PACKAGING & LABELING

Packaging is the science, art, and technology of enclosing or protecting products for

distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation,

and production of packages. Package labeling (in American English; or labelling in British

English) is any written, electronic, or graphic communications on the packaging or on a separate

but associated label.

Packaging is heavily integrated into daily life. It can be seen on everyday items such as

chocolate bars and potato chip (crisp) packets. As explained below, the main use for packaging

is protection of the goods inside, but packaging also provides a recognizable logo or image.

Consumers instantly know what the goods are inside.

A sealed pack of diced pork from Tesco. It shows the cooking time, number of servings, "display until" date, "use by" date, weight in kg, price, price to weight ratio in both £/kg and £/lb, freezing and storage instructions.

It says "Less than 3% Fat" and "No Crabs per serving" and includes a bar code. The Union Flag, British Farm Standard tractor logo, and British Meat Quality Standard logo imply that it is British pork.

The objectives of packaging and package labeling

Packaging and package labeling have several objectives:

Physical Protection—The objects enclosed in the package may require protection from,

among other things, shock, vibration, compression, temperature, etc.

Barrier Protection—A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required.

Package permeability is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants, or

oxygen absorbers, to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled

atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean,

fresh, and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function.

Containment or Agglomeration—Small objects are typically grouped together in one

package for reasons of efficiency. For example, a single box of 1,000 pencils requires less

physical handling than 1,000 single pencils. Liquids, powders, and flowables need

containment.

Information transmission—Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport,

recycle, or dispose of the package or product. With pharmaceutical, food, medical, and

chemical products, some types of information are required by governments.

Marketing—The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential

buyers to purchase the product. Package design has been an important and constantly

evolving phenomenon for dozens of years. Marketing communications and graphic design

are applied to the surface of the package and (in many cases) the point of sale display.

Security—Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment.

Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can

have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to

help reduce the risks of package pilferage: Some package constructions are more resistant

to pilferage and some have pilfer-indicating seals. Packages may include authentication

seals to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit. Packages also can

include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance

tags which can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized

tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of loss prevention.

Convenience—Packages can have features that add convenience in distribution, handling,

display, sale, opening, re-closing, use, and reuse.

Tablets in a blister pack, which was itself packaged in a folding carton made of paperboard.

Portion Control—Single-serving or single-dosage packaging has a precise amount of

contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages

that are a more suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory:

Selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill

themselves.

Packaging types

Packaging consists of several different types. For example, a transport

package or distribution package is the package form used to ship, store, and handle the

product or inner packages. Some identify a consumer package as one that is directed toward a

consumer or household.

It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or function: "Primary," "secondary,"

etc.

Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and holds it. This usually is

the smallest unit of distribution or use and is the package that is in direct contact with the

contents.

Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging—perhaps used to group primary

packages together.

Tertiary packaging is used for bulk handling and shipping.

Various household packaging types for foods

Primary packaging

Aerosol spray can

Bags-In-Boxes

Beverage can

Wine box

Bottle

Blister pack

Carton

Cushioning

Envelope

Plastic bag

Plastic bottle

Skin pack

Tin can

Wrapper

Secondary packaging

Box

Carton

Shrink wrap

Tertiary packaging

Bale

Barrel

Crate

Container

Edge protector

Flexible intermediate bulk container, Big

bag, "Bulk Bag," or "Super Sack"

Intermediate bulk container

Pallet

Slip sheet

Stretch wrap

These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the use, a

shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary

packaging when combining smaller packages, and tertiary packaging on some distribution

packs.

Symbols used on packages and labels

Many types of symbols for package labeling are nationally and internationally standardized. For

consumer packaging, symbols exist for product certifications, trademarks, proof of purchase,

etc. Some requirements and symbols exist to communicate aspects of consumer use and

safety, for example the estimated sign that notes conformance to EU weights and measures

accuracy regulations. Examples of environmental and recycling symbols include the recycling

symbol, the resin identification code and the "Green Dot".

