecame aware of the benefits of basic skills andESL training, the level of commitment changed.They found that employers noted significantpositive impacts of training on their workforces. Rather than changes related to concrete

job tasks, however, they found gains were attitudi-nal and were reflected in increased output, im-proved quality, and better communication. Oncethey recognized changes in employee attitude andcommitment, employers not only were influ-enced to go forward with more training but alsotended to support ongoing education with moregeneral goals such as improved communication.

The Funding Outlookfor the Future

On a federal level, the state of funding for adulteducation and vocational training is in a period offlux. Although everyone agrees that current plansdo not represent "business as usual," no oneknows for sure what kinds of changes mayemerge in the coming months and years. Manyof the programs listed in this chapter may beconsolidated or eliminated. Decision makingconcerning the nature and extent of services willmove from the federal to the state and locallevels. Consolidation and coordination alone,however, cannot make up for the significantneed for services. "Nor does it answer how main-stream programs, attempting to serve a broadrange of disadvantaged people, can serve thosefunctioning at low literacy levels and/or thosewithout adequate English language skills" (Morse,1994, p. 42).

Currently, federal job training programs serve asmall percentage of the eligible populations ofimmigrants and refugees. Those few federal pro-grams specifically targeting limited Englishspeaking populations are likely to be elimi-nated. Some states and localities have developedprograms specific to the needs of immigrants;however, information about those programs isnot widely available. Private support, althoughgrowing, has been relatively limited. Although anumber of programs have picked up fundingonce training is initiated, they have often beendependent on outside support to provide the

41

48

initial impetus to begin services. Advocates fearthat, without concerted attention given to theneeds of the ESL population, the gap in serviceswill continue to grow at the very time when theneed has increased most dramatically. The poten-tial to harness the abilities of immigrant adultsto fill the growing number of jobs requiring ad-vanced skills will be wasted unless efforts arefound to train them effectively for the jobs of to-morrow.

National, state, and local leadership is needednow more than ever to determine the most

effective use for existing funds and to demonstratethe value of language and employment-relatedtraining for immigrants. The next three chapterswill focus on providing information useful forthat decision-making process by highlighting thecurrent state of research within the field (Chapter3) and approaches to serving immigrant adults invocational programs (Chapter 4) and at theworksite (Chapter 5). Although research has beenseverely limited and practitioners have facedmany constraining factors, there is much that hasbeen learned about how best to educate immi-grant adults for jobs.

42

Chapter Three

The Research Base:What Has Changed in Two Decades?

The mid-seventies represented a turning point forthe newly emerging fields of vocational andworkplace education for non-native speakersof English. The first wave of Southeast Asian refu-

gees began to arrive on U.S. shores, creating a new

stimulus to explore effective methods to teachlanguage and job-related skills to adult non-nativespeakers (Ranard & Pfleger, 1993, 1995). At thesame time, as discussed in Chapter 2, legislationbegan to recognize the needs of language mi-nority children and adults. The year 1976

brought the advent of the Bilingual VocationalTraining Program, and with it, by the earlyeighties, a series of materials that sought to definevocational English as a second language (VESL) as

an approach to language instruction and toelaborate the necessary components of an inte-grated system of services that might help adultimmigrants and refugees to succeed in voca-tional training. There was, within the literature,a sense of new beginnings and optimism. Whathas changed, from a research perspective, in thelast two decades? In two words, not enough.

Although research in other fields, such as sec-ond language acquisition and adult learningtheory, had important implications for improv-ing instruction to limited English proficientvocational students, research specifically directedtoward this population has been scant. Thatwhich does exist goes little beyond stating theneed for services. As yet, little is known from aresearch perspective about the kinds of language,skills, and cultural understandings needed on thejob, or how and under what conditions various

kinds of instruction might be most effective.This is not to say the field has not progressedsignificantly in twenty years. Funding, however,has been primarily for direct services. Whatprogress has been made in the field has comeabout as the result of the collective experiencesof practitioners who have applied research con-ducted in other fields to this context or whohave learned from direct experience.

This chapter presents an overview of the find-ings of those research and evaluation studiesthat have been conducted in the United Statesin areas relevant to VESL, vocational, andworkplace education. They fall primarily intothree categories:

1. Case studies of existing services;2. Studies of the linguistic and cultural demands

of the workplace; and3. Recent trends in second language instruction

as they apply to employment-related Englishas a second language.

Case Studies of VocationalServices for Limited EnglishProficient Adults

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, a num-ber of documents were produced that served toset the stage for vocational education for lim-ited English proficient adults. The Center forApplied Linguistics published several studieslaying out the basic principles associated withthis new instructional area. These included

5Q43

Adult Vocational ESL (Crandall, 1979), Founda-tions and Strategies for Bilingual Vocational Educa-

tion (Bradley & Friedenberg, 1982), and From theClassroom to the Workplace: Teaching English toAdults (CAL, 1983). Other groups produceddocuments during this period that laid out thecompetencies required for instructors (Kirschner& Associates, 1980) and assisted administratorsto initiate new programs (Lopez-Valadez, 1979).A discussion of some descriptive case studies follows.

An Early Look at BilingualVocational TrainingIn 1981, the Office of Bilingual and MinorityLanguage Affairs at the then National Instituteof Education asked Troike and his colleagues toconduct a case study of vocational services tolimited English proficient adults. Troike inves-tigated nine bilingual vocational training pro-grams in sites around the United States todiscover common factors and practices thatcontributed to successful outcomes. The groupexamined job placement rates as well as thequality of program planning and needs assess-ment processes, the attendance and achieve-ment levels of trainees, and the background ofthe staff. The basic finding of the study(Troike, Golub, & Lugo, 1981) supported thefact that, if properly implemented, a bilingualapproach could be a highly effective means forproviding vocational training to limited-English-speaking persons. The study laid outmany of the key components necessary foreffective prdgram development, factors still rel-evant today, including the need for sufficientup-front planning time prior to programimplementation, the importance of a needsassessment to match training areas to the localjob market, the value of trained, bilingual staff,and the importance of strong collaborationbetween the vocational and ESL instructionalcomponents. Unfortunately, although this

study laid the groundwork for further programstudies, there was very little follow-up usingthis model.

A Case Study of Non-BilingualVocational Training ProgramsDuring the eighties, some additional curricu-lum development and program planning mate-rials were published. However, it was not until1987 that another national evaluation of ser-vices to limited English proficient adult voca-tional students was undertaken. Commissionedby the National Commission for Research inVocational Education, Friedenberg's The Condi-tion of Vocational Education for Limited EnglishProficient Persons in Selected Areas of the UnitedStates (1987) examined for the first time thepractices of those vocational programs thatserved limited English proficient students (inthis case secondary and adult) but did not havefederal Bilingual Vocational Training funding.Friedenberg visited programs in California,Florida, New York, Texas, Michigan, NewMexico, and Connecticut, including two second-ary school programs, two adult programs, andone industry-based program in each state. The re-search design included classroom observationsand structured interviews with staff and students.

The results, she found, were discouraging(Friedenberg, 1987). Although there were a fewhighly successful exceptions, for the most partlimited English proficient students were notaccommodated in programs outside those spe-cifically funded by the Bilingual VocationalTraining monies. Attempts to actively recruitthese students for vocational programs werelimited. Most programs had not developed intakeprocesses that took into account the needs oflimited English proficient students. Valid in-struments to assess English language proficiencywere not used, and vocational interests, basic

44 51

skills, and literacy levels were not assessed inthe native language. Bilingual aides, who forthe most part were paid a low wage and re-ceived little or no training, were eitherunderutilized by programs, serving only to per-form such tasks as passing out paper, or theywere expected to teach and counsel teachers.One half to one third of the vocational pro-grams that served limited English proficient stu-dents provided no ESL instruction, much lessvocational ESL instruction. Of the schools thathad ESL instruction, fewer than half providedvocational ESL. Most staff had little if anytraining regarding the special needs of limitedEnglish proficient vocational students. Whenaccess and services for limited English profi-cient students did exist, Friedenberg observed, itwas because there was a clear, nonexclusionarypolicy and at least one full-time capable personto implement services for vocational ESL stu-dents. This person might be found at theschool, district, or state level.

A National SurveyAlthough this study was limited in scope, itdid alert planners to the serious problems asso-ciated with service delivery to limited Englishproficient students. During the same year,these findings were corroborated by questionsasked of the states as part of a broad nation-wide survey of vocational programs conductedby the Council of Chief State School Officers(1987). They also found the level of services tolimited English proficient students in voca-tional education to be minimal. Evidence ofinteragency collaboration to address the needsof limited English proficient students and ofin-service training for staff concerning how toensure access of limited English proficient stu-dents to vocational programs was seldom re-ported by respondents to the national survey.

Estimating the NeedsWithin a year of the publication of Friedenberg'sstudy, another series of reports for the NationalAssessment of Vocational Education (NAVE),mandated by the Carl D. Perkins Act of 1984,was released by Development Associates, aWashington, DC-based consulting firm. Thestudy's goals were 1) to ascertain the size of theadult limited English proficient population anddetermine those in need of vocational trainingand employment-related services, 2) to deter-mine the extent to which vocational trainingneeds are being met, and 3) to make recom-mendations for future federal policy concern-ing vocational services for limited Englishproficient adults. A first report, Estimates andProjections of the Limited English Proficient AdultPopulation in Need of Employment Training(Willette, Haub, & Tordella, 1988), analyzedthe 1980 U.S. census data to determine thenumber and characteristics of limited Englishproficient adults in the country and to makeprojections for the years 1990, 1995, and 2000.

The second report, Case Studies of VocationalEducation Services and Policies for Limited English

Proficient Adults (Fleischman, Willette, Hanberry,& Hopstock, 1988) looked at the way in whichPerkins Act funding was used to support voca-tional education for limited English proficientadults in Arizona, California, Florida, Illinois,New York, and Texas. The study examined state-wide policy, cooperation, and coordinationamong Perkins Act-funded projects and otheragencies. One large metropolitan area as well asone smaller city or town was selected for in-depth study in each state. The study found thatnone of the state agencies responsible for educa-tion and job-related training had singled outthe limited English proficient population as astate-wide priority over other disadvantagedgroups for the provision of vocational services.

52

EST COPY MAMA LE

45

For the most part, state agencies had left theidentification of priorities to local jurisdictionsto meet locally determined needs; the provi-sion of these services was seen as a local con-cern. Because of reporting criteria, localjurisdictions had no incentive to identify thenumber of limited English proficient adults inneed of services or those receiving services. De-cision makers, therefore, did not have accurateinformation concerning the extent of theneed. As in previous studies, these researchersfound that few vocational training programswere directed toward limited English proficientadults and that this was especially true ofJTPA-funded projects. Problems identified byother studies, such as difficulties in finding bi-lingual instructors and the lack of staff train-ing, were reiterated by this study. DevelopmentAssociates recommended to NAVE that a spe-cial funding category and monitoring require-ments were needed to target limited Englishproficient adults specifically, but, as we saw inChapter 2, this recommendation was neverimplemented into policy.

Studies of Industry-Based ServicesTwo years later, in 1990, another set of re-searchers was asked by the Office of Vocationaland Adult Education to investigate the statusof industry-based training programs for limitedEnglish proficient adults. The study producedIndustry-Based Bilingual Vocational Training: AReview of Related Literature (Cichon, Grover, &Thomas, 1990), one of the most comprehen-sive reviews of literature available to date re-lated to workplace literacy and its relationshipto training for non-native speakers of English.In a companion volume, Industry-Based Bilin-gual Vocational Training: A Directory of Industry-Based Programs for Limited English ProficientAdults, authors Thomas and Rhodes (1990) re-port on their national survey to identify anddescribe programs around the United States of-

fering various types of training programs forlimited English proficient adults. Due to thefragmented nature of the field and the lack ofcentralized information, the authors found theprocess of locating programs to be a challeng-ing one. After an exhaustive search involvingapproximately 700 phone calls and contacts,they were able to identify only 94 industry-based programs directly addressing the needsof limited English proficient adults. About 50%of those programs were in existence because of_some form of temporary special funding. Mostbusinesses had formed partnerships with somekind of educational providers, such as a com-munity college, a public school adult program,or a community-based organization. Amongthe 94 programs, only two offered any kind oftechnical skills training such as bilingual voca-tional training. Most training consisted of gen-eral or workplace-specific ESL and sometimesadult basic education and was offered to entry-level employees. The study found that themost common types of jobs held by limitedEnglish proficient employees in the surveywere (in order) factory assembly/productionworkers, housekeepers/domestics, restaurantservice workers, electronics/software workers,food/beverage/meat processor workers, mainte-nance workers, custodians, textile workers,hospital workers, drivers, and laundry workers.

Contrasting Services inTwo CommunitiesIn 1992, a case study (Ramsey & Robyn) wasundertaken that looked at just two communi-ties. Conducted under the auspices of RAND'sProgram on Research on Immigration Policyand of the National Center for Research onVocational Education, Preparing Adult Immi-grants for Work: The Educational Response in Two

Communities documents a two-year exploratorystudy of adult immigrant students' experiences

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in Miami and Los Angeles. The findings pro-vide insights into how and why educationalservices differ among schools and programsand what difference that makes to adult immi-grant students pursuing education. The reportechoes the findings of previous case studies:Most programs followed traditional models ofadding or extending ESL classes to additionalsites, and few provided vocational training inconjunction with ESL instruction.

Several aspects of the study, however, set it apartfrom previous ones. First, the contrastive ap-proach comparing two communities illustratedthe widely varied needs, funding patterns, andpolitical realities of local districts. For example, inMiami, the first fairly well-to-do wave of educatedCuban refugees established an advocacy force forthe less educated population that followed. In LosAngeles, however, at the time of the writing oftheir report, Ramsey and Robyn (1992) found im-migrant issues to be relatively invisible on educa-tional agendas and a lack of political will to movethem to the forefront. In California, although thefees for community college enrollment are low,students were expected to take lower-level coursesthrough the adult schools. Miami, on the otherhand, maintains extensive noncredit ESL andremedial programs, but charges considerablyhigher fees that necessitate financial assistanceto students. Long waiting lists existed in LosAngeles programs, while in Miami there wasmore general satisfaction with state fundingmechanisms. A second factor that set apart theRamsey and Robyn study is its inclusion of theperspectives of adult learners enrolled in pro-grams. A series of surveys and focus groupswith learners suggested a number of improve-ments. Students expressed a need for moreflexible programs to accommodate those whowere employed during the day or worked var-ied shifts. Vocational classes, they observed,

were often offered only during the daytimeand ESL classes only at night. In addition, theyrequested an integration of language and voca-tional education so they could get better jobssooner. Other concerns focused on the qualityof instruction, shortage of books and materials,and large class sizes that prohibited individu-alized attention.

Community College EffortsIn 1992, yet another study was commissionedby the U.S. Department of Education, Office ofVocational and Adult Education (OVAE), thistime to look at community college efforts to in-crease access for limited English proficient stu-dents to college vocational education programs.This project contacted over 100 community col-leges in 15 key states, about half of which havespecial programs and services for limited En-glish proficient vocational students. Nine col-leges were selected for more extensive on-sitereview and cross-site analysis. This study isunique in that, in addition to looking at the ex-tent of services to limited English proficientadults and barriers to their participation, the au-thors provide many details concerning promis-ing models and strategies employed by thecommunity colleges (Thomas, Bird, & Grover,1992a). Serving Vocational ESL Students, a hand-book for community college administrators, wasproduced as part of the study (Thomas, Bird, &Grover, 1992b). This thorough resource book in-cludes many concrete examples of how com-munity colleges have increased limited Englishproficient students' access to participation invocational education and addresses a widerange of topics including multicultural consider-ations, program design options, models fordeveloping support services, examples of collabo-ration within colleges and with external agencies,and processes for institutionalizing programs.Many details from this study will be described inChapter 4.

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The study found that, in a climate of limitedfinancial resources, most community collegesstruggle to balance the needs of the limitedEnglish proficient population with the college'soverall mission and goals. The lack of readilyavailable means to determine the demo-graphics of the local area and thus gain a clearpicture of the needs of the limited English pro-ficient population in a given locality was a keyconcern. Colleges also grappled with how tofind means to promote acceptance and supportfor linguistically diverse students on campus.Once on campus, these students, many ofwhom are the first in their families to attendcollege and are often unfamiliar with the system,need a variety of support services to succeed. The

effectiveness-of-many programs is not well docu-mented, but it needs to be if programs are to beinstitutionalized and achieve long-term success.

Studies of Collaborationfor InstructionAnother case study that merits particular atten-tion was conducted by Elizabeth Platt (1992).The purpose of her study was to describe theimpact of collaboration within schools, par-ticularly between vocational and limited En-glish proficient faculty, on instructionalservices for limited English proficient studentsin mainstream vocational classrooms. In con-ducting the research, she solicited informationfrom vocational programs in three secondaryand three postsecondary sites around theUnited States. The methodology involved con-ducting week-long visits to the six sites whereinterviews, classroom observations, anddebriefings of teachers and students based onthe videotaping of classroom activities tookplace. The Project in Adult Immigrant Educa-tion at the Center for Applied Linguistics hasalso published a paper by Elizabeth Platt onthe same subject, titled The Vocational Class-room: A Great Place to Learn English (1996).

Platt found two types of collaboration to existbetween vocational and ESL teachers, each oneinvolving a distinct role for the ESL or VESLteacher: the support role and the expert role.Most commonly, VESL teachers played whatPlatt termed a "supportive role," with theVESL-related goals considered secondary to theneeds of the vocational component. VESL in-struction was often subsumed by a need tohandle communication breakdowns; the needto prepare students for tests; noise; a lack oftime; inadequate space; and other conditions.VESL teacher effectiveness, according to Platt"was mediated by a lack of technical expertise,limited access to the hands-on environment,and removal of the vocational vocabulary fromits real world context" (Platt, 1992, vii). Thepresence of the VESL component had little im-pact on vocational instruction; vocationalteachers were not found to make additionalefforts to make language comprehensible basedon their contact with the VESL colleagues.

In contrasting programs where the ESL staffwere seen as specialists and actively sharedtheir expertise with vocational teachers, "theresulting impact was considerable" (Platt, 1992,p. vii). In some cases such collaboration tookplace as part of curriculum development pro-cesses. For example, at one site, language special-ists and vocational teachers worked together toanalyze the technical information needed for acourse and to discuss how to present this infor-mation in a more user-friendly way. During thisprocess, vocational instructors became more awareof the importance of comprehensible instructionallanguage and began to make adjustments in theirteaching. At another site, vocational teachers weretaught directly about language, culture, and lan-guage teaching techniques through a staff devel-opment course offered by the ESL specialist andwere observed to have applied what they learned

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to the classroom. Students in these programswere not only learning vocabulary terms butalso using them in classroom discourse. Plattfound that students in this second category ofprograms reported significant gains in theirconfidence and in their ability to comprehendand use English and had strongly positiveevaluations of their programs of study. Overall,Platt noted, the deciding factor for quality ofvocational instruction for limited English profi-cient students was not the existence of ESL sup-port, but rather the extent to which vocationalteachers themselves incorporated techniquesthat facilitated language learning and use inthe vocational classroom.

Platt's study was unusual for the field in that itemployed a systematic process of inquiry toexamine actual instructional practices, the re-sults of which are useful both from a theoreti-cal and a practical standpoint. It demonstratesclearly the potential value of applied researchfor program improvement.

Dissertation ResearchIn addition to the commissioned studies listedabove, a few doctoral students have also cho-sen to conduct research related to vocationaltraining for limited English proficient adults.Once again, most fall into the category of sur-veys or descriptive case studies. Young's (1988)survey of the problems encountered by limitedEnglish proficient adults in Orange County,California in seeking and advancing their em-ployment revealed the central role of Englishin attaining job advancement. Woodruff's(1991) study of Illinois' efforts to serve His-panic youth and adults in programs supportedby the Perkins Act found that while Hispanicsenrolled in vocational education at relativelyhigher rates than other groups in Illinois, lim-ited English proficient Hispanics were signifi-cantly underrepresented. Pinto-Zavala (1992)

chronicled the range of student services beingoffered to Hispanic students in twelve Illinoiscommunity colleges. Hams (1992) used a casestudy approach to look at the status of voca-tional training for limited English proficientadults in one county in western Massachusetts.Despite a large and growing population of lim-ited English proficient adults in the county,Hams identified less than 15 limited Englishproficient adults in the entire county whowere enrolled in vocational training. His ex-haustive study of practices within the countyillustrates the way in which testing is used notto place limited English proficient students butto screen all but the highest level students outof training programs.

Dissertation research also yielded one of thefew U.S.-based studies that looked at voca-tional education for limited English proficientadults from an ethnographic perspective.Learning to Labor in a New Culture (Rezabek,1988) takes an in-depth look at a small groupof Southeast Asian refugees receiving voca-tional ESL and employment training in janito-rial services through a Refugee TargetedAssistance Project in California. Workingalongside the refugees, Rezabek was able to ex-amine closely communication events that oc-curred within the program and to observe howcommunication breakdowns resulted from lan-guage and cultural differences as well as fromcontradictory program goals. Using illustrativelife stories of some of the participants, Rezabekshowed the human cost of placement prioritiesthat rush participants through a training pro-gram of only a few months duration. The storiesdepict the frustration of refugee adults who,through their experiences with on-the-jobtraining, recognized how their lack of Englishlimited their ability to follow instructions, askquestions regarding their work, and in generaldo their job well. While they saw the needto complete their course in VESL (and even to

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56

attend further VESL classes if they were to reachtheir career goals), many were being asked totake jobs before their classes ended. As Rezabekconcluded, "The overriding placement orienta-tion of program policy generated an internalcontradiction in program objectives that notonly set personnel responsible for teachingagainst those responsible for placement, but alsoplaced refugees in a confusing and frighteningmiddle" (1988, p. 7).

In showing how the refugees used their owncultural experiences to try to negotiate fortheir needs within the milieu of the program,Rezabek's study does much to illustrate thecomplex, situational, and multifaceted natureof cultural practices. The study illustrates thesubtle ways in which minority adults them-selves often are blamed for problems associatedwith the inaccessibility or poor quality of pro-grams. The insights provided by the study domuch to demonstrate the potential value ofethnographic research within the field.

Studies of the LinguisticDemands of the Workplace

Another important arena, where it might be as-sumed that a body of research exists to informthose offering language and vocational trainingto limited English proficient adults, has to dowith understanding the linguistic tasks de-manded of workers on the job. In fact, as

Grognet (1995) points out, there exists no cor-pus of knowledge in the country that throughserious ethnographic research charts worker-to-worker, worker-to-supervisor, supervisor-to-worker,

and worker-to-manager communication in anyoccupational cluster. Although research con-cerning the literacy demands and practices ofnative speakers of English is somewhat useful,

the workplace-related literacy demands on non-native speakers require specialized study. Notonly must non-native speakers develop and useliteracy skills and speak and understand English,but they must also develop sophisticated levelsof cross-cultural understanding. This sectionbriefly touches upon a few key studies that may berelevant to the development of this field of study.

Studies of the Literacy Needs ofNative Speakers of EnglishAmong the first studies of the relationship be-tween literacy and job performance were thoseconducted by Sticht (1975) in the context ofpreparing soldiers for military occupations.Further studies by Diehl and Mikulecky (1980),who looked at as many as 100 occupations in26 different workplaces, revealed that a signifi-cant part of most workdays involves reading.This is true not only for white collar jobs butfor most entry-level jobs as well. The kind ofreading, however, is different from that learnedin school. It is "reading to do" instead of"reading to learn" (Mikulecky & Eh linger,1987). Workers must read memos, letters, writ-ten instructions, short reports, order forms, in-voices, blueprints, parts lists with prices,

catalogs, manuals, and policy materials. Muchof this reading is repetitive (checking prices ina parts list, for example) and contextualized toexperiences and knowledge a worker alreadyhas. In fact, when these researchers adminis-tered general reading tests along with job-re-lated reading tests, they consistently foundthat workers could read job-related materials ata level at least two grades higher than the gen-eral reading materials. In other words, "factorsother than general literacy affect workers' skillsat reading on the job" (Center for LiteracyStudies, 1992, p. A-30).

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Studies of Problem Solving at WorkAnother body of research of interest in thisarea concerns the work of cognitive psycholo-gists who have looked at learning outside therealm of formal instruction. When Scribnerand her colleagues (1984; 1986) conducted sys-tematic observations of how workers solvedproblems at a milk processing plant, they dis-covered that these workers often found cre-ative ways to solve problems that went beyondthe constraints of the text itself. To fill writtenorders for milk, for example, workers foundways to satisfy the order in the fewest possiblemoves. Even though they were not literally fol-lowing the instructions, experienced workersmade few mistakes. New workers, who fol-lowed instructions more literally, in contrast,often made more mistakes or took more timeto complete the orders. Everyday people,Scribner found, were continually exercisingcreative problem solving as they went aboutseemingly routine tasks. These same people,when given pencil and paper mathematicstests, made many errors on problems similar tothose they were able to solve easily on the job.

Overall, the findings of these two groups of re-searchers show that literacy skill is only onefactor in job performance. "Metacognitive"skillsthe ability to think through what isneeded and apply reading and writing to thetaskaccount for much of an individual's suc-cess in job performance (Center for LiteracyStudies, 1992, p. A-34). Clearly, the importanceof applying studies of this nature to the workperformance of non-native speakers is obvious.Such studies might, among other goals, haveimportant implications concerning the currentpractice of requiring relatively high readinglevels on academic reading tests as a single cri-teria for entrance into job training.

Needs Assessments of Non-NativeEnglish Speakers' Language Usageon the JobMuch of the field's existing understanding ofthe language and cultural demands for non-native speakers of English on the job havecome from adult educators who have con-ducted relatively small, informal studies to as-sist in program planning, rather than fromethnographers or other university-based re-searchers. The nature of these literacy auditsand needs analyses will be described in moredetail in the next two chapters. A few practi-tioners have had the opportunity to collectand analyze their findings. Gage and Prince(1982), for example, interviewed supervisors at30 businesses in the state of Washington todetermine their perception of the languageneeds of limited English proficient workers.Latkiewicz (1983) surveyed personnel manag-ers and supervisors in Utah regarding their per-ceptions and requirements for Indochineseworkers. Cangampang and Tsang (1988) alsolooked at the language needs of entry-leveljobs in the manufacturing and service sectorsin California. Becker, Karimer, and Mrowicki(1986) surveyed 52 employers in the Chicagoarea, asking them to rate communication prob-lems on the job for their refugee employees.The 6 language-related factors she describes areillustrative of employers' perceptions of theneeds:

1. Failure to ask when something is not under-stood (78% rated this as a greater than aver-age problem);

2. Ability to understand company policy(65%);

3. Ability to report problems on the job (63%);4. Following directions (54%);5. Obeying safety regulations (45%); and6. Relationships with other employees (13%).

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Another needs assessment was conducted in1984, by Svedsen and Krebs in connection withthe planning for an on-site Bilingual VocationalTraining Program sponsored by MetropolitanState College in Denver, Colorado. For 6 to 9hours a week for the first 3 to 4 weeks of a12-week course, program planners observed thelanguage use of workers in 2 health-care occupa-tions: that of a central supply technician and ahospital transporter. They tape recorded typicaldialogues among workers at the site, interviewedstaff at all levels, and made thorough observa-tions of the job including environmental detailssuch as noise levels, the proximity of workers toeach other, the amount of movement about thedepartment, and the communicative patternsamong workers. In addition, they collectedsamples of written forms, procedures, and de-partmental training materials. The authors ob-served that many of their assumptions about thelanguage a worker would need did not hold upin their on-site analysis. For example, they foundthat even entry-level workers need an explana-tion of why certain tasks are done in order toperform them well. As their responsibility in-creases, they need to know what to do whenroutines are interrupted, such as when an itemcannot be found or a machine does not work.Language used to socialize with co-workers, theyobserved, was also very important.

British StudiesThe work of many U.S.-based practitioners inthe late seventies and early eighties was aidedby a British study by T.C. Jupp and SusanHod lin, An Example of Theory and Practice inFunctional Language Teaching for ElementaryLearners, published in 1975. Their book pro-vided a systematic approach to functional lan-guage teaching in the workplace, based on theauthors' experiences setting up an experimen-tal workplace English language training pro-gram for Asian employees. (This project

became the forerunner of the National Centerfor Industrial Language Training in England.)This pioneering work was among the first tolay out an extensive repertoire of key languageand cultural functions required on the job.Many U.S. practitioners drew on this compendiumto select language functions to address in their own

curricula. Examples of such curricula will bedescribed in more detail in Chapter 4.

Over the past twenty years, the Industrial Lan-guage Training Service has continued to inves-tigate issues related to language in theworkplace. In 1992, Roberts, along with Juppand Davies, released another volume entitledLanguage and Discrimination based on manymore years of research, including in-depth eth-nographic and linguistic analyses of workplacesettings. The work of these authors over timehas led them to observe more clearly the wayin which language functions as a means of in-direct racial discrimination. Language, culture,and meaning, the researchers argue, are insepa-rably interwoven. A close analysis of countlesstranscripts of language interactions on the jobhas brought to the surface the many subtle re-alities related to unequal power relationshipsin multicultural workplaces. This work, whichappears to be less well known in this country,deserves the careful attention of prospectiveU.S. workplace researchers.

The Importance of Further ResearchYears of experience conducting needs assess-ments or literacy audits within various occupa-tions has allowed experienced educators toidentify many language functions that appearto cut across occupational domains. Amongthose commonly mentioned are social interac-tional skills such as greetings and farewells,meeting people at work, engaging in small talkwith co-workers, and addressing supervisors;skills related to job performance such as responding

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to instructions, asking for clarification, makingrequests, observing safety rules, and identifyingtools, equipment, and processes; skills related toincreased responsibility such as being able togive as well as follow directions, participatingin group discussions, carrying and writing mes-sages, initiating conversations, and makingsuggestions; and skills related to procedures onthe job such as reading a paycheck, askingabout holidays, sick leave, and fringe benefits,and discussing grievances (Grognet, 1995).

Key Trends in Adult SecondLanguage Instruction

Other areas where research over the last twentyyears has aided the field in understanding howto improve vocational instruction for limitedEnglish proficient adults include second lan-guage acquisition and approaches to languageand literacy instruction.

Traditionally, ESL for adults has often been al-lied with other types of adult .basic educationservices. During the late seventies, the aware-ness grew among adult educators that "ESL ismore than adult basic education with a foreignaccent" (Wrigley & Ewen, 1995, p. 15). The factthat ESL contains an entire domain of coreskills, including speaking and listening in addi-tion to reading and writing, became better rec-ognized. Adult educators began to acknowledgethat competence in ESL included a complex ar-ray of interpersonal, linguistic, and cultural ele-ments, and thus the skills of teachers as well asthe curricula, program design, and many otheraspects of ESL instruction must be very differentfrom those found in ABE.

New Approaches to InstructionThe needs of refugees and immigrants enteringthe adult educational system in the late 1970sforced language educators to re-examine their

approaches to instruction. Models of ESL intro-duced in the 1940s and 1950s by Fries (1945)and others had stressed the systematic learningof formal language structures establishedthrough the use of repetition and drills. A seriesof grammatical concepts often shaped the se-quence of instruction. Although in many circles(particularly in academic settings) variations ofthis method have remained popular, adult edu-cators began to recognize its inappropriatenessfor instructing adults who must quickly beginto learn enough English to survive in theUnited States, both on the job and in theireveryday lives. Many could ill afford to studyEnglish as a separate subject for an extensiveperiod of time. General ESL programs began toexplore a "communicative competency" approachwherein the development of purposeful commu-nication, focusing on what learners can do withlanguage, became the core around which thecurriculum was developed. Competency-basedinstruction stressed such topics as finding housing,reading want ads, reporting medical problems, andusing public transportation (Center for AppliedLinguistics, 1983).

Over the succeeding years, as Platt (1992)points out, the field has been influenced bymore cognitive and communicative ap-proaches to instruction. But even thoughteaching ESL has become more realistic, morestudent centered, and more function oriented,there remains no uniform vision across theprofession. Communicative language teachingpromoted by Savignon (1972) and Canale andSwain (1980), the Natural Approach intro-duced by Krashen & Terrell (1983), and partici-patory education associated with Freire (1970),along with the work of many other linguistsand language educators, have influenced thefield. More recent approaches stress the devel-opment of language skills compatible withconcept learning, including content-based in-

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struction (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989;Crandall, 1995; Crandall & Tucker, 1990) andEnglish for Specific Purposes (Swales, 1985).The focus of ESL instruction differs not onlydepending on the teaching approach (or com-bination of approaches) employed by theteacher but also on the context, whether it besurvival ESL and ESL literacy for new arrivalsattending a community-based organization,English for academic purposes for incomingcollege students, English for science and tech-nology professionals, or workplace ESL for per-sons already employed.

New Understandings of LanguageProficiencyIn recent years, understanding of the complexityof language proficiency and the length of timerequired to become proficient has also improved.Studies by Cummins (1981) and Collier (1992)with school-aged populations have shown thatlanguage-minority students may acquire sociallanguage (what Cummins calls basic interper-sonal communication skills) in as little as one ortwo years. To develop the academic languageproficiency (cognitive academic language profi-ciency) to participate in classes where English isthe medium of instruction, however, may take aslong as five to seven years.

Such findings have had important implicationsfor the development of vocational trainingprograms for immigrants. One response fromprograms has been to begin to offer vocationalESL along a continuum. Adults may beginwith basic survival ESL and then move intoprevocational, cluster VESL or VESL bridgingcourses that allow them to begin to work to-ward their vocational goals while still focusingintensively on language development, beforethen enrolling in occupation-specific training.Programs preparing adults to enter more aca-

demically oriented vocational training at thecollege level have also begun to offer pre-aca-demic programs, specifically designed to pre-pare adults for academic study and to allowthem to gain practice in test taking.

Getting Beyond Stating theProblem

As the examples above make clear, with a fewexceptions, twenty years of research specificallydirected toward the vocational and workplacetraining needs of immigrant adults has takenonly a few steps beyond simply stating theproblem. Research in the field has beenfraught with duplication of effort (Friedenberg,1993). Studies that might document programeffectiveness have not been undertaken, evenwithin the Bilingual Vocational Training Pro-gram, which has been in existence for nearlytwo decades. Although the intention to dedi-cate as much financial support as possible todirect services is commendable on one level,on another, the lack of attention to under-standing better what works and why has beena limitation within the field.

Clearly, the development of rigorous and well-designed studies within the field of adult edu-cation presents many conceptual and logisticalchallenges. Tracking students' employmentsuccess over time, for example, would be costlyand difficult. The lack of uniform standards forspecific practices and activities such as hours ofinstruction, teacher credentials, and student-teacher ratios would make comparisons betweenprograms problematic. Identifying appropriate as-sessment tools continues to be a serious concern.Ethnographic and other qualitative studies of lan-guage and cultural interaction in the workplacecan also be costly and present research designchallenges. Nevertheless, without such studies, the

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prospects for serious program improvementremain dim. Moreover, in a climate of fiscalconstraint, hinders may be unwilling to con-tinue projects unless some form of tangibleproof of the return they receive on investment(ROI) is available.

This chapter has highlighted many kinds ofstudies that might be undertaken. Among themare the following:

Ethnographic research to understand betterthe linguistic and cultural demands placedupon limited English proficient adults inworkplace settings;

Discourse analysis to determine worker-to-worker, worker-to-supervisor, supervisor-to-

worker, and worker-to-manager communicationin various occupational clusters;

Studies to determine the relationship betweenlanguage, literacy, and job performance;Research to ascertain outcomes of instructionon job performance, including the short- andlong-term impact of instruction; andStudies to examine the effectiveness of variousmodels of vocational and workplace instruction.

Can this nation afford the costs of such addi-tional research studies? As immigrants come tooccupy a greater and greater role in the U.S.workforce, the real question may be whetheror not it can afford not to conduct them.

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Chapter Four

Vocational Educationfor Adult Immigrants: What Works?

Vocational education services to limited Englishproficient adults remain varied and multifac-eted, responding to a variety of learner needs,local contexts, and financial capacities. Acrossthe nation there exist no uniform standards ormodels, although, as this chapter will show, inrecent years much more has been learned aboutwhat works and what elements are essential forprogram success. Throughout much of this paperso far, the focus has been on the problems: thelack of funding, the fragmentation, and the lim-ited research base. And yet, to focus solely onthese concerns would not do justice to themany dedicated educators who, despite signifi-cant constraints, continue to experiment to findbetter instructional models, more integratedsupport services, and more effective and cost-efficient ways to train adults for skilled andsemi-skilled employment. Much can be learnedfrom their hard work and vision.

The purpose of this chapter is to provide anoverview of the various components of voca-tional education for limited English proficientadults, with an eye to the many unsung suc-cess stories that can provide models for the fu-ture. The chapter begins with a discussion ofgeneral program designs for integrating lan-guage and vocational training. Then, the vari-ous components that go into planningvocational and language training for limited

English proficient adults will each be consid-ered in turn. They include:

1. Determining the need for services;2. Developing institutional support;3. Doing outreach, recruitment, and intake;4. Developing multicultural awareness;5. Developing the instructional component;6. Providing support services;7. Staffing and offering staff development; and8. Evaluating programs.

Within each section are boxes with illustrativeexamples from programs around the country.

Program Design

The design of programs varies considerably. Asshown in Figure 4-1, some programs may utilizea single agency approach with all educationaland support services under the same umbrella.Others may take a multiple agency approachwith intake and assessment at one site, instruc-tion at another, employment services at a third,and support services at yet another. As shownin Figure 4-2, educational services may takeplace in community-based organizations, voca-tional centers connected with local educationagencies, community colleges, proprietary schools,or other sites. These services may or maynot include a work experience component in

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Figure 4-1 Single Agency Approach: VELT Program ManagementFrom Grover, J., & Mrowicki, L. (1985). Vocational English Language Training Resource Package, p.2-2. Falls Church, VA: Resource Management Corporation.

private industry. Ideally, programs provide impor-tant support services such as culturally appropri-ate recruitment; career awareness counseling; helpwith individuals' social, economic, and psycho-logical needs; assistance in locating transportationand childcare; and assistance with job placement.Optimally, they also offer services at varying hours

of the day and on adjustable schedules to ac-commodate working students.

Programs also differ in the amount of time spenton ESL and vocational training, the order inwhich they are pursued, and the amount of sup-port provided in the first language. Programsgenerally offer one of two kinds of training:short- or long-term. Short-term training programsusually last from a few weeks to several monthsand are designed to move adults quickly intoemployment. These kinds of programs may be

offered as noncredit programs by communitycolleges or community-based organizations. Theyare also the most common kinds of programsavailable through the JTPA- or JOBS-fundedtraining programs for limited English proficientparticipants or through the Targeted AssistancePrograms for recent refugees. In a few larger vo-cational programs and community colleges, ef-forts are being made to connect short- andlong-term training. Students who must balancethe need for immediate employment with thelengths and costs of degree programs may beginwith a short-term training programin lightauto mechanics, for example. Before completingthe program, they are given an orientation to de-gree programs leading to auto mechanics certifi-cation and encouraged to come back for thedegree program after they have gained some ex-perience on the job.

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COORDINATING COMMITTEE/FORUMEvaluation, Monitoring, Information Sharing

AGENCY 1 AGENCY 2 AGENCY 3 AGENCY 4INTAKE AND INSTRUCTION EMPLOYMENT SUPPORT

ASSESSMENT SERVICES SERVICES

Figure 4-2 Multiple Agency Approach: VELT Program ManagementFrom Grover, J., & Mrowicki, L. (1985). Vocational English Language Training Resource Package, p.2-3. Falls Church, VA: Resource Management Corporation.

A Short-Term Training Program Box 4A

The San Diego Community College has a vocational ESL/ABE office skills program that uses the learning lab

approach. Low-level ESL students begin with a three-week preliminary VESL lab before going to the office skills

lab. In the office skills lab for three hours a day students work on computers and learn office-related vocabulary,

beginning keyboarding, and word processing skills. The lab is run like a workplace; attendance is required,

work must be done each day before leaving, the instructor provides feedback daily, and students work together

to solve problems. Students stay in the program until they demonstrate exit competencies or get a job (Thomas,

Bird 81 Grover, 1992b, p. 34).

Long-term training programs may require any-where from two to four semesters and severalhundred hours of study. Most often they leadto certification in a vocational field or to anassociate's degree. The primary focus of theseprograms is not on job placement but on in-creasing students' technical and vocationally

related language skills to allow them to qualifyfor a trade or semi-skilled profession. Some-times programs also offer options to allow stu-dents to continue on to a 4-year programleading to a professional degree. The require-ments for entry into these programs may alsobe higher than those required for entry into

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30 PARTICIPATING UNIONS

City Universityof NY

CCNY, CWELiberal Arts DegreeCCNYMasters in EarlyChildhood EducationQueens College/LEAPLiberal Arts degreein Social ScienceBrooklyn College/CWEMasters in HealthMasters in Government

WorkForce Education& Training

(17,000 enrolled)Continuing EducationEnglish as a Second

LanguageHigh SchoolEquivalencyCollege PrepNative LanguageLiteracyBasic Skills

Job UpgradingRetrainingWorksite Classes

Institutes

Worker CareerCenters/WCC

ManhattanBrooklynQueensBronx

One stop service center3,000 workers placedsince 1990

Tuition assistanceMore than 100% ofplacements goalachievedMore than 3,000applicants servedper year

Institute forComputer Workers in Health Care College PrepInstitute The 21st Institute Institute

Century1

Figure 4-3 Consortium for Worker Education: Who We AreReprinted with permission from Consortium for Worker Education. (1995). Who We Are (brochure). New York, NY: Author.

A Long-Term Job Training Program Box 4B

The Consortium for Worker Education (CWE) is a not-for-profit, community-based organization comprised of

the education departments of its 30 member labor unions. The CWE provides education and training for over

17,000 union members and their families yearly. Within CWE programs, it is possible for a worker to begin

instruction in ESL and progress through GED programs to college courses or technical and certificate programs.

The CWE Medical Assistant Training is one example. For certification, a 400-hour program is required and a

built-in externship is also part of the training program. For those who choose to continue their education, the

College Preparation for Health Care Workers Reading and Writing Curriculum simultaneously prepares students

for the college entrance exams they will need to take and for the kinds of texts they will be using in college-

level courses related to health. A companion GED College Prep Mathematics Health Care Curriculum is also offered

(Consortium for Worker Education, 1994).

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short-term training. In some cases, students musthave a high school diploma or GED; in others,they may have to pass certain English languageproficiency or basic skills tests. Although theredo exist successful models for allowing evenbeginning-level students to start long-term voca-tional training while they are learning Englishand basic skills, these are still not widely avail-able. Examples of these kinds of programs will bediscussed later in this chapter. Figure 4-3 illus-trates the vocational training programs offeredby the Consortium for Worker Education.

Models for IntegratingLanguage and VocationalTraining

A key consideration in program design is theway in which language and vocational trainingwill be integrated or sequenced. Over theyears, a number of authors have developedvarious schemes for categorizing the models ofvocational training. In 1979, Crandall pre-sented several models along a continuum fromthose farthest removed from the job to thoseclosest to the job. These included

1. Prevocational ESL;2. Vocational ESL along with vocational training;3. Bilingual-vocational training; and4. ESL and on-the-job training.

In Approaches to Employment Related Training for

Adults Who Are Limited English Proficient (1984),Nick Kremer presented a classification systemthat addressed a broad diversity of service de-livery models. They included:

1. General or prevocational ESL followed byregular vocational education;

2. General or prevocational ESL along withregular vocational education;

3. Job site VESL along with on-the-job training;4. Job site VESL along with on-the-job training

with interpreters;5. General or prevocational ESL along with bi-

lingual vocational education;6. VESL along with bilingual vocational educa-

tion; and7. Job site VESL along with bilingual on-the-

job training.

Jeanne Lopez-Valadez (Northern Illinois Univer-sity, Office of Applied Innovations, 1994b) andFranklin (1995) propose another framework, con-sisting of four models. The first, which they termthe supplementation model, provides vocationaltraining only after students have achieved a highlevel of English proficiency. The transition modelprovides various kinds of courses that serve as atransition between ESL and vocational training.The concurrent model provides for simultaneousand mutually reinforcing vocational ESL and vo-cational training. Finally, the bilingual vocationaltraining model represents a comprehensive frame-work that integrates English bilingual vocationalinstruction, VESL, and a range of supportive ser-vices, with close coordination among the com-ponents. Another schema is proposed byWrigley, Chisman, and Ewen in Sparks of Excel-lence (1993). They categorize the various modelsinto three broad groups:

1. Sequential Models that provide ESL or variouskinds of VESL classes before attending training;

2. Concurrent Models that offer skills training partof the day and ESL classes to support the skillstraining another part of the day; and

3. Integrated Models that combine skills trainingand language training in one course.

Other models have been proposed byFriedenberg (1985), Belcher & Warmbrod(1987), and Fleischman (1988).

61 61

No schema can take into account the manyvariations that exist in the field. In developingthe one to use in this study, the work ofLopez-Valadez (Northern Illinois University,Office of Applied Innovations, 1994b) andWrigley, Chisman, and Ewen (1993) was usedextensively. What follows is a short descriptionof each of the models listed and outlinedbelow, including their strengths and disadvan-tages, and examples from programs that utilizeeach model.

1. The Sequential Modela. for Pre-Employment Trainingb. for Pre-Vocational Training

2. The Transitional Model3. The Concurrent Model4. Bilingual Vocational Training

The Sequential Model:Pre-Employment TrainingIn the sequential model, depicted in Figure 4-4,courses follow a clear sequence beginning withESL. Only after a certain level of English profi-ciency is acquired do students move on to thenext level, whether it is a job or vocational train-ing. The pre-employment version of this modelis most often offered as part of a short-termtraining program for beginning- or intermediate-level ESL students. It is designed to stress sur-vival-level English and the vocational languageand cultural orientation needed to get and keepan entry-level job. Students may or may not beexpected to take some beginning-level ESL beforeenrolling in the pre-employment class. Most of-

ten, students with various career interests may beenrolled in the class, so the topics covered mustbe general in nature. They may include the lan-guage of job applications and want ads; how toconduct oneself during a job interview; healthand safety on the job; information related tofringe benefits, sick leave, time cards, insurance,and social security; cultural expectations of U.S.employers; and general language needed to per-form most entry-level jobs. Programs vary in theextent to which they offer support services, suchas those to help students make career choices orget assistance with job placement. They may bemore or less tailored to local employment con-ditions. Some programs may visit job sites orinclude visits by outside speakers from businessand industry.

This sequential model was fairly prevalent inthe early 1980s for training refugees enteringthe country in the second wave of immigra-tion from Southeast Asia. Community-basedorganizations, such as Lutheran Social Servicesor Catholic Charities, received money fromstates to provide basic ESL services to refugeesto make them eligible for vocational trainingor to move them directly into entry-level jobs.To a large degree, this type of training wasphased out when the U.S. Department of Stateshifted its funding to support general pre-employment training in both language andcultural orientationtraining that would occurbefore the immigrants came to the UnitedStates in the refugee processing centers in thePhilippines, Thailand, and Indonesia.

68

62

beginning/intermediateESL

Strengths:

pre-employmentVESL

General pre-employment topics may beapplicable to students with a variety ofcareer interests.

This type of programming assists studentswith the basics to allow them to get a jobafter a short training period.

This basic, often stand-alone programcan easily be implemented within manyeducational settings.

job

Disadvantages:

Training time is often too short to allowstudents to acquire the language andcultural skills they need on the job.

Students are commonly prepared onlyfor low-wage, entry-level jobs requiringfew skills.

Support services to assist students to choosea career area consistent with their previousexperience and interests and to fmd a jobmay be limited.

Figure 4-4 The Sequential Model: Pre-Employment Training

69 63

The Sequential Model:Pre-Vocational TrainingWithin this model, depicted in Figure 4-5, stu-dents must enroll in general ESL classes forseveral semesters before entering a mainstreamvocational training program. The ESL classesmay be competency based, grammar based or,especially if they are located in communitycolleges, may focus on academic ESL. Theseprograms operate on the premise that LEP stu-dents must have a high level of general English

competency before they can benefit from voca-tional training programs. Typically, the onus forfinding out about existing vocational programs ison the students. ESL teachers may or may nothave information about entry requirements forvocational training or programs available in thecommunity. Once LEP students are enrolled invocational training, programs may offer themsome support outside the classroom, such astutors or learning labs to supplement their coursework, bilingual counseling, and other services.

A Sequential, Pre-Vocational Training Program Box 4C

Until recently, ESL services on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, were provided to beginning-level students through the

Cape Cod Literacy Council and the Barnstable Community Schools. Cape Cod Community College offered only

one advanced ESL class (a credit course) and had no learning lab support or special services for LEP students.

There was little communication between the services; the transition from the community-based programs to com-

munity college vocational programs represented a broad chasm for students to cross. As part of the Massachu-

setts English Language Development (MELD) project, the program has worked to provide a progression of ESL

instruction from beginning to advanced levels to allow students to progress to the mainstream community col-

lege. Intermediate level classes are now offered at a new college adult learning center and an advanced-level ESL

college-credit course is available (Kirkman, 1993).

7064

beginningESL

Strengths:

intermediateESL

This model requires little from commu-nity colleges or vocational programs.They do not have to adapt their voca-tional program to meet the needs of LEPstudents.

Students who are able to continuethrough several semesters of English mayachieve a high level of proficiency.

Students with varied career interests canattend the same classes.

advancedESL

ivocational training

support services

Disadvantages:

This model serves to exclude LEP studentsfrom vocational education. Most adultstudents must drop out of ESL to get jobsbefore reaching the level required to passentry tests.

The language taught in ESL classes maynot prepare students for the language de-mands of vocational training courses.

Most programs offer little information tohelp students locate and enroll in voca-tional training. There is no articulation tofacilitate the transition from ESL to voca-tional training.

Since the time required to complete bothESL and vocational training is lengthy,overall completion of a program throughthis model can be costly.

Figure 4-5 The Sequential Model: Pre-Vocational Training

7165

The Transitional Model:Pre-Vocational Programs with aBridging ComponentResponding to concerns regarding the draw-backs of the sequential model for pre-

vocational students, a number of programshave begun to develop courses that bridge thegap between ESL courses and mainstream vo-cational training. Generally, bridging or transi-tion courses are offered to intermediate-levelESL students. These courses focus either on aspecific career or a cluster of careers in a com-mon field. The courses may be primarily con-cerned with the vocationally related languageneeded for vocational training in a given area,or they may be more content centered, allow-ing students to learn basic concepts, such asprerequisite science and math needed inhealth professions or basic information about

human development needed to work in earlychildhood education. Some curricula allow stu-dents to explore their career interests whilelearning English. Vocational instructors may beinvited to speak to the class and vocationaltexts may be used as reading materials. Ideallysuch a course is developed in close collabora-tion with vocational instructors who know thekind of preparation students need to succeedin their classes. Various kinds of VESL supportalso continue once the student is enrolled invocational training. In some community col-leges, vocational credit is offered for theseclasses. In other cases, standardized entrancerequirements to vocational training may bewaived for students who have demonstrated,through successful completion of the course,that they are ready for vocational training. Thetransitional model is depicted in Figure 4-6.

A Sequential, Pre-Vocational Bridging Program Box 4D

In 1991, instructors at Center City/Skills Centre of the San Diego Community College District decidedto establish the VESL Bridging Project to meet the needs of adult students wishing to enroll in automechanics, electronics test technician, machine shop, and welding programs. The bridging classesteach ESL, using job-related terminology and concepts from the different vocational fields. The VESLproject established an advisory committee composed of representatives from the automotive, electronics,and metalworking industries; vocational and ESL education; and members of the Latino andIndochinese communities to assist in planning. They developed a specialized placement plan and anassessment process to gauge when students have mastered vocation-specific language, reading, andmath. Recently, they published a report containing many samples of the assessment tools andcurriculum materials they have developed (San Diego Community College District, 1995).

7266

beginning ESL

Strengths:

VESLbridge or

cluster class

support services

support servicesto enter

vocational training

Students' motivation improves when theysee they are working toward their careergoals while enrolled in vocationally ori-ented ESL programs.

Students learn English and pre-vocationalcontent related to the demands of futurevocational training.

Instructors are specially trained to assiststudents in making the transition to voca-tional training.

Students complete the sequence of ESLand vocational instruction more quickly,which, in turn, is more cost effective.

vocational training

Disadvantages:

job

Specialized curriculum materials forbridging courses must be prepared; fewcurriculum models currently exist.

Information must be coordinated be-tween VESL and vocational training com-ponents.

This program requires a large enough stu-dent population that classes within oneskill area or cluster of areas can be formed.

Figure 4-6

73

The Transitional Model

67

The Concurrent ModelConcurrent models allow students to start learn-ing vocational concepts from their first day oftraining. Often, concurrent programs are part ofcomprehensive day-long programs. Students mayattend occupation-specific VESL in the morningand receive vocational training and/or a lab classin the afternoon. In the best of all worlds, theVESL classes and vocational classes are mutuallyreinforcing. Assignments are coordinated so lan-guage concepts that are first introduced in theVESL class can be practiced in the vocationalclass. Students who do not understand variouskinds of information covered in vocational train-ing can bring those questions back to the VESLclass where they can be addressed in more detail.Although this approach has many obvious

strengths in allowing students to get right intovocational training and to complete a programmore quickly, it requires a good deal of planning,regular coordination (often weekly meetings withjoint.staff), and prior training on the part of in-structors. Vocational instructors need to learnhow to work with LEP students in the classroom.Bilingual peer tutors in the vocational classroommay provide assistance. VESL teachers visit thevocational training classes and observe employ-ees on the job in order to learn the content areabeing taught and the language and cultural de-mands students will face once they are em-ployed. Ideally, a range of support services is alsoavailable to students. The concurrent model isdepicted in Figure 4-7.

A Concurrent Program Box 4E

The VESL Office Training Program at San Francisco Community College District's Chinatown/North Beach Cen-

ter uses a concurrent model. The program takes three semesters to complete. Students begin with ESL andthen take four core courses: clerical keyboarding, clerical VESL, social communicating, and computer skills. A

fifth course, accounting, is optional. The clerical VESL course is taught concurrently with the keyboarding

course. The computer skills instructor is also an experienced VESL instructor, so she often integrates computer

skills with related language instruction. Instructors work with local companies to do a needs assessment for program

development. The instructors meet weekly to coordinate classes (Thomas, Bird, & Grover, 1992a).

7468

support services

141 4_ A,

-,1 / rietES LNES L

vocational training

Strengths:

Students can begin attending vocationaltraining right away, while they improvetheir ESL skills.

The VESL and vocational trainingcourses complement and reinforce oneanother. Vocational education and labcourses provide an ideal natural laboratoryfor practicing language skills; thus acceler-ating learning.

Students can complete training and getinto skilled jobs more quickly, in somecases lowering the cost of overall training.

job

Disadvantages:

To work well, close coordination betweenthe VESL and vocational instructor is es-sential; additional time is required up frontfor curriculum development and duringthe course for regular planning meetings.

Vocational instructors may need additionaltraining in how to adapt instruction to theneeds of LEP students. ESL instructors needto learn vocational content and specializedmethods for teaching VESL.

Development of concurrent programs re-quires an institutional commitment toaccommodate the special needs of LEPstudents.

Figure 4-7

75

The Concurrent Model

69

The Bilingual Vocational TrainingModelAmong the various models, the bilingual voca-tional training (BVT) model is the one that hasemerged with the most comprehensive andclearly defined set of objectives and characteristics.

As was discussed in Chapter 2, bilingual voca-tional instruction was developed as a result of aspecial funding category designated in 1976 aspart of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational EducationAct. BVT programs can take place in a variety ofsettings, including community colleges, vocationaltraining programs, community-based organiza-tions, and other sites. Over the years, approxi-mately ten programs per year have been fundedaround the country; many of them have been re-funded for several years or have been continuedby the host program after the federal fundingended. In addition to monies to operate programs,a small amount of funding has also been madeavailable to develop materials and methods for theprograms and to train instructors in the methods.