Bar codes , Universal Product Codes, and RFID labels are common to allow automated

information management in logistics and retailing. Country of Origin Labeling is often used.

Many types of symbols for package labeling are nationally and internationally standardized. For

consumer packaging, symbols exist for product certifications, trademarks, proof of purchase,

etc. Some requirements and symbols exist to communicate aspects of consumer use and

safety. Recycling directions, resin identification code (below), and package environmental

claims have special codes and symbols.

Bar codes (below), universal product codes, and RFID labels are common to allow automated information management.

Shipments of hazardous materials or dangerous goods have special information and symbols as required by the UN, the country, and specific carriers. Two examples are below:

With transport packages, standardized symbols are also used to aid in handling. Some common ones are shown below while others are listed in ASTM D5445 "Standard Practice for Pictorial Markings for Handling of Goods" and ISO 780 "Pictorial marking for handling of goods."

Fragile Use no hand hooks This way up Keep away from sunlight

Keep away from water Center of gravityClamp as indicated

Do not clamp as indicated

Package development considerations

Package design and development are often thought of as an integral part of the new product

development process. Alternatively, development of a package (or component) can be a

separate process, but must be linked closely with the product to be packaged. Package design

starts with the identification of all the requirements: Structural design, marketing, shelf life,

quality assurance, logistics, legal, regulatory, graphic design, end-use, environmental, etc. The

design criteria, time targets, resources, and cost constraints need to be established and agreed

upon.

Transport packaging needs to be matched to its logistics system. Packages designed for controlled shipments of

uniform pallet loads may not be suited to mixed shipments with express carriers.

An example of how package design is affected by other factors is its relationship to logistics.

When the distribution system includes individual shipments by a small parcel carrier, the sorting,

handling, and mixed stacking make severe demands on the strength and protective ability of the

transport package. If the logistics system is for uniform pallet loads that are unitized, the

structural design of the package can be designed to those specific needs: Vertical stacking,

perhaps for a longer time frame. A package designed for one mode of shipment may not be

suited for another.

Sometimes the objectives of package development seem contradictory. For example, packaging

for an over-the-counter drug might require tamper resistance and child-resistant features. These

intentionally make the package difficult to open. The intended consumer, however, might be

handicapped or elderly and be unable to readily open the package.

Package design may take place within a company or with various degrees of external packaging

engineering: Contract engineers, consultants, vendor evaluations, independent laboratories,

contract packagers, total outsourcing, etc. Some sort of formal project planning and project

management methodology is required for all but the simplest package design and development

programs.

Package development involves considerations for sustainability, environmental responsibility,

and applicable environmental and recycling regulations. It may involve a life-cycle assessment,

which considers the material and energy inputs and outputs to the package, the packaged

product (contents), the packaging process, the logistics system, waste management, etc. It is

necessary to know the relevant regulatory requirements for point of manufacture, sale, and use.

The traditional “three R’s” of reduce, reuse, and recycle are part of a waste hierarchy which may

be considered in product and package development.

The waste hierarchy

Prevention—Waste prevention is a primary goal. Packaging should be used only where

needed. Proper packaging can also help prevent waste. Packaging plays an important part

in preventing loss or damage to the packaged product (contents). Usually, the energy

content and material usage of the product being packaged are much greater than that of the

package. A vital function of the package is to protect the product for its intended use: If the

product is damaged or degraded, its entire energy and material content may be lost.[1]

Minimization (also "source reduction")—The mass and volume of packaging (per unit of

contents) can be measured and used as one of the criteria for minimization during the

package design process. Usually “reduced” packaging also helps minimize costs. Packaging

engineers continue to work toward reduced packaging.[2]

Reuse—The reuse of a package or component for other purposes is encouraged.

Returnable packaging has long been useful (and economically viable) for closed-loop

logistics systems. Inspection, cleaning, repair, and recouperage are often needed.