The BVT model is based around seven key com-ponents that which ideally should be incorpo-rated into every program (although, in fact,

portions of the model are frequently adapted foruse in various settings). Laura Franklin (1995), aBVT instructor trainer, describes the general char-

acteristics of each component. Recruitment, shesays, emphasizes not only accommodating thosestudents who are already in the general studentpopulation, but also actively seeking new stu-dents. Intake and assessment of new studentsshould utilize both English and the native lan-guage for testing of oral ability, reading and writ-ing in both languages, as well as for vocationalinterests and aptitudes. Adapted vocational instruc-tion incorporates both the students' native lan-guages as well as English. Texts may be directlytranslated into the required languages, bilingualmaterials can be used to supplement existing ma-terials, and bilingual aides, tutors, or volunteerscan be used. Vocational English as a Second Language

(VESL) teaches language using vocation-relatedcontent. Counseling and support services are specifi-

cally oriented toward the needs of the LEP stu-dent and specifically help students to learn aboutcultural issues that will impact on job success. Jobdevelopment and placement activities are also

uniquely geared to the LEP student. Finally, ac-cording to Franklin, coordination of BVT compo-nents is essential. This includes both regulardialogue among VESL instructors, vocationalinstructors, and support staff and inservicetraining to ensure that all staff understand theprogram goals and policies. The BVT model isdepicted in Figure 4-8.

A Bilingual Vocational Training Program Box 4F

The Employment Training Center in Arlington, Virginia, operates Bilingual Vocational Training (BVT) in four occupational

fields: Early Childhood, Office Skills, Electrical Trades, and Printing. Each skill area has an instructional team that meets

weekly to work on lesson plans and discuss student progress. Training courses are conducted on an open-entry/open-

exit basis and are competency based. BVT staff prepare an individual service strategy for each trainee. Each trainee

receives an average of 15 hours of job skills training and 15 hours of vocational ESL each week. In the beginning, train-

ees may spend more time in vocational ESL; as their English language skills improve, more time is devoted to job skills

training. Vocational training classes are conducted primarily in English. However, if trainees have questions, they ask the

bilingual aide for explanations in the native language. If there are several trainees who need help, the bilingual aide of-

fers a parallel lesson in the native language to facilitate a thorough comprehension of the concept. In the Printing and

Early Childhood courses, trainees participate in an on-the-job practicum. Completion of the training, regardless of the

time of entry, is determined by a demonstrated mastery of the required job and language competencies and enroll-

ment in a job or in further technical training. A formal 90-day follow-up on each trainee is conducted by the bilingual

counselors to provide feedback to staff on the effectiveness of the program (Employment Training Center, 1995).

70

78

Trainee Flow in a Bilingual Vocational Training Program

OutreachRecruitment

Screening

Intake andAssessment

BilingualVocational

TrainingVESL

Strengths:

AncillaryInstruction r

I,Job Placementand Follow-up

Referral

Counseling AncillaryServices

Further Training

[Job Placement

(Authorship unknown. Adapted from the BVT model as developed by Friedenberg, 1995)

Students at any level of English proficiencycan enter the program, and support is pro-vided to ensure they receive linguisticallyand culturally appropriate training.

Vocational training can begin immediatelyin the native language, with instructiongradually shifting to English as proficiencyimproves.

Special attention is given to a comprehen-sive, integrated system of support servicesfrom the initial recruitment to the jobplacement stage.

Many curriculum and training materialsexist to assist teachers and administratorswho wish to implement this model.

Disadvantages:

It is often difficult to find persons withtraining in teaching specific occupationalskills who are also bilingual. Bilingualaides, with limited training, may assumemuch responsibility for training.

Classes must usually be conducted withstudents who all speak the same nativelanguage.

The full range of support services advo-cated by the program may be costly toplan, operate, and coordinate.

Effort must be made to ensure that stu-dents do not rely too heavily on their na-tive languages to the exclusion oflearning English.

Figure 4-8 The Bilingual Vocational Training Model

7?71

Planning Programsand Services

In recent years, a number of materials havebeen developed to help administrators withoverall planning of vocational education andlanguage training for LEP adults. Several havebeen developed in conjunction with bilingualvocational training programs (see Bradley,

Killian, & Friedenberg, 1990; Friedenberg,

1991a; and Troike, Golub, & Lugo, 1981). TheVocational English Language Training ResourcePackage, written by Grover and Mrowicki in1985 for the Office of Refugee Resettlement,provided an extensive package of resources tohelp those setting up vocational language train-ing programs for refugee adults, including a sec-tion on estimating the cost of instruction.Approaches to Employment Related Training forAdults Who Are Limited English Proficient, editedby Nick Kremer (1984) and with contributionsfrom many leaders in the field, also remains avaluable planning tool. Case Studies of Vocational

Education Services and Policies for Limited English

Proficient Adults (Fleischman, Willette, Hanberry,& Hopstode, 1988), although not a planningdocument as such, contains many useful con-crete examples of how states and localities haveplanned for instruction. In addition, the hand-book Serving Vocational ESL Students (Thomas,Bird, & Grover, 1992b) is a particularly goodsource for planners, especially those working incommunity colleges. Many of the examples inthis chapter come from this excellent resource.

Each of these documents typically summarizes arange of factors that must be taken into accountto plan a comprehensive program for LEPadults. Eight categories of services that will bediscussed in this chapter are listed below:

1. Determining local market needs and theneed for services to LEP adults;

2. Developing institutional support and assess-ing existing resources;

3. Outreach, recruiting initial screening, and intake;

4. The instructional component (vocationaltraining and VESL);

5. Support services;6. Cultural awareness activities;7. Staffing and staff development; and8. Program evaluation.

Programs vary in the extent to which each ofthese services is provided, but each compo-nent, most experts agree, is important if a pro-gram is to be successful.

Determining Local Market Needsand the Need for Services toLEP Adults

Most providers agree that the programs thatmake the most progress are those that takeinto account two things: the labor market andthe community. The Center for EmploymentTraining (CET), a nonprofit organization basedin San Jose, began in 1967 and is heralded asone of the most outstanding models for voca-tional training for hard-to-serve adults. Theprogram embraces a belief in inclusion ratherthan exclusion and refuses to turn away stu-dents because they are poor training risks. Ithas no entrance requirements. Students choosetheir own training and learn at their own pace.They typically spend six months in the pro-gram putting in 35 to 40 hours a week and donot "graduate" until they're placed in a job.Over 53,000 low-income men and womenhave been trained and placed through the pro-gram. About half the students are migrantfarmworkers or former farmworkers, and nearlyhalf are limited English proficient. The pro-gram has grown to support 25 centers in Cali-fornia, Arizona, and Nevada. Most of the$6,000 (average) tuition is paid through federal

72 7 8

1. Labor Market DemandIn what types ofjobs do you foresee making the greatestnumber of hires in the near future or over thenext five years? How many projected newhires in each job area?

2. Labor Market SupplyDo you expect to beable to fill those positions easily? Why orwhy not? If yes, from what groups do youusually draw? (That is, from vocationalschools, general high school graduates, dis-placed workers from other industries, womencoming back into the work force, etc.)

3. Market PrognosisIn which job types doyou expect that the demand will be greaterthan the supply, if any?

4. Technical Skills RequirementsIn generalterms, what technical skills and education ortraining background are required for thetypes of jobs from question #3?

5. English Language and Literacy SkillsRequirementsWhat levels of English skillsare required by the types of jobs above? Toread instructions? At a high or low level? Tocommunicate with superiors, co-workers,outside parties? To write?

6. Work CharacteristicsWhat are some ofthe major characteristics of the work envi-ronment for these types of jobs that plan-ners should be aware of? For example, whatwill the entry-level wages be? What are theadvancement possibilities? What wages andbenefits come with advancement? What arethe hours, shifts? Any others?

7. Other RequirementsAre there any otherprerequisites for these jobs that we shouldconsider in planning our program? For in-stance, the need of a car, union member-ship, good physical strength, etc.? Bondingrequirements, security clearance?

Figure 4-9 Examples of Survey QuestionsFrom Thomas, R., Bird, L., & Grover, J. (1992b). Serving Vocational ESL Students, p. 24. Washington, DC: American Association of Community Colleges,

jobs programs, such as JTPA or JOBS. The pro-gram also follows students up to six monthsafter graduation to help them cope with anyproblems that might diminish their chance forsuccess. Program staff assert that efforts to keepcontinually updated on the labor market andnew technologies within various industrieshave been a key element of their success (Cen-ter for Employment Training, 1993).

Research Management Corporation (1987) sug-gest that planners address some of the keyquestions listed in Figure 4-9 (and reprintedfrom an adaptation developed by Thomas,Bird, and Grover, 1992b, p. 24).

To assist in this process, Thomas, Bird, and Grover

(1992b) suggest that each institution appoint anadvisory panel that includes representatives of

Building Close Links With Industry Box 4G

The Center for Employment Training, based in San Jose, California, strives to hire current and highly qualified techni-

cal people directly out of industry as instructors because it believes they know what industry wants, needs, and

requires. "At CET we believe that traditional classroom training just reinforces old memories about failing in school.

Many students drop out of such programs long before they get their hands on a machine. Why? Because they are

divorced from the technical skills equipment. The prospect of a job becomes too abstract, too invisible, too

unreal....We put a student's hands on a machine first thing. It gets them hooked and builds their self-esteem," says

Russell Tershy, CET Executive Director (Bleak ley, 1994, p. B1).

'79

EST COPY AVARLOILE,

73

employers in the community likely to hire pro-gram graduates. These members should helpthe program decide which vocational trainingareas to target for LEP students and keep ad-ministrators abreast of workplace factors suchas plant closings that may lead to dislocatedworkers or new guidelines for local industriesthat will require workers to have new skills.

In the early years, project administrators oftenlearned the hard way about the importance of agood needs assessment of the community's labormarket. Pankratz and Friedenberg (1987) reporton one bilingual-vocational training project

designed to help participants prepare for jobs inheating and air-conditioning. After instituting theproject, planners found that relatively few jobs inthe field were available. To obtain existing jobs,students needed to become certified technicians.This required two years of study rather than the15 -week training offered by the program.

Developing InstitutionalSupport and AssessingExisting Resources

Building institutional support requires that awell planned presentation of the needs of poten-tial LEP students and of the local labor market,and how the program could meet these needs bedeveloped and presented to the administration ofthe institution. Planners also need to point outthe benefits that can be derived by the sponsoringinstitution. This information must be presented totop-level administrators, potential employers ofprogram graduates, and members of communityorganizations. An advisory panel can aid greatlyin this process.

Bradley, Killian, and Friedenberg (1990) outlineother considerations. Planners need to locateappropriate facilities such as space for class-

rooms and training labs, office space, andother resources such as computers, telephones,and so on. In order to minimize potential bar-riers to participation, programs need to findappropriate locations for the program, in areasaccessible to the immigrant population and onpublic transportation routes. They also need toestablish training schedules that can be asadaptable as possible to the needs of students(for example, night classes available for work-ing students).

Programs also need continued planning asfunding situations change. For example, sev-eral community college programs have facedthe reality of making transitions from BVTgrant programs to total college funding. In oneinstance, this meant promoting the initial BVTmodel to the other departments in the com-munity college system and adapting it to newoccupational areas. In another, a BVT account-ing program that moved to the continuingeducation center adapted to an individualizedinstructional format with general VESL sup-port. Yet another program reconceptualized itsBVT Early Childhood Education program toprepare LEP students to enter the early child-hood education degree program rather thanearning the Childhood Development Associatecredential that had been offered under theBVT grant.

Planning for Transitions BetweenProgramsOne potential barrier to participation, of whichplanners have become increasingly aware in re-cent years, is the lack of transition of learnersfrom one agency to another. As Wrigley (1993)and Rance-Roney (1995) point out, ESL stu-dents from adult schools rarely make transi-tions to community colleges or vocationalschools. Teachers often provide students with

74 80

Meeting the Needs of the Banking Community Box 4H

As one of the first settlement houses in urban Chicago, Erie Neighborhood House has a 125-year history of

working with low-income immigrant families. Today they continue to adapt their programs to meet the needs

of the mostly Latino community. As homes in their community became "gentrified" and the cost of housing

went up, they found that residents needed to earn higher salaries in order to be able to afford to remain in the

neighborhood. They developed the Pathways to Success program to help adults get the training they need to

move from $5.00 an hour jobs to $10 an hour jobs. The project has established relationships with 19 banks in

the area to assist in the development of a pre-employment curriculum to prepare adults to become bank tell-

ers, customer service representatives, bookkeepers, clerks, and account representatives. Many who attend the

night classes are entry-level banking employees who would like to move up in their branch bank but need

more English and other skills to do so. Local banks supply some equipment and supplies and human resource

staff from the banks volunteer to help with training. Students can also take a concurrent eight-month class in

which English is used as the medium to teach decision making, problem solving, leadership, team work, and

mathematics. Preference for enrollment is given to those earning less than $6.00 an hour and those who are

unemployed, especially displaced workers (Erie Neighborhood House, 1995).

Restructuring to Meet the Need Box 41

In the early 1990s, Houston Community College underwent a major restructuring to close the gap between the de-

mographics of the city (47% Hispanic) and those of the college (7% Hispanic). In doing so, the college surveyed the

vocational needs and interests of the community, appointed more minorities and women in leadership positions,

and developed a plan to make the Bilingual Vocational Training Director work at the systems level of the college in

the Vice Chancellor of Technical Education's office, from which he could provide leadership in setting up bilingual

vocational training programs at all the colleges in the system. In addition, at one of the colleges, an International

Education Department Chair was given the task of developing a curriculum that would address multicultural issues

(Thomas, Bird, & Grover, 1992a).

Responding and Adapting to Needs Box 4J

At the Community College of Denver in the early 1990s, ten LEP students were recruited into the mainstream Early

Childhood Education classes. Although there were some support services available, after several weeks, the students,

who had begun the program with enthusiasm, began to fall behind. To keep the students from dropping out alto-

gether, the college developed a three-hour block to introduce Early Childhood Education in a setting where instruc-

tion was taught jointly by the vocational instructor and an ESL teacher. The program is now considering a new Early

Childhood Education bridge course and other ways to ensure that LEP students can succeed in their programs

(Northern Illinois University, Office of Applied Innovations, 1994b).

75

little information about options for vocationaleducation available to them because, due tothe fragmented delivery system, teachers them-selves are often unaware of available programsor feel overwhehned by the complicated eligi-bility requirements and admission details asso-ciated with enrollment. Students find accessingthe service-delivery system even more confus-ing. This may be especially true, Wrigley as-serts, for immigrant students who enterAmerican high schools as adolescents. Thisproblem has been obscured since most pro-grams do not keep records that might indicatewhat schools students have previously at-

tended or where they go after they leave theprogram.

Planners are increasingly aware of the need toensure that there is articulation between theirintended program and others on the servicecontinuum so that students who graduate fromthe highest level in an adult school are advancedenough to enroll at the beginning levels of voca-tional programs at vocational schools or com-munity colleges. To aid in this process, in 1992,the U.S. Department of Education selected threegrantees for a National English Literacy Transi-tional Demonstration Project. Each programwas charged with developing replicable modelsfor coordinated services among providers thatwould help students make the transition fromone instructional level to another. (Boxes 4K-4Mdescribe these programs in more detail.)

In order to help students make the transitionto vocational education, many experts agreethat an environment of high expectationsmust exist and students must be provided withaccess to the information they need to selectprograms appropriate to their needs and inter-ests. As the new concept of one-stop educa-tional centers is developed, many educators

hope that such a dream can become a reality,particularly for late entry immigrant youthwho often have fallen between the cracks.

Outreach, Recruitment,and Intake

Reaching out to LEP adults in the communityoften means not only helping students alreadyin adult education make the transition to vo-cational programs, but also reaching adultswho have not yet enrolled in programs butmight benefit from them. Planners associatedwith Bilingual Vocational Training Projects sug-gest many ways to develop and strengthen re-lationships with community organizations andto promote the program in native languagepublications most likely to reach potential stu-dents. Bradley, Killian, and Friedenberg (1990),for example, provide a good outline of stepsthat can be taken to develop a comprehensiveoutreach plan.

Increasingly, educators have become aware of thekinds of barriers adults face when consideringenrolling in a vocational training program, andare finding ways to address these questions withpotential students during the recruiting andintake .process. Wrigley points out that studentsmay face both "intrinsic" and "extrinsic" barriersthat make the transition to further educationdifficult (1993, p. 5). Intrinsic barriers, sometimescalled "disposition" or "psychosocial" factors,include low self-esteem and low expectations."Extrinsic" barriers are obstacles such as workdemands or family obligations, lack of financialresources, lack of available child care, locationsthat are outside the immediate neighborhood,and inconvenient schedules that conflict withwork or family obligations. A lack of familiaritywith processes such as registration, admission,or eligibility requirements and a lack of knowledge

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Developing Curricula to Bridge the Gap Box 4K

The Arlington Adult Learning System (AALS) is a partnership developed in Arlington, Virginia, between the Arlington

Education and Employment Program (REEP), a large program for immigrants and refugees within the Arlington

County Public Schools; Hogar Hispano, a community-based organization; Marymount University, an independent,

liberal arts university; and the Employment Training Center (ETC), an adult education program of the Arlington

County Public Schools offering vocational training in clerical skills, child care, electrical trades, and printing. As one of

the National English Literacy Transitional Demonstration Projects, the programs began their collaboration by jointly

reviewing ESL curricula, starting at the upper end where the largest gap in language and skills existed. Instructors

collectively decided which skills students need to transition from the adult education program to either the vocational

training center or the university. Based on this data, they developed, piloted, and revised a coordinated ESL curriculum

track, which is documented in The Arlington Adult Learning System Curriculum: A Transitional ESL Curriculum for Adults.

The curriculum includes four levels of non-intensive lifeskills English, including pre-literacy (taught through Hogar

Hispano), seven levels of intensive lifeskills English, and advanced pre-vocational and pre-academic tracks of instruction,

as well as a computerassisted pre-vocational/pre-academic track of classroom instruction (Mansoor & Grant, 1994).

Determining the Barriers to Success Box 4L

The Massachusetts Department of Education's Massachusetts English Literacy Demonstration Project (MELD)

has established partnerships with three community-based organizations and three community colleges to de-

velop innovative approaches to transitional ESL programming. Among the activities include "bridge" classes

between community-based organizations and community colleges, co-teacher training, collaborations for cur-

riculum development, and the establishment of learning support centers using computer-based instruction. The

project analyzed barriers to college success by researching the community colleges' services and conducted an

ethnographic study on barriers to college success from the students' perspective (Kirkman, 1993).

Getting Past the First Steps Box 4M

The aim of STEP (Success through Transitional English Program) is to improve the integration of limited English pro-

ficient persons in the community into El Paso Community College's technical and academic training programs. One

of the National English Literacy Demonstration Projects, STEP has organized a series of workshops that take potential

students from adult education components through the admission and registration processes. In addition, students

also attend a special series of workshops that introduce them to note taking, test taking, and college writing. In the

next phase, students sit in on college classes for a week. Every day after class, they compare notes and discuss the

class with a STEP tutor. Once enrolled in classes, they receive customized tutoring from a STEP tutor (Clymer-Spradling, 1993).

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about support services can also keep students outof programs. Some programs (Box 4N) are coming

up with innovative approaches to recruitmentand intake that provide a nonthreatening envi-ronment in which students find out about pro-grams and get advice from staff about options forcoordinating school with other responsibilities.

Other programs have begun to offer short ori-entation sessions prior to enrollment, both toprovide students with information aboutcourse requirements before they make thecommitment to enroll and to assess students'needs and appropriateness for the program.These orientation sessions, usually offered inthe native language, give students a chance tolook at how they can surmount barriers toattending classes, whether or not the coursemeets their goals, and whether they have theprerequisite skills needed to succeed. Someprograms have found that adding this step tothe intake process is cost-effective since it canboth screen out students who face barriers thatmight preclude their completing the programat a particular point in their lives and encourageother students who may lack self-confidence intheir ability to succeed but who are, in fact,ready for the program.

Multicultural Awareness

A lack of multicultural awareness on the partof faculty and staff in educational programsand community colleges can also constitute abarrier to participation. A lack of cultural un-derstanding may cause staff at adult educationprograms, for example, to hold lower expecta-tions of their linguistic minority students andto be reluctant to encourage them to move tohigher-level instruction. Instructors withinhigher-level programs may also show an un-

willingness to receive ESL students who are notfully proficient in English or who have differ-ent cultural values and practices. In contrast,programs that promote a strong philosophy ofself-determination and high expectations amongstudents and staff often receive accolades forhigher graduation and placement rates for stu-dents. In their study of community collegesaround the country, Thomas, Bird, and Grover(1992b) found that those programs that havebeen successful in serving vocational ESL studentsare placing an increasing emphasis on the explicitpromotion of multicultural awareness, at an insti-tutional level. Programs are searching for new andbetter ways to identify culturally or linguisticallybased problems in the instructional programs andin the kinds of supportive services they offer. Theyare examining how to change the policies of com-munity colleges to reflect the contributions andinterests of diverse groups in the mission, opera-tions, and service delivery.

Although many authors have produced materi-als related to multicultural awareness, only afew specifically address the needs of adult ESLstudents preparing for the U.S. workforce. TheWorking Culture by Hemphill, Pfaffenberger,and Hockman (1989), a two-workbook series ofexercises, and Cross-Cultural Communication inthe Workplace: A Training Handbook by Reed(1984) are two examples of outstanding practi-cal materials that can be used in the class-room. In addition, the handbook ServingVocational ESL Students (Thomas, Bird, &Grover, 1992b) contains a well-researched

chapter on issues related to multiculturalawareness. As the authors point out, culturaldifferences are learned unconsciously from in-fancy, through modeling and socializationwithin one's family and one's culture.

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An ESL Expo Box 4N

Once a year, El Paso Community College sponsors an ESL Expo, a one-day career/vocational fair for ESL stu-

dents. Staff of most vocational programs at the college set up booths and make multimedia presentations

about their programs to intermediate-to-advanced ESL students. ESL classes from all three main campuses visit

the Expo; each year it is held at a different campus. After the ESL Expo, ESL instructors conduct follow-up

activities in the classroom to assist students to find out more about programs that interest them and how to

apply (Thomas, Bird, & Grover, 1992b, p. 93).

Career Awareness and Job Readiness Box 40

Many programs are beginning to find better approaches to career awareness and job readiness for students

with limited educational backgrounds. Elgin Community College (1987) in Illinois has developed Alternativas: A

Bilingual Vocational Model Program and Curriculum. Their guide presents the curriculum for a 12-week, 30-hour

bilingual career and job-readiness workshop geared to single parents. The first five sessions focus primarily on

helping students identify their own abilities and then think about how these abilities might be used in different

work situations. They visualize the kind of future they would like to have. Then, they begin to learn what goal

setting is and how to set realistic, attainable short- and long-term goals for integrating their work with their

family responsibilities. The last sessions deal with strategies for improving decision-making and for becoming

more assertive. Some of the interactive games and activities used to teach these concepts are in Spanish and

others in English, depending on the nature of the task. The activities help students become more strongly com-

mitted to succeeding in the vocational program they then choose (Elgin Community College, 1987).

Making the First Step in a Familiar Language Box 4P

Hostos Community College, located in the Bronx, serves a primarily Hispanic community where Spanish is the

common language of commerce and daily life. In order to help students, most of whom are the first genera-

tion in their family to attend college, to make the transition to the college environment, they are permitted to

take introductory content courses in their vocational (or academic) areas in Spanish while they are working on

basic skills and ESL (Thomas, Bird, & Grover, 1992b).

is EST COPY AVAILABLE

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Much of culture is unconscious. We do notnormally think about it until we bump upagainst cultural differences. Then we beginto be aware of cultural and language differ-ences and how they affect the way we in-terpret our experiences and interactionswith others. Culture has been likened toan iceberg, since much of it lies hidden be-neath the surface of our consciousness.The hidden dimensions of culture underlieour values and influence our behavior andthe way we see the world. (Thomas, Bird,& Grover, 1992b, p. 10)

Staffs at community colleges in Denver, El

Camino, El Paso, and San Francisco have devel-oped cross-cultural workshops for faculty, staff,and students to help them develop an awarenessof their own culture and its influences on theirpersonal values, behavior, and thinking process.Through experiential workshops using simula-tions, games, role plays, personal stories, andanalysis of critical incidents, they may becomemore aware of the unconscious assumptions andstereotypes they carry about gender, race, orethnicity and learn how these assumptions canresult in stereotypes, prejudice, and suspicion. AtLansing Community College, staff have held amulticultural fair and have formed a student di-versity task force. Hostos Community Collegehas organized workshops on the cultural differ-ences between their two largest Spanish-speakingpopulations: those of Dominican and PuertoRican heritage. Houston Community College re-cently mounted a special effort to hire more staffmembers who are bilingual.

Cross-cultural games and mock tests based onculture-specific information have also been in-corporated into facilitator-training activities or-ganized through Bilingual Vocational InstructorTraining Programs such as Promoting Access toVocational Education (PAVE) in California

(Franklin, 1995) and Capacity Building forStates (CBS) in Illinois (Lopez-Valadez & Reed,1989). They allow BVT administrators andteachers to step outside their own cultural as-sumptions and experience first hand the frustra-tion of the outsider. Facilitators often organizesmall group discussions of critical incidentsscenarios that involve a conflict arising from a cul-

tural differenceand help participants to. explorethe behaviors that contributed to the problemand to devise alternative strategies for handlingthe situation that take cultural factors into consid-eration. Figure 4-10 is an example of one suchcritical incident.

Developing the InstructionalComponent

Developing the instructional component tomeet the special needs of LEP students can bechallenging. There must be coordination be-tween the VESL and vocational components,the VESL teacher must use special techniquesand approaches to design the curriculum, thevocational instructor must know how to adaptinstruction to make it more comprehensible,and many decisions must be made about theproper approach to assessment. This sectionbriefly discusses these complex factors.

Adapting Teaching MethodologyCoordination Between the VESL andVocational ComponentsIdeally, developing an instructional program forLEP vocational students requires close coordina-tion between the VESL instructor and thevocational instructor. According to Lopez-

Valadez (1985), VESL instruction should supportvocational instruction by concentrating on theEnglish skills specific to the vocational program.For maximum effectiveness, she points out, theVESL instructor should know the technical con-tent of the vocational course and use language

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CRITICAL INCIDENT

Alice and Mina had become good friends shortly after they attended a community college nursingclass. They were the only two LEP students in a class of 15. Because of their English, theyhelped each other out speaking in Tagalog, and kept to themselves. They came to class early,worked through break, and always stayed after class to work on their projects. Other studentswere annoyed by their behavior and told the instructor about it.-The instructor then announcedto the class that no one was permitted to come to class early or stay beyond class hours.

1) What is the cross-cultural conflict here?

2) How do you feel about the way this situation was handled by the teacher?

3) To what degree do you agree or disagree with what was said or done?

4) What Asian cultural values (if any) are reflected here?

5) What American cultural values (if any) are reflected here?

6) How would you have handled this situation?

Figure 4-10From Franklin, L. (1995). A Guide to PAVE Facilitator Training, p. 18. Torrance, CA: El Camino Community College.

materials paralleling vocational course content.Optimally, both the vocational and the VESL in-structors analyze and determine the specific oraland written English skills appropriate for theVESL course. The vocational instructor identi-fies tasks, safety precautions, technical vocabu-lary teaching techniques, and primary teachingmaterials, while the VESL instructor identifieslanguage structures needed to understand andperform the tasks and selects appropriate lan-guage teaching techniques.

Critical Incident

As Elizabeth Platt observed in her study of col-laboration between vocational and VESL instruc-tors (1992; 1996), vocational classrooms can beexceptionally rich language learning laboratories.There are many built-in incentives for languagelearning. Of course, there is the promise of devel-oping a marketable skill. But, in addition, shepoints out, although language development is abyproduct of vocational education, studentsquickly learn that if they fail to master the tech-nical lexicon of their occupation, they cannot

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Coordinating Vocational and VESL Instruction Box 4Q

Since 1975, the China Institute in America has operated a bilingual vocational training program for Chinese chefs.