Recycling—Recycling is the reprocessing of materials (pre- and post-consumer) into new

products. Emphasis is focused on recycling the largest primary components of a package:

Steel, aluminum, papers, plastics, etc. Small components can be chosen which are not

difficult to separate and do not contaminate recycling operations.

Energy recovery—Waste-to-energy and refuse-derived fuel in approved facilities are able to

make use of the heat available from the packaging components.

Disposal—Incineration, and placement in a sanitary landfill are needed for some materials.

Material content should be checked for potential hazards to emissions and ash from

incineration and leachate from landfill.[3] Packages should not become litter.

United Kingdom food labeling regulations

The law in the UK on food labeling is multifaceted and is spread over many reforms

and parliamentary acts, making the subject complex. In the US, food labeling is mainly

regulated by 21 CFR part 101 in accordance with 21 CFR 1.21, 74.705, Part 102, 104.20,

179.26 and FD&C.Codex Alimentarius also published a document on the food labeling which is

supposed to be followed by the food industry internationally [1]. Nevertheless, there are general

laws which should be implied on any food product:

Name – Must also inform the customer the nature of the product. It may also be necessary

to attach a description to the product name. However, there are certain generic names

which must be only used for their conventional uses, for example: Muesli, Coffee, prawns.

Ingredients – All ingredients of the food must be stated under the heading 'Ingredients' and

must be stated in descending order of weight when present at more than 2% in the product.

Ingredients making up less than two percent may be declared in any order at the end of the

declaration. Moreover, certain ingredients such as preservatives must be identified as such

by the label ‘Preservatives’, a specific name, e.g. "sodium nitrite", and the corresponding

European registration number colloquially known as an "E number", e.g. "E250". When

ingredients are themselves made of a number of sub-ingredients (i.e. a mayonnaise), these

must be declared as well in the ingredient declaration. If ingredients or additives contain one

of the listed 14 EU allergens, these must be explicitly named in the list. For example:

'Preservative: E220 (Sulphites)'.

Nutritional Information– Although it is not a legal requirement to declare Nutritional

information on the product, if the manufacturer makes claims that the product is ‘Low in

Sugar’, it must be supported with nutritional information (normally in tabulated form).

However, as a rule it is recommended to declare nutritional information as consumers more

than ever are investigating this information before making a purchase. Moreover, there are

two European nutritional labeling standards which must be adhered to if nutritional

information is shown.

Medicinal or Nutritional Claims – Medicinal and Nutritional claims are tightly regulated,

some are only allowed under certain conditions while others are not authorized at all. For

example, presenting claims the food product can treat, prevent or cure diseases or other

‘adverse conditions’ are prohibited. While claiming the food is reduced in fat or rich in

vitamins require the food to meet compulsory standards and grades, in addition, the terms

must be used in a form specified in regulations.

Date Tagging – There are two types of date tagging:

Use by Date – ‘Use by date’ must be followed by a day or/and month which the product

must be consumed by. To be employed on perishable foods that usually would be kept

cold, for example, fish, meat, dairy products and ‘ready to eat’ salads.

Best Before Date – 'Best before date is used as an indicator of when the product will

begin to degrade from optimal quality: this includes when the food becomes stale,

begins to taste ‘off’ or decays, rots or goes mouldy. There are also regulations on which

type of best before date must be applied:

Best before + Day for foods with a shelf life of up to 3 months[citation needed].

Best before end + Month for foods with more than a 3 month shelf life[citation needed].

Best before end + Year for food with more than an 18 month shelf life[citation needed].

Storage Conditions – If there are any particular storage conditions for the product to

maintain its shelf life, these must be pointed out. However, as a rule it is recommended to

always describe the necessary storage conditions for a food product.

Business Name and Address – In addition to the business name and address, it is

necessary to indicate the manufacturer or packager, if independent to the main business

and the seller established within the European Union.