Students learn basic preparation and cooking skills necessary for Cantonese, Szechuan, Peking, and Hunan cuisines.

By the end of the course, they are able to prepare more than sixty popular dishes. The intensive program also

teaches them the English terms for all ingredients, how to take orders on the telephone, how to give prices and

describe dishes, how to interact with co-workers in English and how to give and respond to safety warnings. After

13 weeks of classroom training, trainees undergo seven weeks of field practice, returning once a week for VESL

classes and employability counseling. VESL teachers work closely with the Chinese chef/trainers, helping them to fo-

cus on the English language needed for getting and keeping a job in the field. The instructors also visit the field

practice sites to train supervisors in how to encourage English language development for trainees. Instruction is con-

ducted Sunday through Thursday to help trainees become accustomed to working on weekends and to give them

one weekday to conduct business, such as job hunting (China Institute in America, 1984).

discuss processes and procedures with supervisorsand fellow students. The implications of poten-tial communication difficulties on the job be-come more obvious. A third factor, she notes,is the fact that vocational classrooms providelanguage opportunities at many levels of profi-ciency, and the functions of language are varied.When language-sensitive instruction occurs, itcan generate the opportunity not only foranalysis, synthesis, and evaluation but also forthe higher levels of language use required tocarry out those processes. "Thus, with properlytrained instructors, home-language support,and/or VESL assistance, and with the requisitemath and other academic skills," she notes,"almost any student should be able to partici-pate successfully in vocational education"(1992, p. 37).

Methods for the VESL InstructorPlaying a support role to the vocational classdoes not mean, however, that VESL teachingrequires limited skills. In fact, the VESL teach-ing environment challenges many traditionalapproaches to ESL that focus on grammar andemphasize form over meaning. In many ESL

classrooms, Platt (1992; 1996) has observed,teachers control the topics, initiate the ques-tions, and often anticipate problems beforethey emerge, so that students must merelysupply answers to narrow questions ratherthan experiment with language themselves.Such practices, she points out, result in pro-grams that fail to stress higher order cognitiveor linguistic functions. Students do not de-scribe, explain, initiate questions, solve prob-lems, or participate in connected discourse inmany ESL classrooms.

In the worst case scenario, a VESL class mayalso fail to emphasize higher order cognitiveand linguistic functions as well. Some, for ex-ample, have been known to focus almostsolely on the memorization of a list of voca-tionally related vocabulary items. In the bestcases, however, teachers involve learners inworking collaboratively in small groups on in-teractive tasks that mirror the kinds of activi-ties that go on in the vocational classroom.

Platt recommends many ways in which VESLteachers can support vocational programs,

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Cooperative Learning Approach Box 4R

One approach used by the PAVE program in California is cooperative learning. This methodology is based on the as-

sumption that students learn more and acquire more self-confidence When they have the opportunity to take greater

responsibility for their own learning and are encouraged to work together toward a clearly defined goal. In cooperative

learning, students often sit facing each other in small group circles, discussing, explaining, and teaching each other as

they learn, with the teacher acting as a facilitator or guide. Groups are taught how to analyze their own effectiveness

and monitor their progress toward a goal. Individual as well as group outcomes and progress are considered impor-

tant (just as they might be in restructured workplaces). Teacher training materials on cooperative learning point out

that while employers seek to hire workers with prerequisite technical skills, "they may value even more those potential

employees with effective interpersonal skillspeople who can work with others, take responsibility and initiative to solve

problems, and.contribute to the team effort of furthering the goals of the organization" (p. 21). PAVE has also found

that cooperative learning-based classrooms are useful in helping students from different cultures develop an aware-

ness of the social conventions and behaviors needed to function in the American working world. When balanced with

other more traditional activities, such as lectures and presentations, PAVE found such an approach to be motivational,

as students gain more control over their own learning (Franklin, 1995).

even if the teachers lack content knowledge re-lated to the vocational skill area. Some VESLteachers she has observed have helped to makethe vocational classroom language comprehen-sible by using videotaped or audiotaped por-tions of class lectures to practice vocabularyand to identify sources of difficulty. Goodteachers also practice vocabulary by havingstudents explain concepts, function, or proce-dures, rather than simply reciting words anddefinitions. In all cases, VESL teachers visit thevocational classrooms to observe language in-teraction; occasionally, if appropriate, theymay work with LEP students in the vocationalclassroom. Teachers may also spend a gooddeal of time working with printed materials,charts, and diagrams to help students locateand comprehend information. Finally, teachersmay assign writing tasks similar to those re-quired in the occupation for which the studentis being trained. These teachers face many ob-stacles. They must not only learn new tech-niques for teaching language but also acquire

technical knowledge related to the vocationalclasses being supported. In some cases, teach-ers may be expected to learn content from sev-eral vocational areas. Platt warns, however,that playing a support role may not provideenough input for the VESL teacher truly tohelp LEP students, especially in cases where in-struction in the vocational class is deficient orthe role of the VESL teacher is not respected.

For this reason, Project CBS at Northern Illi-nois University asserts that those ESL teacherswho are particularly versed in training in thecommunicative competency approach andhave dealt with multilevel classes are bestequipped to work in a VESL context. Theproject recommends that those who would liketo become VESL teachers read about the occu-pations they might be asked to teach, inter-view vocational education instructors in thefield, and, if possible, audit the vocationalcourse to learn the content and also to observethe language and literacy requirements and

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expectations of the class. Prospective teachersmay also want to visit worksites in the skill areastaught in the class (Northern Illinois University,Office of Applied Innovations, 1994a).

Methods for the Vocational InstructorVocational instructors need specialized trainingto take advantage of the language learningpotential of their classrooms. Thomas, Bird, andGrover suggest focusing on the following culturaland language needs (1992b, pp. 51-52):

Understanding the process of second languageacquisition;Respecting and understanding students' cul-tural backgrounds;Presenting and discussing the culture of theAmerican workplace;

Arranging for bilingual assistance if necessary;Giving LEP students the time they need to fin-ish speaking and writing;Allowing time for listening and checking com-prehension;Adapting teaching and presentation styles tobe more comprehensible to LEP students by:

using gestures and visual aids,repeating and reinforcing key terms,using simple, clear speech, and

- explaining new terms and idioms of theworkplace; and

Using adapted texts or adapted readings forappropriate ESL levels by:

simplifying idiomatic and culturally specific

expressions,

reducing the number of long, complexsentences,

- turning procedural sections into logicallyordered lists,

- explaining and highlighting key pointsand terms,omitting unnecessary details,adding examples and illustrations, andincluding practice exercises.

Vocational instructors may also explore ways touse other students as resources, integrate com-munity resource persons as guest speakers, workin pairs and small groups, andusing othercooperative learning techniquesindividualizeinstructions and develop worksheets and vocabu-lary practice exercises to accompany texts. ThePAVE project has developed a number of success-ful tools for helping instructors to examine theirown practice. For example, the Lecturette Tech-niques Checklist (Figure 4-11) helps teachers toexamine their own practice by rating theirlecture techniques according to a wide range ofcriteria. Instructors can then discuss with oneanother during training sessions the areas wherethey would like to improve.

Using Tutors and AidesTutors and aides are frequently used in voca-tional programs for LEP adults, both in class-rooms and in learning labs. In the classroom,bilingual aides can be highly valued when theyknow the vocational content and speak the lan-guage of the students. Tutors can work with stu-dents individually and in small groups to explainconcepts that are not readily understood in En-glish and to help students understand aspects ofthe classroom and the workplace that may beculturally different from their previous experi-ences. When bilingual tutors are from a similarbackground as the students, they may develop asense of trust with students that is essential to acollaborative learning process. In many cases, tu-tors can provide valuable insights into the livesof individual students that can assist the VESLand vocational instructors in better planningtheir course of study.

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LECTURETTE TECHNIQUES CHECKLIST

These techniques for presenting information in a lecture situation are good for any audiencebut they are especially effective when working with limited English proficiency (LEP) students.

AFTER YOU TEACH EACH LESSON, EVALUATE YOUR OWN EFFECTIVENESS INTEACHING LEP STUDENTS BY COMPLETING THIS CHECKLIST.

1 2 3 4Hardly Sometimes Often Consistently

Language 1. Speak clearly and at amoderate speed?

2. Form short, structurally simplesentences?

3. Keep terminology constant, avoidtoo many alternative expressionsand slang?

Content

4. Repeat key vocabulary, both withinsentences and separately?

5. Introduce the main idea before you"dive into" the lesson?

6. Present information in small,discrete places?

7. State important concepts severaltimes, varying sentence structureto get points across?

Multisensory 8. Use physical gestures and "bodyCommunication language" to demonstrate a point

or procedure?

ComprehensionChecks

9. Use visual aids?Actual tools and equipment,

pictures, charts, your own drawingson blackboard, slides, films, etc.

10. Ask comprehension questionsduring the presentation?

First, YES/NO questionsThen, "Which, what, where, when"

questions which require only oneor two word answers-Finally, open-ended "how" and"why" questions

0ElElEl

ElElElEl

Figure 4-11 Lecturette Techniques ChecklistFrom Franklin, L. (1995). A Guide to PAVE Facilitator Training, p. 26b. Torrance, CA: El Camino Community College.

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Determining Curriculum NeedsIn recent years, an increasing number of VESLand vocational training materials for LEP studentshave been developed. Curriculum materials existin a wide variety of areas. Some cover topicsrelated to career awareness and cultural orienta-tion. Many pre-employment training workbooksdealing with general competencies related to pre-paring for jobs can be found. Vocational materialsin career areas such as agriculture, business,

health, home economics, and industry are avail-able, often both in English and other languages(most commonly Spanish). Most of the materialshave been written by practitioners working in thefield. Planners wishing to locate materials maywant to consult the Work World Resources Data-base at the Center for Applied Linguistics (1996).The database houses information about existingcurriculum materials, including up-to-date infor-mation about materials available through ERIC,the Educational Resource Information Center. Anumber of commercial materials also exist, par-ticularly those addressing more general compe-tency areas that apply to many vocations.

In most cases, however, while existing curriculummaterials may serve as a guide, program personnelfind they must develop their own materials oradapt course materials chosen by their institutionto suit the context of their program. In order todevelop the curriculum, instructors must under-take a needs assessment. In From the Classroom tothe Workplace (Center for Applied Linguistics,1983), the authors suggest that instructors takeinto account the following questions:

What are the linguistic and cultural back-grounds of the learners?

What are the vocational goals of these learners?What must they be able to do with English inorder to succeed in jobs?What level of proficiency will they need? Howaccurate must their pronunciation and theiruse of English grammar be?

What is the minimal vocabulary they will needto be able to pursue their vocational trainingand be successful in their job?What cultural preconceptions of education andlanguage classes, in particular, should be takeninto consideration in these materials? (p. 64)

In addition to the above questions, curriculumdevelopers need to take into consideration in-stitutional goals and realities, such as themodel of articulation between various programcomponents, the total instructional time allot-ted, and other requirements. They may be ableto receive valuable information from their in-stitution if they have conducted an institution-wide assessment of the needs of LEP students.

After the materials are developed, they may befield tested and revised before being imple-mented. Then, as they are used, they may befurther evaluated. Even after materials havebeen refined, instructors may find that eachclass is different and further adaptations willcontinually be needed to make the materialsrelevant for a particular group. This is espe-cially true for learner-centered curricula that re-quire input from students in developing andusing the lessons. Planning for curriculum de-velopment, most practitioners find, is an ongo-ing process, but one that can be challengingand fun as instructors find ways to developmaterials that are ever more responsive to stu-dents needs.

According to the Center for Applied Linguistics(1983), curriculum planners need to consultmany data sources in undertaking their needsassessment. The vocational instructor, ofcourse, is a key source of information and canprovide samples of instructional materials andcurricula used in existing vocational trainingprograms. Often this material is developed fornative speakers of English and must beadapted to meet the needs of LEP students.

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The planner may also want to interview stu-dents, former students, and bilingual aides togain insight into the difficulties they have ex-perienced in the classroom. If time and fund-ing permit, planners should visit workplaces tobecome acquainted with the language de-mands of the vocation, the situations in whichlanguage and literacy are used, and the relativeproficiency required. They should conduct on-site observations as well as interview employersand employees (particularly those from linguis-tic minorities) and collect samples of writtenmaterials used on the job or present in thework environment (such as notices on bulletinboards). Planners should be alert not just tolanguage used to perform the job but also tothe kinds of linguistic interactions that takeplace in the cafeteria and on break time be-tween co-workers and between workers and su-pervisors. Vocational instructors can learnmuch about conducting needs assessmentsfrom the experience of educators working inthe field of workplace education (described inChapter 5). Finally, especially if the curriculumis to be used by many teachers, plannersshould consider the needs of their teachers:their level of experience, whether they are fa-miliar with the vocational area, and their pre-vious experience teaching language. Many maywork part time and have little time for prepa-ration outside the classroom. Others may comefrom a foreign language teaching backgroundand may be unfamiliar with working with stu-dents who possess lower levels of literacy (Cen-ter for Applied Linguistics, 1983).

Adapting and Creating MaterialsCreating VESL MaterialsAfter a needs assessment has been completed,the curriculum planner must choose a syllabusdesign and begin to identify the objectives orcompetencies to be addressed, the languagefunctions to be covered, sample language toguide teachers, and classroom activities and

supplemental materials to use. As discussed inChapter 3, a wide variety of approaches to secondlanguage instruction exist. These are reflected inthe kinds of syllabus designs currently in use invocational ESL programs. Many curriculum mate-rials were reviewed in the preparation of thisreport, and many of the syllabus designs foundwere structured more traditionally around lan-guage forms to be mastered and the rules for com-bining them. Language patterns were presentedand students were expected to repeat them. Vo-cabulary was highly controlled in order to focuson grammar. Little reading and writing was evi-dent (possibly based on the premise that readingand writing should be delayed until speaking andlistening skills are sufficiently developed). Theproblem with such an approach (which is becom-ing less popular) is that students may leave theclass having practiced a pattern, but may be un-able to respond in reallife situations wherespeakers may use variations of the pattern. Inaddition, this approach focuses attention onthe language itself rather than on authenticcommunication.

Instead of focusing on grammatical forms andlanguage patterns, many of the more recentlydeveloped materials use a competency-basedapproach that focuses on situations in which anindividual might have to use language. Lan-guage competencies are often listed and thenpaired with related language functions (such asrequests, offers, warnings, refusals, or threats).For example, an objective such as "offer andrespond to suggestions" might list expressingadvice as a key language function. A variety ofsentences that might be used with that functionin differing situations might then be provided,such as "May I offer a suggestion?," "I think weshould...," and "Wouldn't it be a good ideato...." Then, activities that can be used to stimu-late natural communication can be devised.Some programs rely on general commercialadult ESL materials that can be matched to the

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VESL competencies to be addressed. Other pro-grams devise interactive activities such as roleplays, team building exercises, critical incidents,and games to allow students to use the lan-guage as part of more authentic communicativeactivities that integrate reading and writingtasks with speaking and listening.

Still other programs use the vocational textbook asthe primary source and develop their lessons to co-ordinate with each chapter. The approach selecteddepends not only on the background and phi-losophy of the curriculum planner, but also, asmentioned earlier, on the backgrounds of theteachers, their available planning time, theease of use, and the way in which the materi-als can be coordinated with the vocationaltraining component.

Modifying Vocational MaterialsIn addition to developing a competency-basedcurriculum to address necessary language func-tions needed to communicate in the vocationalclassroom and on the job, curriculum plannersneed to modify the vocational materials used inthe program. As PAVE facilitator Laura Franklinpoints out (1995), standard texts and readingsmay need to be altered to allow easier access,with smaller text units and simpler sentences.Vocabulary should be streamlined to omit re-dundancy, slang, or variant terminology. Activestructures should replace passive ones, and all"understood" sentence parts (such as pronouns,for example) need to be restored to aid compre-hension. Materials, she stresses, also need to beadapted so they are visually accessible, with lessdense text, more white space, and numerousheadings and subheadings to guide students tothe relevant information. The page layoutshould allow for numerous illustrations and dia-grams (1995, p. 25). "Presenting information insmall pieces, with repetition of key words andideas," she observes, "helps students to followalong. And using pictures, gestures and demon-

strationsstrategies that take advantage of stu-dents' diverse learning styleswill reinforce theinformation presented visually" (1995, p. 26e). AtPAVE, facilitators examine samples of text materi-

als along with counterpart adaptations and workthrough sample exercises that give them hands-on experience revising text to make it more acces-sible (Figures 4-12 and 4-13).

The Use of TechnologyWhen curriculum materials were reviewed for thispaper, very few examples of the use of technologyin the classroom were found. Thomas, Bird, andGrover (1992b) also remarked on the lack of avail-

ability of technology for VESL and vocational edu-cation for LEP adults in their survey of more than50 community colleges, suggesting that technol-ogy remains an untapped resource for many pro-grams. They point out the need to investigate theimpact of distance learning and other individuallypaced alternatives for LEP adults, to determine ef-fectiveness of computer-based learning, to explorehow technology can be used for students withmultiple barriers (e.g., the hearing impaired), andto develop model approaches to using coursewareauthoring systems (1992b, p. 51). The key areawhere technology was observed was in centersand labs where students could go for remediationof basic academic and language skills. In thesecenters, self-paced computer-based programs toteach content, build vocabulary, and practice tak-ing tests were available. In a few cases, videos were

also available. For example, videos designed forhomeowners were used by programs in the build-ing trades. In his study of immigrant adults in theSan Francisco area, Hemphill (Center for LiteracyStudies, 1992) found that immigrant adults usevideo frequently in their everyday lives. Moviesand other instructional guides in their native lan-guage provide recreation and a vital link to theirhome culture and language. Box 4V describes afew of the videos that exist within the field.Many were developed for teacher training. Severalon-line bulletin boards exist for practitioners andadministrators as well.

88 94

Competency-Based Approaches Box 4S

The Office Skills Training Course developed by Fairfax County Schools is an example of a competency-based

approach to VESL instruction. During the 600-hour course, 300 hours are devoted to keyboarding, filing, using

calculators, and using a copier and facsimile machine. The remaining 300 hours focus on VESL topics, taught

by theme areas. Their detailed curriculum outline describes a sequence for identifying and teaching many key

functions students need to get and keep a clerical job, from basic introductions, to using the telephone, to

looking for a job, to cultural and communication factors that impact on keeping the job (Roberts & Walton, 1993).

Cultural "Pink Sheets" Box 4T

Chinatown Resources Development Center's, the program that led to the popular VESL pre-vocational series English

That Works (Savage, How, & Yeung, 1982), the native language was used to introduce new survival ESL lessons and

explain terms difficult to define or demonstrate in English, such as zip codes or social security cards, and to provide

relevant cross-cultural information about topics such as handshaking and greeting behavior. These introductory

sheets were published separately from the lesson and in Chinese. People not enrolled in the program often stopped

by to pick up these "pink sheets" because they provided valuable information in their own language (Chinatown

Resources Development Center, 1985).

Exploring the Links Between Work and Culture Box 4U

Work and Your Life is an 11-lesson unit designed for ESL students at the intermediate to advanced levels. Its focus

is on the exploration of work and related lifestyle issues. Together students explore their definitions of work and

differences between work in the United States and their home countries. They also explore through charting ac-

tivities how other people may hold differing values toward work. This leads to an exploration of students' goals

toward work in this country and how they will maintain their cultural values while adjusting to the realities of the

U.S. workplace (Benice, 1993).

89

ORIGINAL VERSION

REPAIRING CRACKS IN PLASTER WALLS (Excerpt)

Remove loose plaster using the pointed end of a can opener, undercutting awedge-shaped opening in the wall so that the spackling compound will hold. Thearea to be patched should be wetted with a sponge to prevent water absorptionby the old plaster. (If the patch dries out too quickly, cracking may result.) Using apre-mixed spackling compound and a putty knife, fill the crack so that it is slightlyhigher than the wall.

ADAPTED VERSION

REPAIRING CRACKS IN PLASTER WALLS (Excerpt)

Materials you will need:

Procedure:

pointed can opener, spackling compound, container for mixingspackling compound, putty knife

1. Remove the loose plaster around the crack with the pointedend of a can opener.

2. Make a cut under the plaster with the can opener.

wall crack cut under plaster

3. Wet the area with a sponge.4. Put spackling compound into the crack with the putty knife.

spackling compound

Figure 4-12 Example of Modified TextFrom Franklin, L. (1995). A Guide to PAVE Facilitator Training, p. 26e. Torrance, CA: El Camino Community College.

90 9

STRATEGIES FOR MODIFYING TEXT

USE SHORT, SIMPLE SENTENCES

Original: Examining the system includes checking for and repairing leaks,which left undetected can cause problems in the future.

Adapted: Also, check for leaks.Repair leaks immediately.Unrepaired leaks can cause problems in the future.

Original: To ensure that both sections are even, stand behind the patron, grabthe hair, and, pulling it up, cut straight across.

Adapted:

USE SIMPLE VERB CONSTRUCTIONS

Original: Low temperature may have been the reason for the leak.

Adapted: Low temperature was possibly the reason for the leak.

Original: This could be expected to reoccur.

Adapted:

AVOID PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS (Use imperativecommandsfor procedures.)

Original: . . . filters must be replaced. . . this is done by turning

Adapted: Replace the filter . . .

Turn the . . .

Figure 4-13 Strategies for Modifying TextFrom Franklin, L. (1995). A Guide to PAVE Facilitator Training, p. 26c. Torrance, CA: El Camino Community College.

91

Videos for Workplace and Vocational ESL: A Sampler Box 4V

English at Work: A Tool Kit for Teachers, developed by Barndt, Belfiore, and Handscombe (1991) is a35-minute video highlighting a participatory approach to learning in action based on the work of the Center

for Workforce Education in Canada.

A Model Program for Serving LEP Students, developed by Joan Friedenberg (1991b) is a 45-minute

video directed primarily at administrators and teachers, highlighting the Bilingual Vocational Training Program.

It was produced through the Center for Education and Training for Employment at The Ohio State University in

Columbus, Ohio.

Sharing What Works, a series of videos produced by the Center for Applied Linguistics (1993) with funding from

the Hewlett Foundation includes two workplace ESL titles. Union-Sponsored Worker ESL Education highlights the Inter-

national Ladies' Garment Workers Union project in New York City, and Workplace ESL Classes describes the work-

place education program at the Arlington (Virginia) Education and Employment Program.

Tools of the Trade (1992b) and other videos that are part of The Cutting Edge series were developed at

the El Paso Community College Literacy Center. These videos and help learners to visualize working and speak-

ing English on the job.

VESL Strategies for Community College Practitioners by Kathleen Wong (1992) is a video of a workshop

presented to PAVE facilitators. Other teacher training videos were produced by PAVE.

A Workbook for Work Plays: You and Your Rights on the Job by Lenore Balliro (1988) was developed

as part of a project for the Arnold M. Dubin Labor Education Center at Southeastern Massachusetts University.

A teacher's text outlining how to use this video, developed through a participatory process with students, is

also available. (See the bibliography for more information about how to obtain the materials.)

Working in the United States by the Center for Applied Linguistics (1987) is a series of three videos describing

workplace language and practices to recently arrived immigrants and refugees. Workbooks to accompany the

materials are available.

92

Learner AssessmentDeveloping an assessment process is one of thekey elements of the overall instructional com-ponent. It is also one of the most difficult andproblematic. Few adult vocational ESL educa-tors are satisfied with the existing choices.Many commercially available tests are inappro-priate for use with adult ESL learners and nosingle test meets the needs of every context.Yet, in spite of their limitations, in many casesfunders continue to require that these tests beused for multiple purposes: to ascertain entryrequirements, to judge individual learnerprogress, and often to measure program effec-tiveness. Alternative approaches to assessmentare being developed; however, most do notmeet certain program accountability require-ments. To develop good alternative assessmenttools and processes requires time and effortand additional funding that has not beenavailable to many programs. This section willhighlight some of the key issues in assessingvocational ESL students and describe usefulmaterials planners can consult as they makedecisions in this area.

The Purposes of TestingIn Sparks of Excellence, Wrigley, Chisman, andEwen (1993) provide an overview of many ofthe concerns regarding testing and assessmentthat face adult ESL practitioners. One of thekey difficulties, they point out, is that no oneinstrument can serve all purposes. After a com-munity needs assessment has been undertakento determine the kinds of services that are ap-propriate, there are a variety of types of learnerassessment that can be undertaken. Amongthese are the following:

Intake. An intake process serves to makesure the program is the right one for an in-dividual student. During the intake process,vocational students are often given tests for

literacy and language proficiency as well asassessments to determine their career inter-ests and aptitudes.

Placement. During the intake process, stu-dents are often also assessed for the purposeof placing them in a certain level or class.Students may be given oral proficiency tests,reading and writing tests in English, andtests in their native language.

Progress. As students continue in the pro-gram, they and their teachers need to knowhow well they are mastering the informa-tion being taught. Progress assessment maybe formative, where progress is judged mid-way through the program in order to planfor ongoing instruction, or summative,where students and teachers together judgea student's progress in meeting the programgoals. Both commercially available tests andalternative assessment tools such as portfoliosare used to assess progress.

Achievement. Employers and educators oftenwant to know whether students haveachieved certain threshold levels that wouldindicate readiness for further academic orvocational education or whether they canperform certain job tasks as demonstratedthrough various kinds of standardized testsrequired for certification in a certain skillarea.

Diagnosis. Once in a classroom, teachers of-ten also prepare their own assessment pro-cesses to determine what students alreadyknow about the content area and to get abetter sense of language and other instruc-tional needs.

In selecting assessment tools, Thomas, Bird,and Grover (1992b) point out that it is impor-

9993

tant to consider such factors as whether theyare designed for adults, whether they assess theappropriate language or skill areas, whether themeasurement approach is appropriate for thepurpose, and whether the instruments aretechnically sound.

Commercially Available TestsCommercially available tests (informally known asstandardized tests) commonly used in vocationalESL programs include adult basic educationtests designed for native speakers of Englishand ESL tests designed for those who speak En-glish as a second language.

The most popular ABE tests include the Test ofAdult Basic Education (TABE) and the AdultBasic Learning Examination (ABLE), which aregiven to measure general reading ability, andthe Comprehensive Adult Student AssessmentSystem (CASAS), which measures whether aperson can complete certain competency tasksand also measures listening comprehension. Inaddition, another reading test asking studentsto perform everyday tasks related to document,prose, and quantitative literacy, the Test ofApplied Literacy (TALS), has recently been re-leased (Wrigley, 1993, p. 14).

Adult vocational ESL programs also commonlyadminister various ESL tests designed for adults.No single one of these tests, however, is able tomeet the needs of all students. The Basic EnglishSkills Test (BEST) (Center for Applied Linguistics,1989) primarily measures basic survival skills inlistening and conversation. This test is used

throughout the country in programs servinglower-level students and those with relatively littleschooling. A useful factor is that the scores havebeen correlated to a set of Student PerformanceLevels (SPLs) that have given programs a language

through which to talk about the needs of studentsof varying levels. The test, however, is less able to

assess students with advanced levels of English.The Comprehensive English Language Skills Assess-

ment (CELSA) is used to assess familiarity withEnglish structures in context and how well astudent can deal with written English texts atvarying levels of difficulty. In at least one state (Il-

linois), this test has been approved by the StateDepartment of Education as an assessment of anESL students' "ability to benefit," a requirementfor obtaining Pell grants (Wrigley, 1993, p. 15).The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)

is the most comprehensive of the standardizedESL tests. It is used primarily for admissions andplacement purposes in colleges and universitiesand is only appropriate for advanced-level ESLlearners. Many community colleges may also usethe Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency as

a placement test to determine if ESL students areready for academic courses. It tests grammar, vo-cabulary, and reading comprehension.

Within vocational education, tests of oral profi-ciency have also been developed for vocationalstudents. The Bilingual Vocational Oral Proficiency

Test, developed in 1979, measures English lan-guage skills in listening and speaking. The con-tent and language of the test is geared to thecontext of vocational education instruction(Melton Peninsula, 1979). Recently, the U.S. De-partment of Education funded a research projectto develop the Adult Rating of Oral English(AROE) (Zehler & DiCerbo, 1995) and to exam-ine its reliability and validity as a measure of oralEnglish proficiency of secondary and adult LEPvocational students. The AROE is a rating matrixcompleted by teachers on the basis of their ob-servations of their students' use of English acrossa range of classroom situations. It is made up ofeleven components organized into two matrices.Each component is described in terms of six lev-els of proficiency from zero to five. Since theAROE does not require specific testing sessionswith students and makes only limited demands

9410.0

on program resources, it may be a particularlyuseful tool to many programs.

The Gatekeeping Function of TestsThe issue of how tests are used as gatekeepersto keep hard-to-serve students out of voca-tional training is of considerable concern. (SeeHempstead, 1990, for a broader discussion ofthis issue.) Many vocational schools have entryrequirements based on achieving a grade-levelequivalent on commercially available tests. Inaddition, recent federal legislation requires thatcolleges select a test from an approved list andthat a certain performance level on that test beused to determine a student's ability to benefitfrom college study. Students not meeting therequired level are ineligible for federal financialaid such as Pell Grants. No formal studies havebeen undertaken to ascertain the relationshipbetween test scores and a limited English profi-cient student's ability to benefit from voca-tional training. According to some experts, LEPvocational students can often perform tasks in-volving highly technical language and literacymaterials when they learn them in the contextof the tasks to be performed. Although stu-dents' assessed reading level may be below thelevel of the material, they can sometimeshandle difficult vocabulary and materials effec-tively because of familiarity with the context,past experience with the terminology, or therepetitive nature of the reading and writingtasks associated with the job.

Vocational Aptitude and Interest TestsVocational programs may also administer awide variety of vocational aptitude and interesttests, most of them designed for native speak-ers of English. Programs serving LEP studentsmay or may not utilize such tests. There existvarious kinds of career ability placement testsincluding occupational aptitude and interestsurveys, pictorial inventories of careers, and

various tests of abilities such as hand tool dex-terity tests, clerical abilities batteries, spacial re-lations tests, and safety awareness tests. Thesemay be pencil and paper or computerized tests.In addition, a series of tests exist designed forthe purpose of measuring learning styles.Many programs administer a wide .variety ofmathematics tests, depending on the require-ments of the skill area, as well (Fiske & Todd,1994).

Alternative AssessmentThe number of vocational programs exploring theuse of alternative assessment tools is increasing.Often developed to match closely what is beingtaught in the program, these tests provide infor-mation of use to both teachers and students. In1994, Classroom Strategies for Assessing LimitedEnglish Proficient Students in Vocational Programs:

A Resource Handbook was published as part of aproject commissioned by the U.S. Department ofEducation Office of Vocational and Adult Educa-tion to explore the kinds of assessment strategiesvocational programs for LEP students' use (Fiskeand Todd, 1994).

Among the alternatives addressed by Fiske andTodd are doze format tests, rating scales, andportfolio assessment. A doze test presents thereader with an altered written text. The readeruses a variety of global reading strategies tocomprehend the passage in order to put itback into its correct form. Generally speaking,some pattern is selected for deleting wordsfrom the text. For example, in a classic dozetest, every nth word is randomly deleted (seeFigure 4-14). In the so-called rational deletiondoze, the teacher may select specific words,such as technical vocabulary, to be deleted.Cloze tests are most commonly used for assessingreading comprehension levels and sometimes forplacement in programs.

10195

An auto mechanic is tuning up a car. As she is working on the car shediscovers that the windshield washers are not working. She calls theowner and he 1 the mechanic to repair them.

The 2 must first find the cause 3 the problem. She checks her

repair 4 and finds these troubleshooting suggestions:

1. 5 fluid tank. Is it full?2. Check hoses. 6 they damaged, loose, or kinked?

Are 7 plugged up?3. Check electrical connections. Are the 8 loose?

4. Check wiper/washer switch. Does 9 work?

Figure 4-14 Sample of a Classic Cloze TestFrom Fiske, K., & Todd, S. (1994). Classroom Strategies for Assessing Limited English Proficient Students in Vocational Programs: A Resource Handbook,

p. 6-2. Chevy Chase, MD: Crosspaths Management Systems.

Rating scales, indicating how well a task or be-havior is being performed on a continuum ofpossible levels, are another common tool usedin vocational programs with limited Englishproficient students. This tool has been used forspecific task performance, for coursework com-petencies, and for measurement of career com-petencies across an integrated curriculum.Rating scales can also be used effectively as ameans for self-appraisal in a counseling situa-tion, for example. A key drawback is that suchratings can be very subjective. There exists po-tential for abuse or discrimination since one in-structor may judge performance very differentlyfrom another. An example of a rating scale usedin a VESL context is found in Figure 4-15.

Portfolios are another teaching and assessmenttool that have grown in popularity in recentyears. Portfolios are compilations of productsthat demonstrate the learning process that hasled to certain acquired skills. (Fiske & Todd,1994). Often they include a wide variety of stu-dents' work that is dated and kept together in afolder, including student writing, performanceassessment results, diagrams, blueprints, draw-ings, instructor observations, comments, anec-dotes, lists of reading completed or tapeslistened to, print-outs of results of computer-assisted instructional feedback, and other mate-rials. See Figure 4-16 for an example of a portfolio

sign-off sheet used by one vocational program.

96102

DATA ENTRY VESL COMPETENCIES

Rating Scale:4 - Skilled Uses English appropriately without prompting or assistance: is easily understood; almost always uses correct

grammar, spelling, and pronunciation.3 - Moderately skilled Uses English appropriately, but may require occasional prompting or assistance; usually easy to

understand - good control of grammar, spelling, and pronunciation.2 Acceptable skill - Uses English in a generally appropriate manner; requires some prompting or assistance; can be

understood, but may take some effort - mistakes in grammar, spelling, and pronunciation do not usually inhibit abilityto be understood; mistakes may be numerous.

1 - Limited skill - Has difficulty using English appropriately; often requires prompting or assistance; often difficult tounderstand - does not control grammar, spelling, or pronunciation; mistakes inhibit ability to be understood.

0 - No skilVexperience in this area - Cannot use English appropriately; does not respond to prompting or assistance;extremely difficult or impossible to understand - pronunciation may be almost incomprehensible. Use this rating whenstudent has not attended corresponding classes and has not made up work.

COMPETENCIES TO BE RATED 4 3 2 1 0

ORIENTATION

1. Introduce oneself/state background.

2. Ask information question.

3. Ask for clarification.

TELEPHONING

1. Answer phone in office setting.

2. Give and take a phone message.

3. Transfer a call.

4. Report a message.

5. Use good telephone manners.

6. React to information.

7. Terminate the call.

8. Call for information about a job opening.

9. Call to request a job application.

10. Call to make an appointment for an interview.

11. Ask for clarification of/confirm information in telephone calls. .

12. Follow up an interview by phone.

13. Understand recorded telephone message on local job hot lines.

ALPHABETIZING/FILING/ABBREVIATIONS/SPELLING

1. Alphabetize vocabulary words.

2. Learn state, territory, street names.

3. Learn to spell American names.

4. Learn to spell terminology/words.

5. Index names.

SOCIALIZING ON THE JOB

1. Greet a supervisor, co-worker.

2. Roleplay a social conversation in English with a supervisor/co-worker.

3. Compare jobs and countries.

Figure 4-15 Data Entry VESL CompetenciesFrom Fiske, K., & Todd, S. (1994). Classroom Strategies for Assessing Limited English Proficient Students in Vocational Programs: A Resource Handbook,p. 7-27. Chevy Chase, MD: Crosspaths Management Systems.

103LEST COPY AVAIRAIBILE

97

Portfolio Sign-Off Sheet Student:Class:

Keep this form at the front of your Date:working folder. Check off each item as Teacher:it is completed. Some pieces need tobe reviewed or signed off by yourteacher. Space is provided for yourteacher's initials.

IrCheck off when complete: Date Teacher Initials

Table of ContentsLetter of IntroductionCareer Development Package

Application for employment or collegeLetter of RecommendationResume

Work SamplesWork Sample #1 and captionWork Sample #2 and captionWork Sample #3 and captionWork Sample #4 and caption

Research Write-upOutline (with teacher comments)Draft (with teacher comments)Final write-up

Supervised Practical Experience Evaluation

Figure 4-16 Portfolio Sign-Off SheetFrom Fiske, K., & Todd, S. (1994). Classroom Strategies for Assessing Limited English Proficient Students in Vocational Programs: A Resource Handbook, p.

8-27. Chevy Chase, MD: Crosspaths Management Systems.

98 104

Thomas, Bird, and Grover (1992b) describe theuse of performance tests to assess a student'sabilities to integrate a series of competencies toperform job-related tasks. Often performancetests are given both before and after a giventopic area is covered to assess mastery. See Fig-ure 4-17 for an example of a performance-based test that rates the competencies neededby a receptionist to take telephone messages.Like most performance-based assessments, thistest can be administered through a classroomsimulation.

Programs continue to work toward establishinggreater reliability and validity in assessing stu-dents' work. As Burt and Keenan assert (1995,p. 2), "Current practice and theory seem torecommend using a combination of commer-cially available tests and program-developed as-sessment instruments." A key challenge is todevelop assessment frameworks that "are gen-eral enough to allow for program comparisonand flexible enough to take into account localprogram context" (Wrigley, 1993, p. 18). Muchprogress has been made in the last few years;however, programs are severely hampered by alack of funds to develop these tools and by alack of a system of coordination that mightallow materials developed at one site to befield tested by other programs.

Support Services

Support services for LEP students encompass awide range of activities and utilize many differ-ent kinds of staff. Support services may beginwith the outreach process mentioned earlier,which may be conducted with the assistanceof bilingual program counselors. During the in-take phase, special counselors may help with fi-nancial aid or determine their eligibility forfederally or state-funded programs. Initial as-sessment may be conducted by teachers in

small programs, but more often in larger pro-grams it is administered by special staff per-sons. At community colleges, students mayalso receive academic advising and support. Thismay be undertaken by instructors; however,students may also be sent to a special learninglab staffed with bilingual tutors to get extrahelp when they need it. Programs may offersome form of personal counseling services thatwill assist with personal adjustment needs andmay provide referrals to services such as childcare, substance abuse clinics, family counsel-ing, emergency assistance, and legal services.Career counseling and job placement are key ele-ments of any program and should be integratedthroughout the program from career awareness tocareer interest assessment to intemships or work-study programs and finally to preparation for jobinterviews and job placement. In successful pro-grams, job developers make links with businessand industry and set up interviews for studentsduring the later stages of their vocational pro-gram. There is follow-up with the student duringthe early months after job placement. Figure 4-18describes services available in a comprehensivecommunity college program.

Immigrant students may have many specialneeds. Many may only know about the workexperiences and options that have been avail-able to their relatives or friends. They may notknow the range of career options available tothem, the qualifications needed for entering agiven occupation, the earning possibilities ofvarious jobs, or the labor demand for differentkinds of occupations. Some may overestimatetheir abilities to achieve a certain career goal;others may underestimate their skills and abili-ties. Students from countries where there arefewer options in career paths may need to becounseled concerning the concept of careermobility: that one can move up within a com-pany once an initial job is gained. Many may

10599

Performance Test for Telephone Role Play

Task Record telephone messages

Performance objective In a classroom role play, record all the information for atelephone message on a "While You Were Out" message pad.

Related communicative Understand speech over the phone.competencies Report/write factual information.

Ask for clarification.Ask for additional/complete information.Ask for/record the spelling of names.Read, understand, and use message pad.

ITEM CRITERIA FOR FULL CREDIT 0 1 2 NOTES

1. To first & last names2. Date month, day, & year3. Time hour & minutes, circle AM or PM4. M complete M (Mr., Mrs., Ms.),

first & last names5. of name of organization6. Area code

& exchangearea code & exchange, extension

if given7. Call box check check appropriate box(es)8. Message, content include all information given9. Message,

mechanicscorrect spelling & grammar, clear

& legible10. Operator first & last names

TOTALSCORE:

SCORERating: Criteria for Competency0=missing 20=full competency1=partial 16-19=minimal acceptable competency2=complete below 16=below competency

Trainee: Date:

Attempt: Trainer's Signature:

Figure 4-17 Performance Test for Telephone Role PlayFrom Thomas, R., Bird, L., & Grover, J. (1992b). Serving Vocational ESL Students,. p. 79. Washington, DC: American Association of Community Colleges.

100

106

Entering the College

Program

Early in the

Program

Later in the

Program

Exiting the

Program

Outreach and

Admissions

Active recruiting

Coordinating events

Bilingual response to

student inquiry

Process applications

Welcome students

Introduce key college

staff

Peer/family recruitment

Explain more advanced

opportunities

Involve students as

tutors/mentors

Involve LEP alumni

Involve LEP student

employers

Financial Aid Explain availability of

funds

Test for ability-to-benefit

Review residency

requirements

Stress application deadlines

Coordinate resources

Announce any changes

Next application deadline

Coordinate resources

Explain transitions

Plan for completion

and exit

Coordinate resource

transitions (insur-

ance, childcare, etc.)

Academic

Advising and

Support

Evaluate assessment

Establish individual

educational plans

Initiate tutorial support

Evaluate placement

Adjust individual educa-

tional plans

Monitor tutorial support

Plan for completion or

transfer

Augment elective choices

Refine critical skills

Review educational plan

Maintain an open door.

for future educa-

tional advancement

Counseling

Services and

Referrals

Assess background

Initiate available college-

based services

Monitor early attendance

Evaluate college-based

services and referrals

Develop the relationship

Expand the peer/mentor

network

Foster success

Manage stress

Begin transition away

from campus-based

support

Encourage self-reliance

Monitor transition

services

Congratulate the

achievement

Career

Counseling

and Job

Placement

Introduce workplace

expectations

Initiate career

assessment

Establish goals

Evaluate match of goals,

abilities, and local

economy

Continue career

exploration

Adjust goals and plans

Initiate contact with

related employers

Develop employability

skills

Active involvement with

potential employers

Initiate alumni mentors

Encourage LEP alumni

to mentor current

students

Evaluate graduates

Figure 4-18 Support Service Requirements at Different StagesFrom Thomas, R., Bird, L., & Grover, J. (1992b). Serving Vocational ESL Students, p. 71. Washington, DC: American Association of Community Colleges.

BEST (COPY MAMA

107101

as yet be unaware of the importance Englishlanguage proficiency can play in meeting theirgoals. In some countries, there are fewer op-tions in career and occupational paths; stu-dents need to be made aware of the optionsavailable to them in this country. Studentsmay also need help in prioritizing their timeaccording to Western standards. Some may feeltorn between the responsibilities of school andcultural demands stressing the importance oftaking care of older family members.

Various approaches have been used to organizea network of support services for students.Thomas, Bird, and Grover (1992b) outlinethree approaches. In the first, a case manageris assigned to each LEP student. The job of thecase manager is to address all of the student'ssupport needs. This approach is used in manycommunity colleges, as well as within manyJOBS, JTPA, and refugee-funded programs. Theadvantage of this approach is that the studentcan form a close relationship with a single caseworker who should provide a coordinated plantailored to the individual student. However,the quality of services is then highly depen-dent on the background and commitment of asingle individual. In addition, many case work-ers have large caseloads that make it difficultto reach everyone at important stages such asregistration and end-of-program placement.Special centers are another way in which sup-port services can be organized. In this case,support services are provided at a centralizedsite in the community college or vocationalschool and managed as an integrated system.Faculty and staff at the center are cross-trainedto make sure a strong referral network is cre-ated. A special support center for LEP studentsmight offer career awareness, financial aid, reg-istration assistance, tutoring, and job place-ment information all at a single site. This

approach has been successful for manywomen's centers within community collegesand is, in essence, the approach of many bilin-gual vocational training programs. Finally, thethird "mainstream" approach simply encour-ages students to seek out various offices tomeet their individual needs on their own.Some of the various offices may have bilingualstaff, but it is up to the students themselves tonegotiate their various needs. Although someprograms offer initial orientations to the vari-ous services available, it is very possible for atleast some of the students' needs to go unmetin this approach.

Staffing and StaffDevelopment

Working as a VESL instructor or aide requires agood deal of skill. Instructors must not onlyhave a background in how adults develop andacquire proficiency in a second language butmust also either know or be prepared to learnabout vocational content areas. Teachers mustuse appropriate teaching methodologies forworking with adults, linking what is taught tostudents' immediate needs and background ex-periences. In many cases, instructors must de-velop an understanding of how adults acquireliteracy and math in order to teach basic skills.And since many VESL instructors must developtheir own curricula, they need to be well-grounded in lesson planning and curriculumsequencing.

Vocational instructors need special preparation towork with LEP students. They must learn how tomodify the language and teaching strategies theyuse in the classroom, to adapt written material tobe more appropriate for LEP students, to workwith and supervise bilingual aides, and to collabo-rate in curriculum development and planningwith the VESL instructor.

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These would be demanding qualifications inany context. However, they are particularlyproblematic given the limited staff-developmentopportunities in adult education. Staff qualifi-cations across the field are very uneven.Although some programs do have highlyqualified teachers and administrators, many ofwhom are full-time professionals, in the major-ity of programs most of the ESL and VESLteaching staff work on a part-time basis withfew benefits, little job security, and limited oppor-tunity for professional development. Wrigley(1993) has noted that, nationwide, only about25% of ESL employees are full-time teachers.There is limited access to career ladders thatmight allow teachers to move up into posi-tions of increasing responsibility.

In general, staff development for ESL teachershas been found to be limited mostly to shortpre-service training sessions, single workshops, orshort conferences. Although studies have beenundertaken on the status of general ESL staff de-velopment (see Kutner, 1992), no broad assess-ment of the conditions for training for VESLinstructors currently exists. Two programs fundedthrough the Bilingtial Vocational Instructor Train-ing Program have, however, made importantstrides in developing training modules and otheractivities to meet the needs of programs imple-menting bilingual vocational training. PAVE,

based at El Camino College in Torrance, Califor-nia, established a consortium with seven otherarea community colleges to Promote Access toVocational Education for LEP students. Each col-lege had a PAVE facilitator who, with the supportof the group, began PAVE activities on campus.PAVE facilitators received special "train thetrainer" workshops, which were documented in AGuide to PAVE Facilitator Training (Franklin, 1995).

They, in turn, conducted training workshops intheir own colleges and organized other activities

to expand and improve services. PAVE also heldconferences to disseminate strategies and demon-stration activities to other colleges. Similarly, theCapacity Building for States (CBS) project based atNorthern Illinois University conducted regionalinservice training for trainers. Building Competen-des to Serve LEP Vocational Students (Lopez-Valadez

& Reed, 1989) documents many of their trainingactivities. These projects were two of the few ma-jor sources for innovation within the area of staffdevelopment for the field; however, with fundingfor the Bilingual Vocational Training Programsended, the future of these types of endeavors isuncertain.

Program Evaluation

The final category essential for program planningis program evaluation. Within the field, there is astrong consensus that documenting the positiveimpacts of programs is essential in gaining furthersupport; many programs recommend hiring exter-nal evaluators to design and implement evalua-tion plans. The results of ongoing internalevaluations undertaken by project staff can also beuseful tools. The evaluation should help programadministrators answer questions such as the fol-lowing (Thomas, Bird, & Grover, 1992b, p. 84):

Is the program fulfilling the purpose forwhich it was designed?Was the program implemented as designedor were adaptations made in the design?What were the reasons for the changesmade?How is the program benefiting students?What has contributed to program suc-cess? Weaknesses?

What changes should be made in theprogram to make it more effective?

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Many of the overall planning guides men-tioned earlier contain sections on planningevaluations. Fleishman, Hanberry, and Riveraalso produced an Evaluation Guide for BilingualVocational Training (1987) that provides someuseful suggestions.

The ability to present to funders, planners, andemployers data such as the number of studentswho complete the program, their job place-ment rates, changes in their earning potential,and the number receiving promotions sinceinitial reports could do much to promote theusefulness of programs; yet a search of the lit-erature yields few examples of programs col-lecting such data. An important exception isthe Consortium for Employment Training(CET). Studies by the Rockefeller Foundationand by the Manpower Research DevelopmentCenter, which have closely tracked CET's im-pact, have been effective in helping the pro-gram to expand; today the CET continues tocollect its own student-outcome data (see Box4W). Houston Community College in Texasand Lansing Community College in Michiganare other examples of programs that have con-ducted extensive evaluations. This informa-tion, reported to community college officials,has been valuable in helping these programs tocontinue and expand.

Learning From Experience

As this chapter has shown, there is great po-tential for improving vocational instruction forlimited English proficient adults. An effectivejob-training program that targets a very needypopulation more than pays for itself in taxes paidby graduates and public funds not expended for

welfare and unemployment payments. For ex-ample, in 1989, the average annual wage ofCET students prior to enrolling in training was$6,003. The projected average annual wage ofCET 1989 graduates was $12,054. Graduates ofthese programs will pay over $6 million intaxes alone, far more than they would havepaid at their pre-training salaries (Lee, 1995).

Providing effective training, however, requiresan investment. Strong institutional support isneeded to develop programs that allow for asolid program of concurrent language and vo-cational training. Support services must bemade available, and good teachers must begiven time to coordinate services to prepare aworthwhile instructional program.

Many innovative programs have begun to exploreways to get limited English proficient studentsinto vocational training programs soonerthrough concurrent instructional programs orvarious kinds of bridging projects. Programs areseeking new and better ways to help studentsmake transitions between programs and assesstheir progress as they move through the system.But the "bright lights" are few and far between.Across the country, most students spend manysemesters in traditional ESL programs before evergetting a chance at vocational training. Mostdrop out and get jobs without the training thatcould benefit them, their employers, and theeconomy as a whole. Clearly, within the newreform movement, ways need to be found forthese outstanding programs to be shared withother states and localities.

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The Value of Evaluation Studies Box 4W

A 1990 Rockefeller Foundation study of basic education and employment for minority female single parents

compared the Consortium for Employment Training (CET) design of integrating basic skills, language develop-

ment, and vocational training with other programs using more traditional models. The results showed that the

CET model yielded better jobs and higher wages for a higher proportion of participants. It led to a 27% in-

crease in employment and 47% higher pay for employees. More recently, another study by the Manpower

Development Research Corporation examined the economic statistics and employment of disadvantaged high-

school dropouts at training programs nationwide. The study followed students for four years after they had

completed a program that cost approximately $4,500. Only graduates from CET had substantial earnings in-

creasesmore than $6,700 over four yearswhen compared with a control group. Graduates from other pro-

grams did not have statistically significant improvements in pay compared with control groups. Since these

studies were conducted, the CET model has been widely reported in major newspapers and business maga-

zines. In 1992, CET was asked by the U.S. Department of Labor to replicate this model in ten sites around the

country, and representatives from other communities have begun to study the model (Lee, 1995).

The Value of Employment Training Box 4X

"CET graduates are not high-paid professionals or captains of industry. They are not listed in Who's Who and do

not have six-figure incomes. Like the relay runner who is passed the baton 100 yards behind all other competi-

tors, no matter how hard he runs, the gap is just too great to catch up. But graduating from CET does get them

and their families into the race. There are no secrets to success when you lack an education, do not speak English,

and do not have marketable skills. You must work hard to overcome each of theses barriers and then work even

harder when you get a job. And maybe, if you do a good job, you'll get a raise, a promotion, and more stability

over time. You'll be able to raise your kids in one place so that they can attend school and maybe go to college

and move up in the relay. And perhaps they or their children will finally bring home some gold medals. Medals or

not, each of our graduates is a success. They have moved themselves and their families a notch or two up the

ladder. Some have gone great distances as the first of their families to leave agricultural work. Later their children

attended universitiesextraordinary gains from one generation to the next. We are proud to have lent them a

hand when it was needed and to have contributed to the hard-fought successes earned by our students" (Center

for Employment Training, 1993, p. 8).

A Short-Term Training Program Box 4Y

The Career Resources Development Center, a community-based organization in San Francisco, offers short-term

training programs that provide concurrent VESL and job-skills training. The program includes internship components

for clerical, accounting, financial services, and medical office workers. The program reports significantly higher JTPA

placement rates than more traditional programs in the San Francisco area (Career Resources Development Center,

1992).

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A Bilingual Vocational Training Program Box 4Z

Houston Community College has three Bilingual Vocational Training (BVT) programs: air conditioning and refrigera-

tion, cosmetology, and electricity. The air conditioning and refrigeration program consists of three component courses

of 480 hours each, including class and shop time: basic, domestic, and commercial refrigeration and air conditioning.

The basic course is taught entirely in Spanish, the domestic course is taught increasingly in English, and the com-

mercial course is taught entirely in English. The theory classrooms are located right next to the lab where hands-on

work is done. There is an accompanying VESL component and a BVT counselor on site. Instructors design many of

their own materials and stress job-related language and communication (Thomas, Bird, & Grover, 1992a).

Large Multiple-Service Centers Box 4AA

Some large, well-established programs, such as the New York Association for New Americans in New York City, are

able to offer a wide variety of courses. Long- and short-term programs are available for recent arrivals who possess

professional or semi-professional training in their home country but who lack an awareness of the U.S. professional

system and are not English proficient. A one-year medical laboratory technician program includes extensive training

and a 6-month internship at a local hospital or private laboratory. A 13-month math/science teacher-training pro-

gram is also available for immigrants with a bachelor's degree or higher in math or science. Persons with an engi-

neering or mechanical manufacturing background can take a 12-week mechanical-manufacturing technician course

or a 19-week environmental-monitoring technician course. Short-term training is also available for refugees and

immigrants with more limited educational backgrounds. They can take a 10-week home-health-aide program, or

five-week courses to become a security guard or a taxi driver, as well as a wide variety of other courses (New York

Association for New Americans, 1994).

Many Approaches to VESL Box 4BB

Lindsey Hopkins Technical Education Center in Miami, Florida, offers five levels of VESL prior to vocational train-

ing. After Level 3, students concentrate on an employability/skills course. During the last stages of VESL instruc-

tion, they enroll in cluster VESL classes in Health Occupations, Business Technology Education, or Industrial

Education (Lindsey Hopkins Technical Education Center, 1995).

A Concurrent Pre-Vocational Program Box 4CC

Bunker Hill Community College in the Boston area has offered ESL for many years. Traditionally, students have

had to complete five levels of ESL before entering vocational programs. A new occupation-specific ESL model

has recently been developed. Students can enroll in this class beginning after their third semester while at the

same time taking courses in electronics and allied health. The program has found that these programs have

completion rates of over 90%, compared to completion rates of only 50% in the regular mainstream courses

(Wrigley, Chisman, & Ewen, 1993).

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Chapter Five

The Promise of ESL in the Workplace

A small clothing factory decides to retool to offer awider variety of sportswear. The production staff will

now begin to work in teams and follow customized

work orders for an assortment of new products. After

the project is initiated, managers find that many em-

ployees are unable to participate in the work teamsdue to a lack of English.

A local hotel would like to promote one of its deskclerks to customer service representative. She is flat-

tered but reluctant to take the job because it wouldinvolve making oral reports at the weekly management

meeting. Although her English is good, sometimespeople complain that her "accent" gets in the way ofunderstanding.

A convenience store chain has noticed that its profits

are down due to improper inventory control at the lo-

cal stores. After an investigation, it is found thatmany of the clerks who are limited English proficient

have not been trained in the proper record-keeping pro-

cesses, and their initial retraining efforts have not been

successful.

Throughout the United States, a growing num-ber of employers are finding that providing edu-cation at the worksite is the best way to achievetheir goals to improve productivity, increaseteamwork and quality control, use technologybetter, and respond to the changing demands ofcustomers in a growing service economy. Evenentry-level jobs now require greater levels of skill,whether they be the ability to use computerizedequipment in the manufacturing industry or tocommunicate effectively within the service

sector. Those with higher levels of educationneed even better communication skills. As theproportion of new workers who are immi-grants and refugees has grown, employers havebecome increasingly aware of the importanceof language training, both for entry-level andmore skilled workers. In fact, since the inabil-ity to communicate in English is so immedi-ately visible (as opposed to a lack of readingand writing skills that many workers are ableto hide more effectively), ESL classes are oftenthe first kind of adult education programs of-fered by a company.