Place of Origin – The food is required to specify its place of origin, especially if the name or

trademark is misleading - such as if the product is called ‘English Brie Cheese’ when it is

produced in France.

Instruction for Use – This is only necessary if it is not obvious how to use or prepare the

product, in which case the consumer's own initiative must be used.

Presentation – The label must be legible and easy to read, also it must be written in

English, however, the manufacturer may also include other languages.

Batch identifier, such as Lot Mark or Batch Code – It must be possible to identify

individual batches with a lot mark or batch code - the code must be prefixed with the letter

‘L’ if it can not be distinguish from other codes, however, the date mark can be used as a lot

mark[citation needed]. Manufacturers must bear in mind that the smaller the size of a batch, the

smaller financial consequences in the case of a product recall.

Sectioning – All of the following must be in the same field of vision:

Product name

Date mark

Estimated net weight or quantity

Alcohol strength (if applicable).

Standard specification - Indicate the level of the standard compliances which the product

are manufactured and packaging are completed against, and the specification limits if the

standard is not publicly available, especially for those of

Microbial limits

Heavy metal limits

The limits of pesticide residuals

The limits of preservatives, artificial flavouring and colouring etc.

Food additives - with a best practice, the items should be presented by their approved

names (i.e. domestically), functional classes, and numbers of International Numbering

System (INS) or equivalent [2].

Further information: United States Adopted Name

Further information: British Approved Name

Further information: E number

Allergens -

This section requires expansion.

Allergens must be declared explicitly in the ingredient declaration, and a summary list of

allergens may be added nearby for added clarity for the consumer. These include allergens

present in the actual recipe's ingredients, but also those from additives and processing aids

when residues may be present in the product. There are fourteen sources of allergens that need

to be mentioned when present in a product, this includes any of their derivatives: Cereals

containing gluten, Crustaceans, Eggs, Fish, Lupin, Milk (including lactose), Molluscs, Mustard,

Nuts, Peanuts, Sesame Seeds, Soybeans, SO2 (Sulphites) and Celery

Sustainable packaging

Sustainable packaging is the development and use of packaging which results in

improvedsustainability. At the end stage of design it involves increased use of life cycle

inventory (LCI) and life cycle assessment (LCA) [2][3] to help guide the use of packaging which

reduces theenvironmental impact and ecological footprint, but in the very first steps requires a

look at the whole of the supply chain: from basic function, to marketing, and then through to end

of life (LCA) and rebirth.[4] The goals are to improve the long term viability and quality of life

forhumans and the longevity of natural ecosystems. Sustainable packaging must meet the

functional and economic needs of the present without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs.[5]

Sustainable packaging is a relatively new addition to the environmental considerations for

packaging (see Packaging and labeling). It requires more analysis and documentation to look at

the package design, choice of materials, processing, and life cycle. This is not just the vague

"green movement" that many businesses and companies have been trying to include over the

past years. Companies implementing these eco-friendly actions are reducing their carbon

footprint, using more recycled materials, reusing more package components, etc. They often

encourage suppliers, contract packagers, and distributors to do likewise.

For example, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service are looking into using dairy-

based films as an alternative to petroleum-based packaging. [1] Instead of being made

of synthetic polymers, these dairy-based films would be composed of proteins such

as casein andwhey, which are found in milk. The films would be biodegradable and offer better

oxygen barriers than synthetic, chemical-based films. More research must be done to improve

the water barrier quality of the dairy-based film, but advances in sustainable packaging are

actively being pursued.[6]

Environmental marketing claims on packages need to be made (and read) with caution.

Ambiguous titles such as green packaging andenvironmentally friendly can be confusing without

specific definition. Some regulators, such as the US Federal Trade Commission, are providing

guidance to packagers [7]

Companies have long been reusing and recycling packaging when economically viable. Using

minimal packaging has also been a common goal to help reduce costs. Recent years have

accelerated these efforts based on social movements, consumer pressure, and regulation.