As the number and variety of programs grows,employers and educators have begun to tacklesome of the difficult issues associated withworkplace education: What outcomes can beexpected from programs? Are they cost-effec-tive? Who pays? Should the curriculum focuson the short-term needs of the employer orthe long-term needs of the workers? What isthe worker investment? How do we keep su-pervisors and management involved? What re-sponsibilities do employers have to promote awork environment that is equitable to workersfrom a variety of cultural backgrounds? Work-place education has been seen by many as oneof the bright spots in adult education, a grow-ing source for innovation and creativity withinthe field. Yet many contradictory and complexquestions remain to be resolved as workplaceeducation begins to represent a larger part of theadult education equation.

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This chapter provides an overview of the currentstatus of workplace education for limited Englishproficient adults in the United States. It includesa discussion of the various steps involved insetting up an ESL workplace program, from estab-lishing a partnership, to conducting a needsanalysis, to judging the program's effectiveness.

Steps in Setting Up aWorkplace ESL Program

A growing number of materials now exist to helpprograms identify the steps required to establisha workplace program. Two of the most wellknown of these are The Workplace Basics Train-ing Manual developed by the American Societyof Training and Development (Carnevale, Gainer,& Meltzer, 1990) and Worker-Centered Learning: A

Union Guide to Workplace Literacy released bythe AFL-CIO Human Resources DevelopmentInstitute (Sarmiento & Kay, 1990). They were de-veloped primarily with native speakers of Englishin mind, but their basic principles are useful toanyone planning a program.

There are a few good resources specifically directedtoward planners of programs serving adult ESLlearners. One of the most thorough and insightfulof these is Teaching English in the Workplace byMary Ellen Belfiore and Barbara Bumaby (1995).This revised version of a 1984 edition with thesame title addresses many concrete issues relatedto program planning. Although developed byeducators in Canada, most of the issues addressedare relevant and current to the experiences ofworkplace FSL educators in the United States.Another resource is Job Related Language Training

for Limited English Proficient Employers, produced

by the Development Assistance Corporation (Tho-mas, Grover, Cichon, Bird & Hams, 1991). Thishandbook provides detailed steps for each plan-ning stage as well as many sample materials and

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examples from the field, based on a U.S. con-text. Planning, Implementing, and EvaluatingWorkplace ESL Programs (Grognet, 1996) andFrom the Classroom to the Workplace: TeachingESL to Adults (Center for Applied Linguistics,1983) also contain good information for pro-gram planners.

Several educational service providers have pro-duced materials documenting their experiencesestablishing programs. English in the Workplacefor Hotel Housekeepers: Manual and CurriculumGuide (Castillo, Romstedt, Si lc, & Vanderhoff-Chambi, 1990), written by teachers with theFairfax County Public Schools in Virginia, hascarefully documented their decision-makingprocess and its consequences for programimplementation. The Workplace Education Di-vision of The Center in Des Plaines, Illinois,has produced many materials based on experi-ences with projects around the state. Amongthese are Best Practices for Quality Basic SkillsPrograms in the Manufacturing Industry (Mrowicki,

Jones, Locsin, Lynch, & Olivi, 1994) and Work-place Literacy Core Curriculum for Beginning ESL

(Mrowicki, Locsin, & Lynch, 1990).-

Across all the resource guides, a fairly universal set

of program implementation steps is suggested.Figure 5-1 illustrates the steps. The first stepinvolves the initial contact between potentialbusiness/industry and educational partners. Dur-ing this stage, organizational commitment mustbe solidified, a joint planning and implementa-tion team formed, and some general understand-ing as to the overall purpose of the project mustbe reached. Step 2 involves planning and imple-menting a needs assessment process. The thirdstep involves the design of an initial trainingframework and plan for program implementationthat can be shared and discussed first with eachof the partners and later, during Step 4, with the

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program participants. Step 5 entails the actualimplementation of the training component.How programs organize this implementationprocess varies significantly depending on theirpurposes and approach to workplace teachingand learning. Although an initial curriculumframework has been outlined, the details are leftto be filled in during a process of needs assess-ment and negotiation with learners. Since thismodel assumes a learner-centered approach, thecurriculum cannot be completely decided in ad-

vance. This model contrasts with one that mightbe proposed by advocates of a functional contextapproach where everything is planned in ad-vance, based primarily on the tasks identifiedduring the needs analysis. Finally, the last step inall the models is some form of program evalua-tion and reporting of the project results. The sec-tions that follow will discuss each of these stepsin detail, exploring the assumptions behindthem and looking at how programs have putthese activities into practice.

STEP 1Initial Contact/Establishing a Partnership

STEP 2Conduct and Report on Needs Analysis

STEP 3Develop Initial Training Design Framework

STEP 4Recruit Participants, Conduct Initial Orientation

STEP 5Implement the Training Component

On-going Assessment ofCurriculum

Implement Training Program andOther Activities

Conduct Further ParticipantAssessment and Placement

Design/Adapt Curriculum

STEP 6Evaluate Training Program, Present Final Report

Figure 5-1 Planning Stages For a Workplace ESL Program

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Establishing the Partnership:Four Models

Workplace instructional programs usually in-volve a partnership between an employer andanother organization or at least one moregroup of individuals, whether it be an educa-tional institution, a union, a private contrac-tor, or an in-house education staff. Four basicmodels predominate (Grognet, 1994).

The WorkplaceEducationPartnership ModelThis model, undoubtedly the most common,involves a partnership between some form ofeducational institutionmost commonly acommunity college, an adult education system,or a private postsecondary institutionand abusiness or industry. Most of the NationalWorkplace Literacy Programs (funded by theU.S. Department of Education) fall into thiscategory. Basic State Grant funds for adult edu-cation may be used for this purpose as well.Many states have funded various initiatives tostimulate development of workplace educationprograms. Some examples of workplace educa-tion partnerships are illustrated below.

The WorkplaceUnion PartnershipModelTo a greater extent than is perhaps generallyrealized, union-sponsored programs exist aroundthe United States. This commitment, the Busi-ness Council for Effective Literacy notes, "is asold as the labor movement itself" (1987, p. 1).Many unions grew with the waves of succes-sive immigration and, over the years, have of-fered their members English literacy andcitizenship classes. (See Rosenblum, 1996, foran historical discussion of union-based work-place ESL instruction.) Now with the nature ofjobs changing dramatically, there is a new ur-gency to worker education. Many unions have

initiated collective-bargaining arrangementswhereby employers contribute a percentage oftheir payroll for the training and upgrading ofworkers. Programs may be jointly administeredby unions and management or contracted toprivate or public education providers. Onesuch model was developed by the United AutoWorkers (UAW)-Ford Motor Company. TheirEmployee Development and Training Program,initiated in 1982, set a pattern for unions inother large industries. A national staff inDearborn, Michigan, provides a structurethrough which local programs can identify theinterests of their members. Other programs arerun by UAW-General Motors, UAW-Chrysler,the United Steelworkers of America, and theCommunication Workers of America. The AFL-CIO Human Resources Development Instituteprovides information and technical assistanceregarding basic skills training as well (BusinessCouncil for Effective Literacy, 1987).

Some smaller unions have banded togetherinto groups like the Consortium for WorkerEducation (CWE) to combine educational ser-vices and support. Founded in 1985 by theeducation director of Teamsters Local 237 inNew York City, this group organized laborunions to lobby the New York state legislatureto secure line-item state funding for workereducation programs. Today about 22 unionsparticipate in the CWE, serving over 10,000union members and their families in work-related basic skills, ESL, and skills training pro-grams. This program is particularly innovativein that it offers both workplace and vocationaleducation, and workers may progress frombeginning ESL all the way through graduateschool. It is also one of the innovators in thecountry in offering programs with a strongworker-centered philosophy and hiring teach-ers sensitive to the struggles of working classstudents. Class sites vary from union halls and

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factories to housing projects and churches(Johnson, 1993; Rosenblum, 1996).

The WorkplacePrivate ContractorPartnership ModelIn recent years, the number of private contrac-tors who offer specialized training in areas re-lated to ESL has also increased. Courses mayrange from group training for non-English-speaking, entry-level employees to individual-ized instruction for one or two foreign-born

professionals or technicians. They may coversuch topics as total quality management(TQM) for ESL employees, accent improve-ment, cross-cultural training, or business writ-ing. Most often, training is short-term, lastingjust a few weeks or months. Many businessessee an advantage in this approach, since theyare familiar with using private contractors forother kinds of training activities. Private con-tractors often make it a point to learn how to"speak the language" of business, and many

Workplace-Education Partnership Box SA

The Pima County Workplace Education Partnership is a collaboration between the Pima County Adult Education

Department, the Arizona Consortium for Education and Training, the Southern Arizona Innkeepers Association, and

the Tucson Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce. Originally funded in 1988 through the National Workplace

Literacy Program, the project has now transitioned from a partial to a total fee-for-service program. Participating

worksites include manufacturing companies, education institutions, hotels, casinos, and hospitals. About a third of

the 2500 workers who have participated have been non-native speakers of English (Hellman & Woolley, 1996).

Preparing Hotel and Restaurant Workers Box 5B

Project EXCEL is a partnership between the Career Resources Development Center, the Hotel Employees and Restaurant

Employers Union, and five major hotels and five restaurants in the San Francisco area. In 1992, approximately 750

workers participated in this large program. The program provides 1) hotel workplace literacy, 2) restaurant workplace

literacy, and 3) workplace preparation for unemployed LEP workers seeking jobs in the tourism industry. The program

employs carefully sequenced modular curricula that are based on job-specific literacy audits conducted at each site

(Career Resources Development Center, 1992).

The Union Role Box 5C

A 1987 UAW Local 259 newspaper article, entitled Education Classes Come to the Shops, describes the benefits of

union education. "Our students not only are learning basic and advanced skills of reading, writing, and math, and

science and history, but participate actively in developing curriculum ideas. They write oral histories of their lives,

their cultural background, the union experience, their lives in the shop....Students describe how they are beginning

to speak up at union meetings, how they now can talk to their boss and the landlord and the doctor, how the

classes give them a greater feeling of self-confidence, how proud their families are of their achievement. The pro-

gram is a labor of love for our union, and we are committed to expanding it" (BCEL, 1987, p. 5).

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come from the business sector or from back-grounds in human resources development. Oftenthey are able to tailor courses specifically to theneeds of the employer and to maintain a degreeof flexibility that programs with public fundingmay not be able to achieve.

Increasingly, community colleges are develop-ing departments through which contractingcan take place directly with employers. In APractical Guide to Conducting Customized Work-force Training (Kantor, 1994) a number of authorsdiscuss issues related to the design and deliveryof such customized services. Human resourcedevelopment magazines also periodically carryarticles describing successful workplace ESL pro-grams offered by private trainers who may ormay not be connected with an educationalinstitution (see Hayflich & Lomperis, 1992).

The ESL Basic Education within aWorkplace Training Division ModelAlthough less commonly because of the cost tothe company, a few larger companies maintaintraining divisions with basic skills and ESL asone component. For some, such as thePolaroid Corporation (see Box SE), the trainingdivision represents part of a broad mission ofthe organization to build capacity from within.Other companies with large numbers of mi-nority workers at varying levels of English lan-guage proficiency find that having one ormore full-time ESL staff members availablegives them flexibility and saves time in thelong run. StorageTek, a computer informationstorage company in Colorado, for example, hashad a full-time ESL coordinator and two full-time basic skills teachers. Having switched to atotal quality management approach, the com-pany has found that this instruction has al-lowed them to continue to employ manyworkers who might otherwise have been laidoff due to a lack of language and basic skills(Burt, in press).

These models illustrate the most common pat-terns; however, as the examples show, the col-laborations are often not so clear cut. A singleproject may involve several businesses, a

union, a local chamber of commerce, and edu-cational providers, who in turn may subcon-tract with private contractors! More varieties ofpartnerships grow every year as programs respondto their own unique set of needs.

The Partnership Arrangement

After initial contact is made between the partners,a joint planning and implementation team is usu-ally formed, made up of representatives from eachpartner group. Business or union partners gener-ally appoint one employee to be the key contactperson responsible for the program. In large orga-nizations, someone from the human resources orstaff development department is usually selected.In smaller businesses, the contact person could beanyone from a general manager to one of thefloor supervisors. Unions may appoint a shopsteward or member of the local executive board astheir representative. Most education providers andprivate educational contractors send a senioradministrator to initiate the partnership relation-ship. An educational coordinator will be givenday-to-day responsibility for project managementand will hire teachers after a firm commitment tooffer instruction is made. In small programs, theeducational coordinator and the teacher may bethe same person.

Many experienced program developers pointout the importance of making sure all the keystakeholders at the business or industry areaware of plans to implement a project and,whenever possible, involved in the planningprocess. For example, much time and effortcan be lost if upper level management doesnot initially approve the general nature of theprogram to be implemented. Similarly, the

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cooperation of on-line supervisors is essentialfor the success of the project; informing themafter the fact that they must send employees toclasses during work hours can cause countlessconflicts and sporadic attendance during theimplementation stage. In a union-sponsoredprogram, it may be strategically important to in-form regional as well as local leaders. Becomingfamiliar with the channels of communicationwithin the organization is an essential early step(Belfiore & Bumaby, 1995). Figure 5-2, developedby the Workplace Education Division of TheCenterResources for Education in Des Plaines,Illinois, illustrates common roles of partners.

Funding the ProjectFunding for projects also varies considerably.Little data currently exist concerning the extentto which the private sector is investing in work-

place ESL projects. A survey done by the Bureauof Labor Statistics (U.S. Department of Labor,1994) revealed that of the 12,000 businessessurveyed, only 3% offered training in basicskills or in ESL. Businesses and unions havetypically relied on the availability of publicfunds to initiate their projects, although afterpublic funding has ended, they may continuethe projectusually on a smaller scale. Inprojects where federal monies were involved,federal, state, and local grants provided fundingfor project planning and curriculum develop-ment, including part, if not all, of the initialneeds analyses, the salaries of teachers and theeducational administrator, educational materi-als, and final project evaluation. The businesspartners provided matching funds in the formof the time of the business contact persons;classroom space; equipment such as phones;

Developing Customized Programs for Business Box 5D

In Denver, Colorado, the Spring Institute for International Studies offers customized programs for businesses

requiring communication in English. They offer programs both in the United States and overseas. The materials

they develop are competency based, communicative and cooperative in focus, and learner centered. Among

their local clients have been a baby products manufacturer, a book publisher, and a local hospital (Spring Insti-

tute, 1994).

Making a Commitment to Employees Box SE

Dr. Erwin Land, founder of Polaroid Corporation, believed strongly that "the function of industry is not just the mak-

ing of goods; the function of industry is the development of people." This philosophy has been the guiding principle

behind Polaroid's long-term commitment to employee education and career advancement. Their education pro-

gram, which began in 1961, is the oldest in-house basic skills program in the country and now includes ESL as well

as GED and ABE programs. The classes are voluntary and are usually on a combination of company and employee

time. Courses include English for the workplace as well as a variety of basic math, geometry, statistics, chemistry, and

electronics courses and tutorials designed to accommodate limited English proficient adults. These programs have

been effective in allowing entry-level workers to move into more challenging jobs within the company. Many have

later gone on to attend higher education through special arrangements between the company and local universities

(Polaroid Corporation, 1993, p. 3).

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Business Educational Provider

Identifies the contact person

Forms a basic skills committee

Makes policy decisions regarding the purpose and scopeof the audit

Plans a company awareness campaign

Conducts the company awareness campaign

Identifies appropriate managers, supervisors, line staff,and workers to participate in the audit process andschedules interviews

Assembles written materials

Arranges for job observations

Reviews the findings

Facilitates the committee meetings

Provides input on policy decisions

Provides input on the company awareness campaign

Participates in the company awareness campaign

Interviews the key people

Analyzes the written materials

Conducts the job literacy task analysis

Prepares a report with the findings

Figure 5-2 Partners' RolesReprinted with permission from Mrowicki, L. , et. al. (1994). Best Practices for Quality Basic Skills Programs in the Manufacturing Industry, p. 13. Des Plaines,

IL: The CenterResources in Education.

copy machines and computers; paid employeerelease time; and other contributions. It ap-pears, however, that as public funds diminishfor workplace programs, it will increasingly fallto the business partner to cover all costs in pro-viding instruction in the workplace (Burt, 1995;Hellman & Woolley, 1996).

Various arrangements are made concerning whopays for the employees' time while attendingthe course. A common pattern is for the busi-ness to pay 50 percent of the employees' salarywhile they attend classes. For example, a classfor hospital employees working from 7:00 a.m.to 3:00 p.m. may be offered from 2:00 p.m. to4:00 p.m. two days a week. The hospital paysfor the first hour of their employee's time theemployees are "off the clock" the second hour.There are, however, numerous examples ofbusinesses paying full wages for class time or

awarding cash bonuses for employees whocomplete the course.

Negotiating for Educational PrioritiesBusiness or union sponsors may recognize the

need for improved communication at theworkplace, but they may see the problem verynarrowly, based on an immediate problemthey face. They may be more or less aware ofthe extent to which this problem is embeddedin a complex communicative context at theworksite involving language, culture, and so-cial relationships. Sponsors may also be unfa-miliar with the time it takes to learn a secondlanguage, assuming a few weeks' "quick fix"may solve their problem. Often, the initial ne-gotiation process involves educating employersconcerning the basics of second language ac-quisition and what can realistically be ex-pected in a short-term language program. It is

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also important that they understand the roleof a needs assessment, since many employersmay be eager for a program to begin rightaway. At this point, Belfiore and Burnaby(1995, p. 26) suggest that negotiations for thefollowing be undertaken:

Paid time for pre- and post-course develop-ment work;

Access to the sponsor's human and materialresources, such as supervisory and training

personnel, documents, handbooks, etc., forinformation about the industry, the process,and the product;

Shared responsibility for determining thenumber and level of classes, as well as themakeup of each class;

Shared responsibility for determining a suit-able location, hours, and support facilities.

Each of the above elements, they point out, isimportant. Time for a needs analysis is particu-larly vital. Not only does it help educators togain the needed information to plan thecourse content, but it also gives them thechance to educate themselves concerning thenature of the workplace. Many education part-ners may not be aware of the demands on thebusiness world to meet production quotas,keep prices down, maintain inventory, estab-lish various standards, and uphold federalsafety regulations. (In fact, many private con-tractors make a strong effort either to selecteducators from the business world or to traintheir instructors in the language and culture ofbusiness and industry. The background of theirinstructors then becomes a selling point in themarketing of their educational product.) In orderto gain this understanding, educators need tonegotiate at least some access to the job site.Depending on the business, this may includeanything from short site visits to a chance to

"shadow" workers at every phase of produc-tion or service delivery.

Many factors regarding the nature of the pro-gram may be discussed tentatively at this stageand formalized after the needs analysis. TheCenter for Applied Linguistics (1983) suggeststhe following points be discussed:

How many people will be in the program?What criteria will be used to identify workerseligible for ESL?

How many learners should be in each group?How will learners be assigned to groups?How long should the course last?How should instruction be scheduled?Will the class meet during work hours?When should the classes take place?Where should the classes be held?What policy should be taken toward absences?Who should pay for the course?Who should pay for materials?

Many educational providers may have certainrestrictions concerning class size imposed byfunders. Attendance often constitutes a consid-erable concern and should also be discussed upfront. Will students be asked to skip classeswhen production is down or when there areshortages of personnel on the floor for variousreasons? In some cases, this reality is inevitablesince few businesses can afford to jeopardizecustomer satisfaction or production quotas forany reason. In other cases, careful planningcan avoid such problems by, for example, pre-dicting in advance the seasonal nature of somebusinesses and scheduling classes accordingly orby making sure that front-line managerstheimmediate supervisors of most participantsarefully supportive of the project. The time whenthe class is held may also be important in thisregard.

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Generally, courses are held at the end of awork shift for a period of 1 to 2 hours, 2 to 3times a week. Sometimes they are also held atthe beginning of a shift or during lunch time.Classes at the end of the workday appear to bemost common. Workers are often tired at thispoint, and many face concerns regarding howto juggle child care and family responsibilitieswhen they arrive home from work late; how-ever, this seems to have been the most viablearrangement for most programs. Many educa-tors prefer 2-hour class segments since this allowsfor more time to develop a lesson theme withthe class as a whole and to provide attention toindividual students (Belfiore & Burnaby, 1995).

Class length and hours should also be negoti-ated. A review of program documents revealedthat programs varied considerably in length:Some were as short as 4 to 6 weeks. Otherswere as long as 6 months with linkages to con-tinued education after that. For the most part,though, courses were from around 9 to 16weeks in duration.

A first course can serve as a bridge to additionalcourses. This modular system allows the pro-gram to accomplish a series of discrete, short-term objectives. It may also be easier tomotivate learners in short spurts where theycan see the results of their efforts. This systemhas other advantages since at the end point ofeach cycle the configuration of students in theclass can be reorganized, the time the class is heldcan be rescheduled, and the course objectives re-organized. This short-term training approach isoften chosen by management since it is moreconsistent with other kinds of training offeredthrough its (human) resources departments.

The Needs Analysis Process

Belfiore and Burnaby (1995) suggest that severalkey interviews should take place, beginningwith the key contact persons appointed to theproject during the original partnership andwith senior personnel. Next, they recommendinterviews with the immediate supervisors ofpotential students before interviewing theworkers themselves and, in some cases, withtheir co-workers. These interviews may be inte-grated with the other two processes: observa-tions and language assessment (see Figure 5-3).The interview process accomplishes two pur-poses. First, it provides the planners with ac-cess to information about the organization andpeople involved in the larger communicationnetwork, the structure and operation of theworkplace, and the language and communica-tion requirements of potential learners. In ad-dition, it offers the planners a chance to meetkey people in the organization in order to de-scribe the purpose of the educational programbeing planned and to gain their support andadvice early in the planning process. The rela-tionships that are built at this time may be keyto the program's success. In some cases, if theinterviewees agree, these conversations can beaudiotaped for more careful analysis at a laterdate. In other cases, a written questionnairemay be sent out in advance or filled out duringthe face-to-face interviews. Modified focus groups,at which representatives of the target populationdiscuss training needs and issues, have also beenused as a tool in the interview process.

InterviewsInterviews with Key Contact PersonsThe key contact persons are ideal sources forinformation about the company and can serveto orient the planners to the workplace. Plan-ners may want to ask about company products

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INTERVIEW/SURVEY

managers, supervisorsemployees (participants/co-workers)

COLLECT/ANALYZE

manuals, job aids, training materialwork ordersoffice formssafety materialsnotices, newsletter, bulletin board printother environmental print

OBSERVE

performance of tasksuse of oral languageuse of written languageuse of native languagecommunication "snags"

RECONCILE

how tasks are perceivedhow tasks are performedhow problems are perceived

by managers/supervisors- by participant employees

by co-workerschart communication web

(who speaks to whom for what purpose,in what language)

- Use of native language on the jobchart literacy web

(who reads what for what purpose)perceived need for literacy by eachstakeholder

TEST

decide purpose of testing(proficiency, diagnosis, etc.)

select/develop valid and reliable instrumentstest clientsanalyze results

Figure 5-3 The Needs Analysis ProcessFrom Grognet, A.G. (1991, March). Workplace/Workforce ESL: Trends and Promises. Presentation at the Annual Meeting of Teachers of English to Speakers

of Other Languages, New York.

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or services; the structure of the company; thenumber of departments, employees, and typesof jobs; work schedules; company benefits;promotion opportunities and requirements;health and safety instructions and records; andthe existence of other in-company trainingprograms. If a union is involved, key. contactpersons can provide information about thestructure of the union, the number of mem-bers, the method of communication betweenmembers, responsibilities of shop stewards,and other issues. The key contact persons mayalso be able to provide a list of specific peoplein the company to be interviewed and can fa-cilitate arranging interviews with senior per-sonnel. They may supply various printedmaterials helpful to the planners such as mapsof the site, advertising materials, employeehandouts, historical data about the company,regulations, benefit plans, safety manuals,training manuals, applications, payroll slips,copies of any employee newsletters, job de-scriptions, menus, collective agreements, anddescriptions of how to use various kinds ofequipment. Increasingly, companies also havepromotional or training videos that may be of use.

Interviews with Senior PersonnelInterviews with senior personnel, especially ina large organization, should be conducted earlyin the process. Not only will their perceptionof the long-term mission of the company andof the project at hand provide valuable in-sights, but planners will also need their help inmaking sure information about the upcomingneeds assessment gets passed down throughthe appropriate channels.

Interviews with Immediate SupervisorsThe next set of interviews is often held withpeople who have direct daily contact with thelearnersimmediate supervisors (usually front-line managers) or shop stewards. These meet-ings are pivotal, since gaining the support of

people who directly supervise potential stu-dents is often vital to a program's success.However, many experienced workplace orga-nizers have found that supervisors may be re-sistant to the prospect of an educationalprogram. They may have developed their ownmethods for coping with communication diffi-culties on the job and may be unable to see areal need for the course. They may be worriedabout how classes will affect production or thedelivery of services, or they may assume thatthe identification of a need for classes some-how implies that their department is not per-forming well. Some supervisors may feelthreatened by the prospect of those they super-vise receiving training or education that theythemselves do not have. It is important at thisstage to hear and take into account their con-cerns and, in particular, to understand their jobresponsibilities as well as focusing on their per-ception of the needs of the workers.

Interviews with Potential StudentsInterviews with potential students are importantfor gaining general information as well for under-standing the way workers see their communica-tion needs and language abilities. At least one ortwo persons from each job category should beinterviewed. Usually this process is separate fromthe assessment of learners' language proficiency,although, in needs assessments that must be con-ducted quickly, the two activities are sometimescombined. It may be necessary to conduct theseinterviews in the native language. Someone at theworksite can usually assist, or programs may useoutside interpreters, such as volunteers from com-munity-based organizations.

One tool a number of planners have found help-ful is the communication network diagram(Bamdt, Belfiore, & Handscombe, 1991; Belfiore &

Bumaby, 1995). During the interview, the plannermight show individual workers an example of adiagram such as the one in Figure 5-4 and ask

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Figure 5-4 Communication Network DiagramReprinted with permission from Belfiore, M.E., & Burnaby, B. (1995). Teaching English in the Workplace, p. 43. Toronto, Ontario: Pippin Publishing.

them to fill in a communication network diagramshowing all the people they communicate withon the job. This diagram is invaluable on severallevels. First, it provides educators with a tool fortalking with workers about communication onthe job. Second, it provides workers with a simul-taneous learning exercise, requiring them to thinkabout their communication patterns on the job.And, last, it helps the planner identify co-workerswho should be interviewed.

The Center for Applied Linguistics (1983) sug-gests a model for a detailed interview with studentsthat can either be conducted in English withhigher-level workers, or, if necessary, can becompleted with the assistance of an interpreter.The interview covers eight areas including:

1. Personal information on language and culturalbackground;

2. Job duties;3. Work setting;4. Kinds of interaction a worker has with others

on the job;5. Workers' own assessment of when English is

needed;6. Workers' assessment of the difficulty they ex-

perience with reading, writing, speaking, andunderstanding English;

7. Specific communicative events in whichEnglish is used; and

8. Workers' assessment of attitudes at the work-place.

Interviews with Co-WorkersThe communication network diagram and per-sonal observations will lead to the identifica-tion of co-workers who should be interviewedduring the needs analysis. Helping co-workersto feel they are contributing to the planning

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process may be useful in gaining their supportas well. Of particular value may be interviewswith non-native speakers of English who havebeen with the company for some time, sincethey may have keen observations not only ofthe language needs of workers but also of thecross-cultural nuances of the workplace.

ObservationA second data collection process described byGrognet (1991) and Belfiore and Burnaby(1995) is observation of the worksite. Generallythis first involves a tour of the entire worksite,which is helpful in getting a sense of both theway various departments and people from dif-ferent job categories interact and of the generallayout of the building. As the authors pointout, this "grand tour" is also another chance tomeet people and explain the purpose of theprogram.

The observation next moves to specific siteswithin the business. This stage may take justpart of a day or many days depending on thesize of the organization and the tasks. Somecompanies may be more willing than others toallow teachers or planners to spend time at theworksite. Belfiore and Burnaby (1995) describethe case of a teacher who went through theentire process of making a garment in a textilefactory. Under the supervision of her futurestudents and the supervisor, she used everymachine. This process allowed her to learn thefrustrations and fatigue associated with certainjobs as well as to get to know the workers andsupervisor better.

Burt and Saccomano (1995) point out that, inorder to see the range of skills needed at theworkplace, as much observation as possible ofall workplace-related activities, including unionfunctions and staff meetings, is desirable. Forexample, in an ESL program for food service

employees, teachers or planners may eat in therestaurant or cafeteria where the workers areemployed to observe the jobs various workersperform and how they interact with one an-other and with the customers. They might alsosit in on a training given by personnel, or attenda union meeting to learn about issues importantto workers.

During observation, the planner should lookfor the kinds of social language used at work aswell as when, where, and with whom it is

used; the language used to perform certaintasks and procedures; where the gaps are be-tween the language needed for the job and thelanguage learners are using; where written ma-terials are used; and instances when interpret-ers are utilized. They should also noticeenvironmental factors such as the noise levelat the worksite, the proximity of workers toone another, and the content and readabilityof signs posted. Although checklists and othergraphic organizers can be useful tools for re-cording these factors, brief descriptions of an-ecdotal incidences might be needed toillustrate various points and fully describe rela-tionships.

Language AssessmentGenerally speaking, some kind of assessment isnecessary to determine the listening, speaking,reading, and writing abilities of potential par-ticipants. This information is essential for plan-ning instruction, for grouping workers intoclasses, and then, when compared with assess-ment done after instruction, for measuringlearner progress. General language competenceand specific skills assessment activities rangefrom informal talks to formal testing. These as-sessment measures may be mandatory for allemployees or voluntary and taken only bythose employees who wish to enroll in classes.Assessment may also be company-wide or lim-ited to a specific department.

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Many planners suggest carefully consideringwhether or not to assess using formal testingprocesses, since, in the past, this procedure hasaroused fear and suspicion on the part of thosetaking the test. Workers may worry that thetests will become part of their permanentrecord and thus affect their current job or apromotion. If all workers are not taking thetest, those who do may wonder why they arebeing singled out. Even though teachers ex-plain carefully the purpose of the test, it maybe difficult to counteract these concerns andtherefore may jeopardize the environment oftrust and confidentiality the educational pro-gram wants to build. There are other issues toconsider in planning assesssment as well.

Commercially available tests generally measurea formal knowledge of language structuresrather than the communicative abilitiesneeded for the workplace. As with vocationalESL. programs, some programs use a combina-tion of commercially available and program-developed tests. They may use a commerciallyavailable oral proficiency test and math test inconjunction with a program-developed readingand writing test customized to the work site.Other programs may develop all of their owntests.

For students at beginning levels, native languageassessments are sometimes used. Rosenblum(1994) recounts how one union-sponsored workereducation program for primarily Spanish-speaking

immigrant workers first asks students to look at ajob-related picture or photo and write in Spanishwhat they see. If they can do this satisfactorily,they then are given a short job-related reading inSpanish followed by a series of comprehensionquestions. The ability to answer basic comprehen-sion questions based on a longer newspaper ar-ticle in Spanish and then a short article in Englishare also rated. These activities, along with an oralinterview with students about their lives, prior

work and educational experiences, and learninggoals assist teachers in assessing student needs.

In From the Classroom to the Workplace: TeachingESL to Adults, the Center for Applied Linguistics(1983) suggesti that structured interviews arean appropriate assessment tool for the work-place context. This text describes simple inter-views and literacy tests that can be developedby teachers. Belfiore and Burnaby (1995) sug-gest a series of activities for language assess-ment, including asking workers to describevarious aspects of their job, such as one of theprocesses involved in their job, short instruc-tions on how to perform one part of their job,what they do if they have to call in sick, orwhat they would do if their paycheck is incor-rect. If this is too challenging, students can beasked to describe pictures of work-related ac-tivities. Beginners may just be asked to writetheir names and addresses and fill out a simpleform (making sure they don't get assistancefrom someone else while trying to do this). AHandbook for ESL Literacy (Bell & Burnaby,1984) has additional ideas for assessment ac-tivities with the most beginning level learners.

Reconciling the DataReconciling the data involves looking for prob-lems that seem most common. The planner mayfind areas of concern expressed by many people,including workers, co-workers, and supervisors.They may want to pay particular attention toareas where there is a mismatch between theperceptions of management and those of workers.Communication network diagrams may again beused at this stage to help identify the sources ofcommunication difficulties. From this analysis, atentative list of curriculum objectives can thenbe developed.

Over the years, as many workplace ESL plan-ners have conducted needs analyses at the

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workplace, some common core categories ofcommunication that seem to occur acrossworkplaces have been identified. Althoughmost contemporary views of language eschewthe possibility of identifying a universal set ofskill areas that apply to all contexts, many ofthe language categories discussed in previousstudies can serve as general guides for teachersas they look for patterns through which toanalyze the language interactions they see dur-ing a needs analysis. For example, the Centerfor Applied Linguistics (1983) found these keycategories useful:

Language used in routine social interaction:Greetings, farewells, ways of addressing co-workers, working as part of a team;Language used for a specific job: Responding toinstructions, making requests, helping others,keeping records, following safety regulations;Language for flexibility and increased responsi-bility: Describing the processes of the wholeplant, addressing a variety of people, givingmessages, carrying messages, writing notes, using

the telephone, initiating conversation; andLanguage for inquiring about formal proce-dures: Questioning about wages, holidays,

leave, fringe benefits; using the clinic andcredit union; discussing grievances.

Building on the above categories, Grognet(1996) identified a more comprehensive list oftopics (see Figure 5-5) as the "backbone" ofany workplace ESL curriculum (p. 2). The listincludes workplace communication expecta-tions, following directions and instructions,jobspecific terminology, crosscultural factors,company organization and culture, and up-grading and training.

Preparing the ReportThe format for a report based on a needsanalysis varies. In some cases, all that is re-quired is an oral report. More often, however,

some kind of written document is produceddescribing the needs assessment process andmaking recommendations. It is at this pointthat a delineation of costs will be offered aswell as an estimate of the amount of timeneeded for curriculum development. Amongthe topics covered in the report may beacknowledgement and thanks to those whoparticipated, an executive summary of keyfindings and recommendations, a brief sectiondescribing the background of the organization,a description of the needs assessment process,and findings and recommendations. An appen-dix may include copies of any tools used suchas questionnaires and interview guidelines.

Approaches to CurriculumDevelopment

The traditional view of curriculum developmenthas been that it is an activity undertaken byspecialists who develop textbooks for teacheruse. In education in general this is changing. Aseducators become more aware of the extent towhich each classroom is a unique social context,teachers have come to assume more responsibilityfor creating curricula, or for adapting pre-existingcurricula to meet the needs of their students. Inworkplace education, where contexts are so varied,

there is a nearly universal need for customized cur-ricula. This can place considerable strain on pro-gram planners and teachers who must often beneeds analysts, administrators, counselors, andclassroom teachers as well as curriculum developers

(Belfiore & Bumaby, 1995). However, the challenge

has created an environment where a great deal ofinnovation has taken place in recent years. Thissection briefly describes the curriculum develop-ment process and provides sources for plannerswho are undertaking curriculum development inworkplace ESL education. It also highlights some of

the many innovative program materials being cre-ated within the field.

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Workplace1. Workplace Communication Expectations

greeting coworkersasking questionsmaking "small talk"reporting problems and progresscalling in sick or laterequesting time off or permission to leave earlyresponding to interruption and criticismmaking suggestionsaccepting and declining requests and invitationsasking for and giving clarification and verificationapologizing

2. Following Directions and Instructionsidentifying listening strategies for directionsunderstanding quality control languageunderstanding words of sequencinggiving feedback to directionsasking for, giving, and following directionsgiving and responding to warningsunderstanding and following worksite rulesfollowing salety rules

Curriculum Topics3. Job-Specific Terminology

identification of one's jobenumeration of the tasksdescription of the tasksidentification and description of tools, equipment,and machineryidentification of products and processes

4. Cross-cultural Factorsfood and eating habitspersonal hygiene, habits, and appearancecultural values of America and the Americanworkplaceunderstanding workplace hierarchiesunderstanding "unwritten rules"recognizing problems and understanding appropriateproblem-solving strategies

5. Company Organization and Culturemanagement functionsunion functionspersonnel policies, procedures, and benefitsperformance evaluationsrewards and recognition

6. Upgrading and Trainingunderstanding career opportunitiesunderstanding the need for trainingunderstanding what a "valued" worker is

Figure 5-5 Workplace Curriculum TopicsFrom Grognet, A.G. (1996). Planning, Implementing, and Evaluating Workplace ESL Programs, p. 2. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.

The Curriculum Design ProcessAfter the needs analysis is completed, the cur-riculum design process can begin. Although thisprocess may vary depending on the approach ofthe program, in most cases the following inter-related activities are included:

1. General objectives are developed based onthe needs analysis;

2. These objectives are divided and sequencedinto units;

3. Course content, lessons, and activities areplanned;

4. Actual materials are developed and fieldtested; and

5. Evaluation activities are created.

Increasingly in recent years, the curricula are de-signed in such a way that the course objectivescan be discussed, negotiated, and adapted to ac-commodate the ongoing contributions and im-

mediate needs of learners and sometimes ofother partners such as supervisors or employers(Belfiore & Burnaby, 1995; Grognet, 1996;

Taggart, 1996).

Developing the General Course ObjectivesGenerally speaking, writing the general courseobjectives and sharing them with the variouspartners involved is an important first step toensure that everyone agrees on the overall con-tent of the course. After that, more specific taskscan be delineated. The example in Figure 5-6 isbased on a task needs assessment developed aspart of the Food and Beverage Industry ESL Work-

place Literacy Curriculum for Hotels by the Arling-ton Education and Employment Program (REEF)in Arlington, Virginia (Van Duzer, Schaffner, &Seufert-Bosco, 1990). Under each general objec-tive, job skills tasks (competencies) and oral lan-guage skills (functions) are identified.

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The curriculum planners estimate that three-fourths of these units can be covered in a 60-hour course. REEP suggests that the first twounits, which provide a review of basic literacyand numeracy skills, be covered by everyone.Additional units can then be prioritized basedon contact with hotel personnel and on deci-sions made by teachers and students.

The Center for Applied Linguistics (1983) similarly

suggests that the key objectives be written first.These can then be divided into units based on thenumber of hours for the total course. For ex-ample, for a 40-hour course, five units might beinitially planned, with seven one-hour lessons andone consolidation or review lesson in each unit.Many educators recommend that language re-quired for social interactions be addressed first,since these kinds of lessons can both teach lan-guage skills needed for the workplace and allowfor social interaction among students and teachersthat will create a warm, interactive climate forlearning. Units involving more difficult concepts,such as dealing with company policy or withmore problematic content such as expressing dis-satisfaction to co-workers and supervisors, may beplaced toward the end of the course.

Planning the Course ContentNext, the course content can be written. The

depending on the methodology and overallphilosophy of teaching and learning chosen bythe planners. Although many teachers do notadhere strictly to one method, there are differ-ing approaches with distinct characteristics.The following paragraphs provide a few examples.

In a course defined by the finictional-context ap-proach, a sequence of skills may be carefullydetermined in advance, based directly on tasksthat need to be performed at work. The House-keeping Department curriculum developed byProject EXCEL of the Career Resources Devel-opment Center in San Francisco (1993) is oneexample. Unit 5 is devoted to the objective of"Reporting Problems." The unit begins by ask-ing students to fill in the blanks with fiveproblems they have reported to the housekeep-ing office. They then practice four typical dia-logues between housekeepers and guests whohave expressed a problem. Other activities inthe unit include matching vocabulary activitiesassociated with reporting problems, filling outmaintenance request forms, asking students towrite their own problem dialogues, and identi-fying potential problems with various equip-ment in a bathroom (based on photographstaken from an actual hotel room). Theteacher's role is that of "guide and transmitterof information" (Pahl & Monson, 1992, p.

content of the course will vary considerably 521). The advantage of this approach is that

From Needs Assessment to Curriculum Design Box SF

Swingline Staple Factory, located in Queens, offers two ESL classes in a large room behind the factory assembly

floor. Teachers, who also were curriculum developers, worked alongside Swingline employees on the assembly

line, performing the same tasks as their students, observing, and listening to the languages being used. Based

on this experience, they developed a draft of learning objectives and sequenced them. They then selected exer-

cises from texts and created materials to include the vocabulary and concepts they had identified. After trying

out each unit, they reviewed and rewrote it for the next class. In addition to the draft outlines and units, teach-

ers kept a journal after each class, noting what happened, what worked, and what needed to be changed. Fi-

nally, they rewrote all the units and produced Speaking Swinglish, an ESL curriculum that can be used by other

instructors (Johnson, 1993).

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Below is a list of job skills tasks (competencies) and oral language skills (functions) necessary to carry outthese tasks. These form the basis of the curriculum. In a 60-hour class, it is possible to cover 6-8 units.

The first two units listed should be covered the first few class sessions. They provide an opportunity to reviewbasic literacy skillsreading, writing, and numeracy. The other units then need to be prioritized by the hotelcontact person (general manager, supervisor, liaison), in consultation with the classroom teacher and students,to determine class content. This enables the curriculum to be tailored to meet the hotel's most pressing needsand the employees' goals.

General ESL: Personal IdentificationIdentify selfAsk/answer questions about selfRequest clarification

Read Work SchedulesReport informationAsk/answer questions about day/timeRequest schedule change

Provide Initial ServiceGreet guestsIntroduce selfTake leaveFollow job instructionsAsk/answer requests for information

Provide SuppliesIdentify suppliesMake/answer a requestAsk for clarificationApologizeMake a suggestionOffer assistance

Follow Instructions/Describe Job TasksIdentify equipment and suppliesFollow instructionsRequest clarificationGive sequence of tasksGive instructions

Report Work CompletionRespond to requests for informationRespond to praiseRespond to criticismReport progressReport completionGive explanations

Discuss Performance EvaluationRespond to praiseRespond to criticismIdentify ratings

Answer the TelephoneGreetIdentify self and departmentAsk/answer requests for informationClarify informationTake a message

Report Lateness/AbsenceIdentify self on telephoneState problem/give reasonIdentify body parts/illnessesMake a request on telephoneState intention

Give Directions to Places within the Hoteland VicinityRespond to requests for informationProvide information about locationApologizeGive directionsMake a suggestion

Report and Prevent Accidents and EmergenciesIdentify safety signsReport accidentsWarn othersMake a suggestion

Report Problems/Repairs NeededIdentify problemsReport problemsRequest clarificationRequest assistance

Read PaychecksIdentify termsAsk/answer questionsAsk for assistanceReport problems

Other:

Figure 5-6 Task Needs Assessment: Food and BeverageFrom Van Duzer, C., Schaffner, K., & Seufert-Bosco, M. (1990). REEP Food and Beverage Industry ESL Workplace Curriculum for Hotels, pp. 5-6. Arlington,VA: Arlington County Public Schools, Arlington Education and Employment Program (REEP).

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each activity is carefully planned so that it canbe used by any instructor, even one with rela-tively little training. In addition, there is a di-rect link between language taught in the classand language used on the job. Since a series ofdiscrete items are taught, it is also relativelyeasy to plan pre- and post-tests to measure thematerial covered by the lessons. The disadvan-tage with this approach is that curricula maybe overly simplistic and may not take into ac-count the complex interactions that occur inreal-life situations. There is also little room forworkers to discuss why problematic incidents,such as work equipment breaking, may be oc-curring or to describe how this problem relatesto their own daily work.

ESL for Action: Problem Posing at Work (Auerbach &

Wallerstein, 1987) is a curriculum based on aparticipatory, problem-posing approach. In this ap-

proach, the teacher chooses relevant themes thathelp students develop critical thinking aroundproblems associated with the workplace, analyzethe underlying causes of those problems, and takeaction to gain more control over their lives. Eachunit involves a listening phase (where issues inthe community are investigated), a dialogue phase(where issues are codified for discussion), and anaction phase (where students develop strategiesfor making changes). For example, a unit entitled"Making Money" begins with a code in the formof a dialogue between two workers, one of whombelieves his paycheck is $10 too short. Questionsfor discussion about the dialogue are suggested.The questions help students to define the prob-lem, analyze how it happened, discuss whatshould be done, and reflect on what they woulddo in a similar situation. Other activities for skillsbuilding focus on learning vocabulary related topaychecks, reading pay stubs, calculating pay, andlearning about minimum wage laws. Later, stu-dents leam language related to reporting a payproblem and discuss or role play what they might

do if the issue is not resolved to their satisfaction.In this curriculum, teachers are given generalguidelines for material to cover in the lesson;however, it is up to them to pick and choseamong the various activities suggested, so prepara-tion time may be considerable. Lessons of this na-ture also require skillful facilitation abilities on thepart of the teacher and strong classroom manage-ment skills to balance time between each of thecomponents. Teachers must be able to reflect care-

fully on their role as a change agent and their re-sponsibilities to their students on many levels.

In other learner-centered approaches, the curricu-lum emerges as the program gets under way,and is jointly planned by teachers and stu-dents. Rosenblum (1996) recounts how stu-dents in one program decided to organize anoral history project resulting in a book andtapes documenting their work and union expe-rience in the factory. Among the tasks associ-ated with this multi-unit activity were makinga list of questions to use to interview co-work-ers, writing paragraphs on these topics, tapingand listing to interviews, discussing issues thatcame up, and writing paragraphs to introducethe interviews that appear in the book. In an-other example, an ESL class offered to Mexicanand Polish plastics workers (Power, 1992), theteacher asked students to have a picture ofthemselves taken on the job. The photos werethen used to generate sentences describing thework students do on a typical day, and a classstory was written with a section on each stu-dent.

To use learner-centered this approaches, teach-ers must have strong facilitation and classroommanagement skills. They must find ways tobalance and integrate activities proposed bylearners with the basic skills the students needto develop and the objectives the programsponsors may like to see covered.

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Regardless of the approach, most good cur-ricula integrate the teaching of language func-tions, grammatical structures, an organizedpractice of oral communication skills, vocabu-lary, various kinds of reading and writing tasksnecessary for the job, and sometimes basicmath. They move from teacher-directed activitiesto skills practice to more student-directed activi-ties to concepts, ideas, and relationships.

Materials and TechniquesNo matter what approach the curriculum takes,classroom practices should be varied and inter-esting. Learners know the difference betweenclassroom activities that are meaningful (seekout information) and activities that are busywork (the answer is already known). A few tech-niques that have proven useful make use ofphotographs, tape-recorded conversations andvideotapes, printed materials, photostories, oral

A Whole Language Approach Box 5GIn 1982, Ford Motor Company and the United Auto Workers set up a Skills Enhancement Program under which

each Ford plant could develop a basic skills and ESL program suited to its needs. The Ypsilanti plant linked up

with Eastern Michigan University to form The Academy. This program uses whole language instructional principles

to develop its basic skills and ESL program at the automobile manufacturing plant. The program focuses on

having students read whole texts related to various themes and writing about the topics under discussion. The

written work of ESL students then becomes the topic for directed workshops in various language and commu-

nication skills. Employees themselves are encouraged to participate in the design of the program. This approach

develops not only communication skills but also enhances team participation skills, critical thinking, and other

"higher order" skills that more and more workers will need as the company moves into the future (Business

Council for Effective Literacy, July 1988, No. 16).

Competencies to Target a Specific Need Box 5HA good example of an effective competency-based curriculum is the Convenience Store Workplace Literacy Cur-

riculum. Developed for ESL classes offered by the Southland Corporation's 7-Eleven Food Stores through a na-

tional workplace literacy grant, this curriculum contains four units. Each unit includes competencies as well as

suggested activities for warmup and review, presentation, practice, evaluation, and application of the materials.

The first unit, "Introducing Ourselves and Our Worksite," encourages employees from different stores to learn to

work as a team to assess their language and literacy needs. The four additional units focus on responding to customer

concerns and complaints, handling and preventing robbery and shoplifting, transacting alcoholrelated sales, and re-

sponding to customers' requests. Competencies are organized in clusters so teachers can "mix and match" them to

meet individual classroom needs, and the curriculum uses such interactive activities as communication network

mapping, critical incidents, and role playing to address both language and cultural worksite issues (Van Duzer &

Mansoor, 1993).

Involving Students in Curriculum Development Box 51The Global Factory, produced through the International Ladies' Garment Workers Union in New York City is

based on a workshop held in 1991 by two groups of teachers and students. The workshop explored the economic

trend whereby transnational corporations send production and assembly operations to the Third World in

search of cheaper labor, and it began a collaborative ESL curriculum development process among teachers,

students, and union staff (Lamar & Schnee, 1993).

133BEST COPY AVAILABLE,

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stories and language experience stories, roleplays, questionnaires, charts, and diagrams.

PhotographsRegardless of teaching approach, teachers mayuse a number of techniques effectively in aworkplace ESL classroom. Belfiore and Burnaby(1995) present a good repertoire of techniquesand source materials. Photographs can be usedfor a variety of purposes, including identifyingthe steps in the production process, learningvocabulary, and identifying problems on thejob. They can be used as tools to integrate lis-tening, speaking, reading, and writing activitieswith concrete language for the workplace andwith analysis of problems and processes.

Tape-recorded conversations andvideotapesThe real language used in the workplace is agood source for material to use in class. (Per-mission, of course, must be received to tape orvideotape workers, and those workers involvedshould also give their consent). Such tapes canbe used for practice in listening for generalcomprehension and for specific information.Videotapes may reveal important cross-culturalissues that can be discussed. Belfiore andBurnaby (1995) suggest other ways teacherscan guide discussions of tapes, such as focusingon areas where there is a communicationbreakdown; listening for requests for clarifica-tion, repetition, and paraphrasing; and notingchanges in the speaker's tone of voice thatmight indicate how the communication is beingperceived. If it is not possible to tape authenticconversations, they suggest that learners andtheir co-workers create role plays that simulaterealistic conversations. Other programs haveused commercial videos as source materials forlanguage lessons.

Printed materialsPrinted materials are another good resource forthe classroom. Many of those materials identifiedearlier during the needs assessment process, suchas work schedules, operating instructions postedon machines, and safety notices, can be adaptedfor use in the classroom both as topics for oral dis-cussion and as tools for practicing reading andwriting. Tips found in this chapter for adaptingworkplace materials may be used in this process.Although materials may 'need to be adapted tomake them easier for students to understand, par-ticularly at the beginning levels, students may beable to read material at a fairly difficult level if ithas meaning and impact on their lives. In NewYork, Johnson (1993) recounts how students at aknitting factory demonstrated a keen interest inreading their own union contract and were ableto work their way slowly through the documentwith the help of teacher-developed exercises to as-sist them in learning vocabulary and identifyingsignificant information in the text. And inWashington DC, a program for food and bever-age workers used sections of their union con-tract and parts of their personnel manual asassessment tools and classroom practice in read-ing (Alamprese & Kay, 1994).

PhotostoriesPhotostories are materials produced by learn-ers. Often they involve a process of 1) discuss-ing a possible story that could be capturedthrough photographs; 2) role-playing the storyand taking pictures to depict various se-

quences; 3) writing a script or captions to gowith the each picture; and 4) organizing thematerials into a publishable format. Develop-ing photostories can be a good way to buildcommunity among students. Various kinds ofteacher-developed activities can also be used todiscuss themes or practice language.

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Oral stories and language experiencestoriesStories of students' lives or work experiences canbe a rich source of material for the teacher. Thesemay be collected by audiotaping stories as stu-dents tell them. With beginning students, a lan-guage experience approach can be used both togenerate stories and to teach basic literacy skills.In a language experience approach, the studenttells a simple story and a teacher or other helperwrites it down exactly as it is told. This text thenbecomes a source of reading material for thestudent, with the teacher developing variouskinds of literacy activities using the text, such asscrambled word exercises, doze lessons, phonicsactivities, and others.

Role playsRole plays are a mainstay of many workplaceliteracy programs. These may include pre-scripted dialogues involving oral communica-tion in the workplace or role plays in whichstudents play themselves. Many educators pre-fer these unscripted role plays since scripteddialogues often cannot predict the flow andunpredictable nature of real language. (Begin-ners, however, may need models to practice atfirst.) Role plays not only allow students topractice communicative skills, but they alsocan be a valuable tool to reveal problematicand multiple-sided issues and to give studentsskills and strategies for influencing their envi-ronment. The El Paso Community College Pro-

Videotapes for Classroom Use Box 5J

Several videotapes produced as classroom tools have been made available by programs. Here are just a few:

The Cutting Edge Series is a series of 60 instructional videotapes and accompanying modules that focus on various

workplace themes. The materials were developed as part of a National Workplace Literacy Grant Program partner-

ship between Levi Strauss & Company and El Paso Community College. A basic skills curriculum with videotapes is

currently being prepared. It focuses on developing reading, writing, and math skills (El Paso Community College,

1993a; 1993b).

Working in the United States was developed by the Center for Applied Linguistics. Originally designed to assist in

orienting refugees to the American workplace, these videotapes focus on typical workdays of entry-level workers

in a restaurant, a hotel, a hospital, and a factory. Specific language functions such as stating a task, reading codes,

sorting and weighing, and following multiple directions are addressed in the tapes (Center for Applied Linguistics,

1987).

You're Hired! and Climbing the Ladder make up a series of two video instructional programs along with accom-

panying instructional materials designed to help ESL students learn 1) oral competencies employers identify as

essential for second language employees, 2) tips for working with employers, and 3) a variety of crosscultural

information. Produced in close collaboration with students at North Seattle Community College, these tapespresent numerous and realistic vignettes of situations many students encounter on the job as well as language

practice activities (North Seattle Community College, 1989).

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Using Writing to Explore Themes Box 5K

The International Ladies' Garment Workers Union Worker-Family Education Program Curriculum Guide presents a

process whereby ESL students in the workplace programs write and publish personal writings including short

stories, life histories, personal opinions, and reports. These materials, shared among sites around the city, build

a sense of pride and solidarity among students in this large program (Freeman & LaMar, 1989).

Role Plays into Video Box 5L

Workbook for Work Plays: You and Your Rights on the Job, by Lenore Balliro, is a videotape accompanied by a workbook

developed as part of a workplace ESL project at Southeastern Massachusetts University. The curriculum consists of

five units: 1) safety and health, 2) workers' compensation, 3) discrimination, 4) unions, and 5) workplace rights. In

each unit, workplace issues are represented in the form of two or three short skits. The skits are transcribed in the

workbook, along with a list of preparatory exercises, structured language activities, and guided questions for reflec-

tion on the issues. The materials, designed for use with Portuguese-speaking factory workers, can be used to supple-

ment existing curricula and includea guide for how to use the tapes (Balliro, 1988).

Using Role Plays to Address Difficult Issues Box 5M

A Curriculum Packet About Immigration Related lob Discrimination, produced by the Massachusetts Immigrant and

Refugee Advocacy Coalition, uses role plays and critical incidents to help students explore how to deal with this

important issue. Discussion guides help teachers prepare for classroom activities (Nash & Wright, 1991).

Collaborative Learning Processes Box 5N

Mademoiselle Garment Factory, located in an impoverished part of Brooklyn, is a mid-sized garment knitting

factory that produces sweaters for companies such as Liz Claiborne. Through the Consortium for Worker Educa-

tion, they conducted two ESL classes on site. In one of their activities, students learned about the concept of

mapping by creating a map of one room of their house. They then worked collaboratively to create workplace

maps, each with a particular emphasis. For example, one set of maps focused on health and safety risks of vari-

ous machines on the knitting factory floor. Another represented the organization of the factory. Another began

with each worker at his or her work station and expanded outward. Students learned vocabulary, organization,

and categorizing skills in completing the exercise. In another exercise, students created dialogues around the

theme of layoffs, an all too familiar circumstance at the factory (Johnson, 1993).

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gram uses a dynamic curriculum developmentprocess. Drawing from their perceptions of dif-ficulties in communication on the job, stu-dents generate topics for the curriculum. Then,using language and strategies learned in class,the students are videotaped as they role playsolutions to workplace communication problems(Taggart, 1996).