The international recycling symbol.

Criteria

The criteria for ranking packaging based on their sustainability is an active area of

development:ASTM Committee D-10 on Packaging and the Institute of Packaging Professionals

are currently experimenting with a rankings system. General guidance, metrics, checklists, and

scorecards are being published by several groups.

Government[8], standards organizations, consumers, retailers [9], and packagers are considering

several types of criteria.[10] [11]

The broad goals of sustainable packaging are:

1. Functional .[12] - product protection, safety, regulatory compliance, etc.

2. Cost effective - if it is too expensive, it is unlikely to be used

3. Support long-term human and ecological health

Specific factors for sustainable design of packaging may include:

Use of minimal materials - reduced packaging, reduced layers of packaging, lower mass

(product to packaging ratio), lower volume, etc.[13]

Logistics efficiency (through complete life cycle)- cube utilization, tare weight, enablement of

efficient transportation, etc.[14],

Energy efficiency, total energy content and usage, use of renewable energy, etc.

Recycled content - as available and functional

Recyclability - recovery value, use of materials which are frequently and easily recycled,

reduction of materials which hinder recyclability of major components, etc.

Reusability of packaging - repeated reuse of package, reuse for other purposes, etc.

Use of renewable resources in packaging

Use of biodegradable materials - when appropriate and do not cause contamination of the

recycling stream

Avoid the use of materials toxic to humans or the environment

Effects on atmosphere/climate - ozone layer, greenhouse gases (carbon

dioxide and methane), volatile organic compounds, etc.

Water use, reuse, treatment, waste, etc.

Worker impact: occupational health, safety, clean technology, etc.

etc.

[edit]Benefits

Some aspects of environmentally sound packaging are required by regulators while others are

decisions made by each packager. Investors, employees, management, and customers can

influence corporate decisions and help set policies. When investors seek to purchase stock,

companies known for their positive environmental policy can be attractive [15]. Potential

stockholders and investors see this as a solid decision: lower environmental risks lead to more

capital at cheaper rates. Companies that highlight their environmental status to consumers, can

boost sales as well as product reputation. Going green is often a sound investment that can pay

off.[16].

[edit]Costs

The process of engineering more environmentally acceptable packages can include

consideration of the costs.[17] Some companies claim that their environmental packaging

program is cost effective.[18] Some alternative materials that are recycled/recyclable and/or less

damaging to the environment can lead to companies incurring increased costs. Though this is

common when any product begins to carry the true cost of its production (producer pays,

producer responsibility laws, take-back laws). There may be an expensive and lengthy process

before the new forms of packaging are deemed safe to the public, and approval may take up to

two years.[19]. It is important to note here, that for most of the developed world, tightening

legislation, and changes in major retailer demand (Walmart's Sustainable Packaging Scorecard

for example) the question is no longer "if" products and packaging should become more

sustainable, but how-to and how-soon to do it.

Packaging can be defined as materials used for the containment, protection, handling, delivery, and presentation of goods. Packaging can be divided into three broad categories:

Primary packaging is the wrapping or containers handled by the consumer. Secondary packaging is the term used to describe larger cases or boxes that are

used to group quantities of primary packaged goods for distribution and for display in shops.

Transit packaging refers to the wooden pallets, board and plastic wrapping and containers that are used to collate the groups into larger loads for transport, which facilitates loading and unloading of goods.

Because of its large volume, packaging waste tends to be very visible. Approximately 70% of primary packaging is used for food and drink which is often discarded in a dirty state and contaminated by residues of the original contents.

The UK produced an estimated 9.3 million tonnes of waste packaging in 2001. Of this 5.1 million tonnes came from households and the remaining 4.2 million tonnes from commercial and industrial sources.

Packaging materials  top of page

The most common types of material used for packaging are paper, board, plastic, glass, steel and aluminium.