Questionnaires, charts, and diagrams.Many kinds of charts and diagrams where stu-dents must supply missing information havebeen used successfully in workplace ESL pro-grams. These tools can generate activitieswhere students interview one another in class.Charts and diagrams can teach organizationaland categorizing skills as well how to imple-ment a simple research process. After the infor-mation is collected, students can look forresults. For example, students might collectand analyze the previous work experiences ofmembers of the class and compare notes.

Evaluating ProgramEffectiveness

Within the field of general workplace educa-tion, there remain continuing concerns regard-ing how to measure program effectiveness.Mark Kutner of Pelavin Associates points outthat "it is not readily apparent what has beenlearned about the impact of the National Work-place Literacy Programs on either participatingemployers or participating learners. The existingprogram evaluations rely primarily on self-reported data rather than empirical or quantita-tive research. A more rigorous evaluation ofprojects would be of unquestionable value"(Kutner, Sherman, Webb, & Fisher, 1991, p. 50).In 1994, the U.S. Department of Educationfunded a national evaluation of the programs.However, the findings of that evaluation are notlikely to be published before 1998.

Few general resource materials exist that arespecifically directed toward evaluating work-place ESL programs, although Belfiore andBurnaby (1995) provide a few good tools for thefinal assessment of learner progress, based onself-assessment and assessments by supervisors.There are a number of final evaluation reportswritten by programs themselves or conductedby external evaluators that provide much usefulinformation, many produced as part of the Na-tional Workplace Literacy Programs. One of themost outstanding of these is the Federal Work-place Literacy Project report, developed by theArlington Education and Employment Program(REEP) in Arlington, Virginia. The project hasdeveloped a model for linking project goals andoutcomes. Data is collected and reported on re-tention rates, attendance, improvement in basicskills based on the BEST, learner self-evaluations,supervisor ratings, and other progress reports.For the project, REEP developed an evaluationframework (see Figure 5-7) for determining whatkinds of information each of the major stake-holders in the project needed.

Progress reports take the form of competencychecklists that are completed for each class. Usingthese tools, teachers assess all students accordingto their ability to perform each language and basicskills task. Self-evaluation forms ask students tomeasure their own changes in their ability tocommunicate on the job. Supervisor rating formshelp to determine the projects' impact on pro-ductivity, self-esteem, communication, safety,

and attendance at work.

The Career Resources Development Center (1992)in San Francisco has developed a set of pre- andpost-tests based on their own curriculum models,various worker and supervisor productivity-assessment checklists, and a process for askingworkers to evaluate program effectiveness. Athird program, the Massachusetts Workplace

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WHO NEEDSTO KNOW?

WHAT INSTRUMENT WHEN

Learners Program Goals

Proficiency Levels

Progress

Skill Achievement

Learner GoalAchievement

Outreach Materials

Pre-test Data

Progress ReportsSelf Evaluation

Progress ReportSelf Evaluation

IEP

BeforeInstructionBefore

During

After

After

Teachers Program Goals

Employer Goals

Employee Goals

Learner Pre-tests

Learner Progress

Orientation Materials

Supervisor Priority for CompetenciesInformal Conferences

IEP

Best Test or Appropriate Pre-test

Progress ReportsSupervisor RatingsPost-tests

Before

BeforeDuring

Before &During

Before

During &AfterAfter

Employers Program Goals

ContextualizedCurriculum

Impact onWorkplace

Orientation Materials

Course Outline

Supervisor Ratings, Overall ClassStatistics for Retention, Attendance,Progress

Before

Before &During

After

OtherStakeholderAdministratorsFEDS, ProjectPartners,ExternalEvaluator, thePublic

Program Goals

Impact onEmployees

Impact onWorkplace

Proposal

Statistical Data on Progresso

Data from Supervisors

Before

During &After

Before,during &after

Figure 5-7 Evaluation FrameworkFrom Mansoor, I. (1993). REEP Federal Workplace Literacy Project, March 1, 1991February 28, 1993, p. 36. Arlington, VA: Arlington County Public Schools.

132 138EST COPY AVA1ILLE

Literacy Initiative, has extensively explored theissues of determining program quality as well(Sperazi, Jurmo, & Rosen, 1991).

Reports by external evaluators of workplace ESLprograms also exist. Three good examples include

Wrigley's Outside Evaluation Report for the Arlington

Federal Workplace Literacy Project (1993), Hemphill's

Workplace ESL Literacy in Diverse Small Business

Contexts: Final Evaluation Report on Project EXCEL

(1992), and Alamprese and Kay's Literacy on theCafeteria Line: Evaluation of the Skills Enhancement

Training Program (1994). Although the majority ofthe participants in the program evaluated byAlamprese and Kay were native speakers, ESLlearners were also served, and the tools and pro-cesses described are applicable to all adult learners.

Conclusion

Workplace ESL education is becoming a vitalaspect of the provision of adult. ESL educa-tional services. For many reasons, it offers greatpotential for the development of innovations

a

within the field. It also presents many ques-tions for educators as they consider their rolesin this new setting. Workplace ESL educatorsare striving to be much more than simply "de-livery-persons bringing packages of learning todesignated 'target' groups" (Sauve, 1995, p.16). Many educators are struggling to find cre-ative ways to place ESL education within thebroader communicative context of the work-place as a whole. As yet, only a small numberof businesses currently offer ESL and basicskills instruction at the workplace. Many stilllack confidence in the ability of training to im-prove employees' skills or fail to see the eco-nomic value of such an investment. Othersfind alternate ways of dealing with languagedeficiencies, such as reorganizing job tasks tominimize the need for English proficiency orhiring supervisors who speak the native lan-guage of the workers (Burt, 1995). It is hopedthat this will change as the results of effectiveprograms, such as the ones described in thischapter, are disseminated.

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Chapter Six

Meeting the Need: What Will It Take?

Today, more than ever, funding for limited Englishproficient students is a controversial and politi-cally charged issue. The needs of immigrantscompete with those of so many other disadvan-taged groups. Other national priorities such as re-ducing the federal deficit, dealing with growingcrime, and problems with the health care systemoften eclipse educational concerns. Yet, most agreethat, without a fresh approach to educating thefuture workforce, the nation's most fundamentalprioritya strong economywill be jeopardized.Educating immigrants, who will soon representnearly one in three of all new entrants to theworkforce, can no longer be overlooked.

This last chapter will briefly summarize thecentral findings of this paper. Then, based onthose findings, it will suggest ten interrelatedsteps that states and localities can take to en-sure that, whatever new system is developed inthe coming years to meet the employment-related training needs of adults, limited Englishproficient adults are included in the planningand service delivery process.

Immigrant Numbers, Education,and Employment: A Summary

High Rate of ImmigrationOver 1.1 million immigrants and refugees en-ter this country each year: 700,000 enter aslawful permanent residents and 100,000 to150,000 as legal refugees. More than 200,000undocumented immigrants enter the UnitedStates each year as well. Immigrants and refu-gees represent one third of the nation's netgrowth (National Immigration Forum, 1994).

Laissez-Fare Immigration PolicesAt the same time, the federal government hastaken an increasingly laissez-faire approach todomestic immigration policy. No comprehensivefederal program exists to support the resettle-ment of immigrants.

Inadequate Financial SupportFinancial support for federal education pro-grams for immigrant adults has been reducedeven though the population is growing. Theburden of providing health care, education,jobs, and other services has fallen on the statesand on a few highly impacted localities. .

High Number of Immigrantsin the WorkforceMost immigrants come to the United States intheir twentiesat prime working age. Sincethe overall working-age population is gettingsmaller, immigrants will represent a larger andlarger portion of new entrants to the workforcein the coming years. Soon, one in every threenew entrants to the workforce will be an immi-grant. In highly impacted cities, the proportionswill be much higher.

Diverse Educational BackgroundsImmigrants come with diverse educational back-grounds. About one quarter come with advanceddegrees and highly developed work-related quali-fications. However, another third or more of allimmigrants enter this country having receivedless than a ninth-grade education in their homecountries.

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Need for English Language InstructionTo succeed in the workplace, immigrants needlanguage and work-related education. Immi-grants who do not learn to speak English, onthe average, earn only half as much as thosewho become proficient in English. Currently,English language instruction is being providedto only a small percentage (perhaps 1 to 2 mil-lion) of the 12 to 14 million adults who arelimited English proficient.

Need for EmploymentRelated TrainingEven fewer opportunities are available for im-migrants to obtain vocational training. Mostmust acquire high levels of English proficiencybefore they are able to pass English languageentrance tests that would allow them to entermost vocational training programs. Althoughin most cases hard data does not exist, it ap-pears that as few as 2% to 3% of those en-rolled in many federally funded vocationalprograms are limited English proficient adults,even though federal mandates state that indi-viduals should not be denied access to servicesbased on limited English proficiency.

Need for Strong WorkplaceCommunication SkillsToday, new workers need strong communica-tion skills and the ability to read, write, andcompute as the United States moves to a ser-vice economy, as workplaces become restruc-tured, and as the prevalence of technologyincreases. To succeed even in entry-level jobs,immigrants require specialized education.

Need to Disseminate What WorksMany innovative models to provide vocationalEnglish as a second language, vocational, andworkplace education currently exist. But pro-grams have been hampered by a lack of fundsto develop their program designs, create assess-ment tools, and organize effective ways todemonstrate the outcomes of participation.

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What States and LocalitiesCan Do: Ten Steps

States and localities can play a 'crucial role inensuring that the employmentrelated needsof adult immigrants are taken into account inthe planning and delivery of future educationservices. The following is a discussion of 10steps (presented in Figure 6-1) that can be usedto achieve this goal.

Building Commitmentfor ESL IssuesThe existing fragmentation of adult ESL andvocational education has been well docu-mented in recent years. (See Chisman, Wrigley,& Ewen, 1993; Grognet, 1994; U.S. Congress,Office of Technology and Assessment, 1993;Wrigley & Ewen, 1995.) Students seeking ser-vices encounter a web of disconnected, oftenoverlapping programs. Recent trends indicate astrong interest in overcoming this problem onboth a federal and state level. Funds frommany existing programs may be merged andawarded to states on a block grant basis. Statelevel coalitions and planning bodies will thenbe needed to coordinate services. At this criti-cal juncture, it is especially important that per-sons representing the interests of limitedEnglish proficient adults be included as part ofthese planning groups so that the needs of thispopulation can be considered from the begin-ning. As has been seen in this report, the pres-ence of one or more strong advocatessupporting and furthering the needs of limitedEnglish proficient adults has often been centralto the development of clear, non-exclusionarypolicies and the institutionalization of servicesin community colleges, vocational schools,and community-based education. Those per-sons must be encouraged to take leadershiproles as restructuring takes place.

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Gathering Data on the Needs ofLimited English Proficient AdultsIn program after program, no hard data is col-lected concerning the participation rates oflimited English proficient adults in existingprograms. There are no reporting requirementsand there are often disincentives for breakingdown data into participation groups. Plannersneed to collect data on the characteristics ofthe local and state immigrant community andkeep abreast of demographic changes throughcensus reports, public school records, welfare,unemployment and labor statistics. Data con-cerning the socioeconomic and educationallevels of immigrants and refugees, their Englishlanguage proficiency, and their cultural back-grounds are vital to deciding which potentialareas to target. This information also needs tobe examined in light of solid evidence concern-ing local labor market needs so that the interestsof business and the needs of immigrant workerscan be intersected.

Getting Business InvolvedBusiness needs to take a. more active role inhelping plan vocational and workplace train-ing efforts. The most successful vocationaltraining programs appear to be those that haveestablished strong links with industry by in-cluding business and labor leaders on advisorypanels, making sure the kinds of training of-fered are consistent with business needs, train-ing workers on equipment currently used byindustry, and hiring instructors with recent ex-perience in the private sector. Businesses al-ready offering workplace ESL programs need tobe solicited to help promote the benefits of on-site instruction and to work with educators indeveloping better ways of demonstrating toothers the outcomes of instruction. Businessesnot involved in workplace education needmore information about the costs and benefits.

Providing Incentives for CreatingWell-Articulated Service DeliveryOne potential barrier to participation of whichplanners have become increasingly aware is thelack of transition for learners between oneagency and another. ESL students from adultschools rarely make the transition to commu-nity colleges or vocational schools. Often thereis a gap between the qualifications of studentswho graduate from the highest level in adultschools and the entry requirements for begin-ning-level courses in vocational programs or in-stitutions of higher education. In addition,adult educators often lack information abouthow to help students enroll in further educa-tion. Several innovative approaches to resolvethese problems are being developed, such asbridging classes that provide a transition be-tween ESL and vocational education, educationfairs that give adult students exposure to pro-grams that exist in community colleges and vo-cational schools, and efforts to educateinstructors and counselors. These promising ap-proaches need to be further studied and the re-sults disseminated. Models need to be found tobuild such transitions into the new restructur-ing plans to be developed in the coming years.

Coordinating Placementand Assessment IndicatorsFew adult ESL and vocational educators are sat-isfied with the existing choices of placementand assessment indicators. Many commerciallyavailable tests widely in use are inappropriatefor use with limited English proficient adultsbut continue to be promoted because acceptablealternatives are not available. Various alternativeassessment approaches are proving useful inthe classroom but have not reached the stagewhere they can be used to meet programaccountability requirements. Within the fieldof workplace education, good tools are neededto ascertain the outcomes of instruction. Larger

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sources of funding are needed to develop betterassessment tools. A key challenge is the devel-opment of assessment frameworks that aregeneral enough to allow for comparisons be-tween programs, yet have the flexibility to re-spond to the variety of contexts that exist inthe field. State and local planning boards canbe encouraged to assist the field by promotingthe development of assessment tools that canbe field tested across multiple sites, and statesneed to develop content and performancestandards for LEP students.

Developing Concurrent Modelsof ESL and Vocational TrainingToo often even those students with well-definedcareer goals spend semester after semester ingeneral ESL classes, often becoming discouragedand dropping out before ever getting a chanceto enter vocational training. This system wasteshuman potential and is not cost-effective.Approaches exist for providing concurrent voca-tionally related English-as-a-second-languageand vocational training. Not only do theseprograms get adults out of the classroom andinto higher paying jobs sooner, but researchindicates that content-based ESL instruction,such as that which accompanies vocationaltraining, simply takes better advantage of ideallanguage learning contexts. Some of the mosteffective programs, such as those offered bythe Center for Employment Training in SanJose, California, do not require any entrancerequirements. They simply provide strongincentives to learn and classes geared to actuallabor-market needs. Students stay in the pro-gram long enough to get the intensive languageand vocational training they need to securegood jobs. These programs, it has been found,can more than pay for themselves as workerswith better jobs contribute more to theeconomy. Better ways need to be found to weedout those wasteful short-term programs that, byproviding less than enough training, leave

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adults without marketable skills. Innovativeapproaches such as those outlined in Chapter4 need to be shared and promoted.

Breaking Down Barriers toAccessing ServicesOne of the most startling facts uncovered bythis report is the nearly universal way inwhich limited English proficient adults are de-nied services by being unable to pass English-language entrance tests. There exist no strongdata to demonstrate the link between the abil-ity to achieve a certain score on the tests andability to succeed in vocational training. Infact, research has shown that immigrants oftendemonstrate much better language abilities incontextualized, face-to-face situations (such ason the job) than on decontextualized aca-demic written tests. Moreover, many employ-ers point out that academic-type vocationalinstruction is not what most workers need andthat vocational education should take a morehands-on approach. Both of these facts bringinto question the appropriateness of existingentrance requirements. In addition to the factthat such tests may not make sense, they alsodiscriminate against language-minority stu-

dents. Civil rights legislation indicates that noone should be denied services based on na-tional origin or language proficiency. Yet, thisis consistently the rule in program after pro-gram throughout the country. Students eithercannot get into programs or cannot receive fi-nancial aid because they are not deemed "ableto benefit" from vocational training. Otherbarriers also exist. Recruitment practices needto be specially targeted to limited English profi-cient students. Support services such as counsel-ing, financial aid assistance, bilingual tutoring,and job placement services need to be appro-priate to their needs. In addition, educatorsneed to develop better multicultural awarenessof the subtle ways in which discriminationmay exist within institutions.

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(1. Build Commitment for ESL IssuesMake sure that ESL or vocational ESL specialists

are appointed to each overall state and localplanning organization and that ESL issues are onthe agenda. This is especially true in California,Texas, Florida, New York, and Illinois where the

majority of immigrants live.

10. Support States and Localities MostImpacted By Immigration

A few highly impacted states and, withinthose states, a few localities carry the burdenof serving new immigrants. They desperatelyneed additional federal and state assistance.Some of those funds need to be set aside forspecialists from these highly impacted areasto meet and share information and expertise.Although local contexts are unique, "reinvent-ing the adult education wheel" in isolation is

no longer cost-effective.

9. Build in Funds for Research,Evaluation, and Dissemination

The field needs to know much more about whatworks and why. Successful programs need

funding to write about their experiences; practi-cal, targeted research studies need to be con-ducted; and the results shared with those who

need it most.

8. Focus on Quality by Providing \Staff Development

Teachers capable of designing and deliveringquality instruction are at the core of program

success. Promote policies that provide fortraining and technical assistance for teachers,

as well as access to career laddersand full-time positions.

A 1 7. Break Down Barriers toAccessing Services

Investigate how LEP adults in your area aredenied access to vocational training through

testing requirements, a lack of recruitment, orinadequate support services. Involve the com-

munity in making changes.

2. Gather Data on LEP Needs\Gather hard data on the LEP population in yourstate and locality and on its vocational training

needs. Publicize it

Solicit3. Get Business involved

Solicit business involvement to keep updated onlocal and state labor markets. Bring private

sector technology into public sector training.Demonstrate to businesses the benefits associ-

ated with developing ESL programs atworksite.

/4. Provide incentives for CreatingWell-Articulated Service Delivery

Appoint a task force to clarify the range oflanguage and training services in your localcommunity. Build transitions between ESL,

vocational, basic skills, workplace, andhigher education.

Q7

1 6. Develop Concurrent Modelsof ESL and Vocational Training

Initiate programs that offer simultaneous lan-guage and vocational training. Stress the cost

effectiveness of concurrent and "VESL bridging"programs over those that allow students to lose

motivation as they remain semester aftersemester in general ESL.

Figure 6-1

161

What States and Localities Can Do: Ten Steps

EST COPY AVAILABLE,

139

144

Focusing on Quality by ProvidingStaff DevelopmentCurrently, less than one in four of all ESL in-structors works in the field full time. Manypaid staff continue to be elementary and highschool teachers with little specialized trainingin adult education, in spite of the fact thatbecoming a vocational ESL instructor or work-place ESL educator is challenging. One of the keyprecursors to improving the quality of instructionin vocational ESL education is to build capacityamong adult ESL educators. Methods need to befound to provide full-time employment opportu-nities and long-term career paths. Incentives needto be provided to bring people with experiencefrom the business community into the educa-tional field. In addition, bilingual teachers andparaprofessionals play a vital role. Members oflinguistic-minority communities must be encour-aged to enter educational fields.

Building in Funds for Research,Evaluation, and DisseminationResearch directly related to the language, work-place, and vocational training needs of limitedEnglish proficient adults has been virtually non-existent. Even modest studies could be of sig-nificant use to the field. For example,

ethnographic research is needed to understandbetter the linguistic and cultural demands ofworkplace settings; studies of the relationshipbetween language, literacy, and job performanceneed to be conducted; the effectiveness of vari-ous models of vocational and workplace educa-tion need to be examined; and more needs tobe known about the role the native languagecan and should play in instruction. In addition,funds need to be found for experienced practi-tioners to write about and share their successesso that replicable models can be created.

Supporting States and LocalitiesMost Impacted By ImmigrationStatistics show that only a few states are highlyimpacted by immigration. Eighty percent of allimmigrants live in just six states (California,Texas, Florida, New York, Illinois, New Jersey),and within those states, a few key cities aremost impacted. In fact, the vast majority of im-migrants live in urban areas. In 1990, 93% of allimmigrants lived in cities, compared to 73% ofnative-born Americans (National ImmigrationForum, 1994). The well-being and economicgrowth of some major citiesNew York, LosAngeles, Chicago, Miami, Houston, and oth-erswill depend very much on the vitality andproductivity of the immigrant populationswithin those localities. Yet, although immi-grants contribute significantly to the economyon a federal level in terms of income taxes,these funds are not returned to the localities inequal proportion. As a result, many key citiesfeel overburdened by their immigrant popula-tions. Efforts need to be found to improve thissituation on several fronts. First of all, specialtargeted funds for education (and other services)need to be channeled to these areas. In addi-tion, states and localities with large immigrantpopulations need to find ways to learn fromone another. While each state's context is differ-ent, there are many common needs and con-cerns. Even limited opportunities to allowvocational ESL and workplace educators inthese areas to meet together to plan and sharecommon concerns would be of value. To makethe best use of limited funds, collaboration forprogram improvement is needed.

140 145

Sink or Swim?

In the old days, new immigrants were left to sink or swim. Few programs existed to help themlearn English or acquire a trade. Immigrants entered the sweat shops of the manufacturing era orworked as laborers on farms. They earned their living through long hours and often backbreakingphysical labor. The old adage was that it was their children and their children's children whowould achieve the American dream. They made the sacrifice for their suceeding generations.Many of these older immigrants are the parents, grandparents, or great-grandparents of today'ssuccessful, integrated, productive adults.

But today is a different day. The manufacturing era is gone and the age of information is here.Most jobs exist in the service sector where the need for strong communication skills and literacy ismuch greater than before. In the manufacturing sector, new technologies and restructuring of theworkplace mean workers must be able to work in teams and adjust to changing realities every day.It is no longer possible to sit mute behind a machine and get by in the work world. The sink-or-swim approach to integrating immigrant workers into society is no longer viable. There is no timeto wait until the next generation. The energy, ambition, and risk-taking spirit of this generation ofimmigrants needs to be tapped to keep the nation strong and united.

146 141

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List of Figures and Boxes

Chapter 1Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-3.

Figure 1-4.

Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-6.

Chapter 2Figure 2-1.

Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-3.

Box 2A.

Box 2B.

Box 2C.

Box 2D.

Box 2E.

Box 2F.

Box 2G.

Figure 2-4.

Figure 2-5.

Chapter 4Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-2.

Box 4A.

Legal Immigration to the United States, 1820s to 1980s, p. 4

Number of People, Ages 5 and Above, Speaking a Non-English Language at Home,by State, 1990, p. 5

Percent of Adult Population in Selected Cities Who May Need English Services, p. 6

Self-Reported Ability to Speak English in Non-English Speaking Homes: 1990 Cen-sus, p. 8

Dropout Rates for Persons Ages 16 to 24, 1972-1991, p. 9

Income Distribution for Limited English Proficient Adults, p. 11

Programs, Agencies, and Funding Streams: The Massachusetts Example, p. 18

Funding for Select Department of Education Programs, Fiscal Year 1992, p. 20

A Comparison of Federal and State/Local Expenditures for Adult Education, FiscalYears 1980-1993, p. 21

U.S. Department of Education Program: The Adult Education Act, p. 22

U.S. Department of Education Program: National Workplace Literacy Grants, p. 24

U.S. Department of Education Program: The Perkins Vocational and Applied Techno-logy Act, p. 26

U.S. Department of Education Program: The Bilingual Vocational Training Program,p. 28

U.S. Depai ment of Labor Program: The Job Training Partnership Act, p. 30

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Program: The Job Opportunities andBasic Skills (JOBS) Program, p. 33

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Program: The Refugee and EntrantAssistance Program, p. 35

Federal Refugee Assistance: Reimbursement to the States: 1981 to 1991, p. 36

Refugee Resettlement Funds vs. Refugee Arrivals, p. 37

Single Agency Approach: VELT Program Management, p. 58

Multiple Agency Approach: VELT Program Management, p. 59

A Short-Term Training Program, p. 59

163 159

Figure 4-3.

Box 4B.

Figure 4-4.

Box 4C.

Figure 4-5.

Box 4D.

Figure 4-6.

Box 4E.

Figure 4-7.

Box 4F.

Figure 4-8.

Figure 4-9.

Box 4G.

Box 4H.

Box 41.

Box 4J.

Box 4K.

Box 4L.

Box 4M.

Box 4N.

Box 40.

Box 4P.

Figure 4-10.

Box 4Q.

Box 4R.

Figure 4-11.

Box 4S.

Box 4T.

Box 4U.

Figure 4-12.

Figure 4-13.

Box 4V.

Figure 4-14.

Figure 4-15.

Figure 4-16.

Consortium for Worker Education: Who We Are, p. 60

A Long-Term Job Training Program, p. 60

The Sequential Model: Pre-Employment Training, p. 63

A Sequential, Pre-Vocational Training Program, p. 64

The Sequential Model: Pre-Vocational Training, p. 65

A Sequential, Pre-Vocational Bridging Program, p. 66

The Transitional Model, p. 67

A Concurrent Program, p. 68

The Concurrent Model, p. 69

A Bilingual Vocational Training Program, p. 70

The Bilingual Vocational Training Model, p. 71

Examples of Survey Questions, p. 73

Building Close Links With Industry, p. 73

Meeting the Needs of the Banking Community, p. 75

Restructuring to Meet the Need, p.. 75

Responding and Adapting to Needs, p. 75

Developing Curricula to Bridge the Gap, p. 77

Determining the Barriers to Success, p. 77

Getting Past the First Steps, p. 77

An ESL Expo, p. 79

Career Awareness and Job Readiness, p. 79

Making the First Step in a Familiar Language, p. 79

Critical Incident, p. 81

Coordinating Vocational and VESL Instruction, p. 82

Cooperative Learning Approach, p. 83

Lecturette Techniques Checklist, p. 85

Competency-Based Approaches, p. 89

Cultural "Pink Sheets", p. 89

Exploring the Links Between Work and Culture, p. 89

Example of Modified Text, p. 90

Strategies for Modifying Text, p. 91

Videos for Workplace and Vocational ESL: A Sampler, p. 92

Sample of a Classic Cloze Test, p. 96

Data Entry VESL Competencies, p. 97

Portfolio Sign-Off Sheet, p. 98

160 164

Figure 4-17.

Figure 4-18.

Box 4W.

Box 4X.

Box 4Y.

Box 4Z.

Box 4AA.

Box 4BB.

Box 4CC.

Chapter 5Figure 5-1.

Box 5A.

Box 5B.

Box 5C.

Box SD.

Box 5E.

Figure 5-2.

Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-4.

Figure 5-5.

Box 5F.

Figure 5-6.

Box 5-G.

Box 5-H.

Box 5-I.

Box 5J.

Box 5K.

Box 5L.

Box 5M.

Box 5N.

Figure 5-7.

Performance Test for Telephone Role Play, p. 100

Support Service Requirements at Different Stages, p. 101

The Value of Evaluation Studies, p. 105

The Value of Employment Training, p. 105

A Short-Term Training Program, p. 105

A Bilingual Vocational Training Program, p. 106

Large Multiple-Service Centers, p. 106

Many Approaches to VESL, p. 106

A Concurrent Pre-Vocational Program, p. 106

Planning Stages For a Workplace ESL Program, p. 109

WorkplaceEducation Partnership, p. 111

Preparing Hotel and Restaurant Workers, p. 111

The Union Role, p. 111

Developing Customized Programs for Business, p. 113

Making a Commitment to Employees, p. 113

Partners' Roles, p. 114

The Needs Analysis Process, p. 117

Communication Network Diagram, p. 119

Workplace Curriculum Topics, p. 123

From Needs Assessment to Curriculum Design, p. 124

Task Needs Assessment: Food and Beverage, p. 125

A Whole Language Approach, p. 127

Competencies to Target a Specific Need, p. 127

Involving Students in Curriculum Development, p. 127

Videotapes for Classroom Use, p. 129

Using Writing to Explore Themes, p. 130

Role Plays into Video, p. 130

Using Role Plays to Address Difficult Issues, p. 130

Collaborative Learning Processes, p. 130

Evaluation Framework, p. 132

Chapter 6Figure 6-1. What States and Localities Can Do: Ten Steps, p. 139

1G5 161

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