Source: INCPEN, Towards greener households, June 2001

 

Paper and board are the most widely used packaging materials in terms of weight. Paper and board account for 43% by weight of all packaging and are used to pack 25% of all goods.Paper and board packaging make up 6.4% of the overall content of the typical household dustbin. For further information on paper and cardboard recycling see Waste Watch's Paper information sheet.

Plastic packaging accounts for 20% of the weight of all packaging and 53% of all goods are packaged in plastics. Because of its low weight and relative strength, plastic is one of the most energy efficient, robust and economic delivery methods available.

Even though plastics can be recycled, there are fewer recycling collection facilities than for other types of packaging waste and only 23% of plastics packaging waste was recycled in the UK in 2001.This is partially because plastic has a high volume to weight ratio, which can make recycling collections of plastic packaging waste less efficient than the collection of other recyclables which weigh more. Plastic also has a high calorific content, which allows energy recovery methods to be utilised efficiently if recycling is not possible.

The lack of end-markets for mixed and single stream plastics also forms a barrier to increased plastics recycling. Recycled plastics can be used for a variety of products, such as garden furniture, flower pots and containers, fibres and new packaging materials. For further information on plastic recycling see Waste Watch's Plastics information sheet.

Glass accounts for 20% of the weight of all packaging and 10% of all goods are packaged in glass.Glass can be recycled easily, and well established collection and recycling systems exist in the UK. The first bottle banks appeared in 1977, and there are now roughly 50,000 on some 20000sites around the country, usually located at civic amenity sites and supermarkets. Seven billion glass containers were produced in the UK in 2003 and the recycling rate has remained relatively constant at approximately 33% since 2000. This contrasts with much higher recycling rates of 80-90% achieved by other European countries. The reason these countries recover more glass for recycling is that they have a much more developed collection infrastructure. For further information on glass recycling see Waste Watch's Glass information sheet.

Aluminium is used packaging applications such as beverage and food cans, foils and laminates. It has a high value as a scrap metal and can be recycled economically. An estimated five billion aluminium cans were used in the UK in 2001, 42% of which were recycled. The total recycling rate for all types of aluminium (including aluminium foil, food trays, etc.) was 24% in 2002. For further information on aluminium recycling see Waste Watch's Metals information sheet.

Steel containers are used to package a wide range of products, including food, paint and beverages as well as aerosols. In the UK, thirteen billion steel cans are produced each year. Up to a quarter of new steel cans - more than three billion cans - are made from recycled steel. It is relatively easy to separate through magnetic extraction, making it the world's most commonly recycled material. The recycling rate for steel packaging, including transport packaging, such as steel drums and bale wire, was 42% in 2002. For further information on steel recycling see Waste Watch's Metals information sheet.

Mixed material packaging can in some cases have the benefits of being more resource and energy efficient than single material packaging, but combining materials makes recycling

difficult. An example of this type of packaging is 'Tetra Pak' which typically consists of 75% paper, 20% polyethylene and 5% aluminium foil. Although many beverages are sold in this type of packaging, there is currently only one facility to recycle these in Fife, Scotland. There is potential to reprocess mixed materials packaging into other products such as floor coverings, shoe soles and car mats.

Why bother?  top of page

The increased use of packaging provides a physical barrier between a product and the external environment thereby ensuring hygienic conditions and reducing the risk of product wastage due to contamination. This is particularly important in the case of food and beverage products. In the life cycle of food products, the highest energy input takes place during the production process. Appropriate packaging ensures that this energy is not wasted. Some packaging is also needed for safe and efficient transportation. Packaging is also used to provide customers with product information and usage instructions, some of which are required by law.

Packaging has developed to a large extent in response to social and economic changes affecting consumers. Higher living standards in the western world have led to an increase in consumer goods and tastes for exotic foods, which cannot be grown locally and must be imported. A trend towards urbanisation in the last century, which creates longer distances between food producers in rural areas and consumers in urban areas, has also led a greater demand for packaging. Other contributing factors are the increases in working families along with the increase in microwaves and freezers, and smaller family units.

As these issues illustrate, to achieve a change towards more sustainable products, it is not just the packaging that requires alterations but also our lifestyles and consumption habits.

How's, what's and where's of recycling packaging  top of page

Packaging recovery and recycling (tonnes)

Packaging recycling as a percentage of total material recycling

Source publication: e-Digest of Environmental Statistics, Published February 2004 www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/index.htm

Reduce: Many people are concerned about the amount of packaging products are sold in and try to avoid goods that they consider are 'over-packaged'. An example of over-packaging is the use of standardised boxes. This can lead to void space in the package, which is both a wasteful use of resources and misleading for consumers. In Korea, over-packaging is being prevented through legislative standards for certain types of packaging. For example, processed foods can have no more than 15% of the volume of the package taken by void space, and no more than two layers enclosing the product.

Avoid buying small containers where possible. An example might be to purchase one large bottle of drink instead of individual small bottles or cans.

Reuse: The most direct way to recover packaging is by reusing it in its original form. However the environmental impacts of washing and transportation have to be taken into consideration. Reusable packaging has to be sturdier to withstand cleaning processes, increased transportation and handling. This leads to increased material and energy use during its manufacture. Recycling activities also have an environmental impact, mainly in terms of energy consumption, because recyclables need to be transported, cleaned and reprocessed before they can be turned into new products. In some circumstances, it can therefore be less environmentally beneficial to recycle packaging, for example very small light-weight items such as cling-film. To identify packaging needs and optimise performance, a Life Cycle Analysis can be used to analyse the environmental impacts of each stage of a product's life cycle from raw material extraction to final disposal.

A number of toiletries, for example from the Body Shop, and cleaning liquids are sold in refillable or returnable containers. Similarly, buying milk in returnable bottles avoids the creation of plastics waste.

Recycle: Many packaging materials can be collected for recycling, Examples include paper and glass and plastic bottles. It is best to purchase items for which you know that an

infrastructure exists for recycling. Juice cartons have proved to be difficult to recycle although a plant now exists in Scotland for reprocessing this material.

You can send your cartons to the mill for recycling by downloading labels off the www.drinkscartons.comwebsite or contacting the LFCMA office on 020 8977 6116.

Environmentally friendly packaging:Many claims are made to promote a particular product. Where possible buy packaging that has been recycled - eg recycled cardboard boxes. Some packaging is promoted as being biodegradable. Although when composted this is a good way to lessen environmental impact, it is important that these materials do not end up being landfilled as then the material cannot biodegrade and may in addition give off methane - a powerful greenhouse gas.

Packaging recycling symbols and logos  top of page

There are a number of symbols which commonly appear on packaging products. Some of these indicate the whether the item is recyclable, whilst others show the recycled material content.

Metals

Most beverage and food cans made from steel and aluminium can be recycled. Look out for the following symbols:

Recyclable aluminium

  

Recyclable steel

 

Cardboard

       or   

 

The above symbol, called the Mobius loop, is most commonly found on cardboard packaging and denotes that the item is recyclable. If the centre of the loop contains a number, this means that the item is made from a certain percentage of recycled materials.

 

Another symbol often displayed on paper and cardboard packaging is the RESY recycling symbol. This symbol guarantees that packaging with this symbol is recyclable and will be accepted by cardboard recyclers.

 

Glass

 

Whilst most glass containers are recyclable, this symbol reminds consumers to recycle glass jars and bottles, either at bottle banks or, where available, through kerbside collection schemes.

Plastics

There are a wide range of plastics used in packaging. To make sorting and thus recycling easier, the American Society of Plastics Industry developed a standard marking code to help consumers identify and sort the main types of plastic. These types and their most common uses are shown below:

 

PET Polyethylene terephthalate - Fizzy drink bottles and oven-ready meal trays.

HDPE High-density polyethylene - Bottles for milk and washing-up liquids.

PVC Polyvinyl chloride - Food trays, cling film, bottles for squash, mineral water and shampoo.

 LDPE Low density polyethylene - Carrier bags and bin

liners.PP Polypropylene - Margarine tubs, microwaveable meal

trays.

PS Polystyrene - Yoghurt pots, foam meat or fish trays, hamburger boxes and egg cartons, vending cups, plastic cutlery, protective packaging for electronic goods and toys.

OTHER Any other plastics that do not fall into any of the above categories. - An example is melamine, which is often used in plastic plates and cups.

 

 

Other symbols

Another symbol often appearing on packaging is the German 'Green Dot'. This does not have any environmental significance, meaning only that the manufacturer has paid a fee towards the packaging recovery system in Germany.

The European Eco-label has been developed by the European Union to encourage the development of products which keep the impact on the environment to a minimum. It is a voluntary scheme and the 'flower' symbol is awarded to products that meet a set of stringent environmental and performance criteria. These criteria take into account all aspects of a product's life, from its production and use to its eventual disposal (cradle-to-grave approach). About 400 products - from washing machines to footwear - currently carry the label. Packaging is included in this life cycle analysis where it is integral to the product, such as washing up liquid or laundry detergents.

If you see this symbol - it means you can put the packaging into your council's compost collection box or bag (if they provide one!)This is a relatively new symbol found on biodegradable plastic packaging. The symbol signifies that the packaging has been tested, and is suitable for putting into local authority compost collections.

Recycling symbol

The universal recycling symbol (♲ or ♻ in Unicode) is an internationally recognized symbol used to designate recyclable materials. It is composed of three chasing arrows that form a Möbius strip or unending loop.

The Universal Recycling Symbol, here rendered with a black outline and green fill. Both filled and outline versions of the symbol are in use

Taiwan's recycling symbol. Note the use of negative space to create arrows pointing outward.

Green Dot (symbol)

The Green Dot (German: Der Grüne Punkt) is the license symbol of a European network of industry-funded systems for recycling the packaging materials of consumer goods. The logo is trademark protected worldwide.

Concept

The basic idea of the Green Dot is that consumers who see the logo know that the manufacturer of the

product contributes to the cost of recovery and recycling. This can be with household waste collected by

the authorities (eg, in special bags - in Germany these are yellow), or in containers in public places such

as car parks and outside supermarkets.

The system is financed by a green dot licence fee paid by the producers of the products. Fees vary by

country and are based on the material used in packaging (eg paper, plastic, metal, wood, cardboard).

Each country also has different fees for joining the scheme and ongoing fixed and variable fees. Fees

also take into account the cost of collection, sorting and recycling methods.

In simple terms, the system encourages manufacturers to cut down on packaging as this saves them the

cost of licence fees.

Black-and-white version of the "Der Grüne Punkt" DSD logo on a bottle of lotion, located between

the PAO symboland the resin identification code forLDPE, next to an EAN-13 barcode.

[edit]German dual system of waste collection

In 1991, the German government passed a packaging law (Verpackungsverordnung) that requires

manufacturers to take care of the recycling or disposal of any packaging material they sell. As a result of

this law, German industry set up a "dual system" of waste collection, which picks up household

packaging in parallel to the existing municipal waste-collection systems. This industry-funded system is

operated in Germany by the Duales System Deutschland GmbH (German for "Dual System Germany

Ltd") corporation, or short DSD.

DSD collects only packaging material from manufacturers who pay a license fee to DSD. DSD license fee

payers can then add the Green Dot logo to their package labeling to indicate that this package should be

placed into the separate yellow bags or yellow wheelie bins that will then be collected and emptied by

DSD-operated waste collection vehicles and sorted (and where possible recycled) in DSD facilities.

German licence fees are calculated using the weight of packs, each material type used and the volumes

of product produced per annum.