IntroductionCamels can live in areas that are inhospitable to other domesticanimals and are therefore an important factor in the capacity ofhumans to survive in and make use of these drier regions.Camels provide milk, meat, wool, hides and skin, and theirdung is used for fires. They are used for riding and transport,they are a means of investment and long-term savings, they area source of prestige for their owners, and there is a large marketfor trade in live camels. Sales of surplus milk, livestock orlivestock products are sources of cash income for pastoralfamilies. Camels are slaughtered for consumption and duringritual occasions.

The camel seems to be spared from the devastating epidemicinfections which threaten other livestock species in the sameregion, e.g. rinderpest, contagious pleuropneumonia and footand mouth disease, the animal is however affected by manyother diseases, some of which are unknown to date. Cameldiseases that are shared with other species of livestock are

comparatively well-known, while other camel-specific diseases,although well-known to pastoralists for generations, stillremain a mystery to the scientific community.

Somali herders are renown for their use of ethno-veterinaryknowledge in matters of livestock health and husbandry (1, 4,14). This knowledge is a valuable resource that can help in theidentification of previously unrecognised livestock diseases.These diseases need to be studied and characterised forappropriate cures to be developed. This paper providesobservations on and clinical descriptions of five camel diseases,namely, Lahaw-Gaal, Firaanfir, Laaba, Jajabsa and Yudleye,which are not described, or are poorly described in theliterature.

Materials and methodsThe observations and clinical descriptions of the diseasesprovided in this paper, as well as their names, are from north-

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SummaryThe camel is a comparatively hardy animal and is less susceptible to many of thediseases that affect other livestock species in the same areas. Despite that, thecamel may contract many other diseases, some of which are still unknown.Pastoralists have for centuries herded camels in the arid and semi-arid areas ofKenya, and elsewhere in the Horn of Africa, and they have encountered andnamed many new diseases. However, the exact causes of many of theseillnesses, such as Lahaw-Gaal, Firaanfir, Laaba, Jajabsa and Yudleye remainunknown.This paper presents the observations of pastoralists on some of the diseaseswhich have been found among camels in northern Kenya. These observationsoffer intriguing clues to modern veterinarians who are trying to establish andcharacterise the aetiology of the diseases and ultimately find effectivetreatments. The authors also provide examples of ethno-veterinary knowledgeand practices that could be useful for the development of animal health andproduction in Africa.

KeywordsCamel – Clinical sign – Diagnosis – Disease – Epidemiology – Ethno-veterinary practices– Horn of Africa – Kenya.

Observations on little known diseases of camels(Camelus dromedarius) in the Horn of Africa

M.F. Dirie (1) & O. Abdurahman (2)

(1) African Union/Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources, P.O. Box 30786, Nairobi, Kenya(2) Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7039, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden

Submitted for publication: 11 December 2002Accepted for publication: 7 July 2003

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eastern Kenya and are shared by other ethnic Somali herders inSomalia, Ethiopia and Djibouti. During the study, routinediagnostic work and interviews with livestock keepers wereconducted according to normal veterinary practice. Interviewsincluded case histories for sick camels, livestock keeperdescriptions of clinical signs, the local name for the disease andlocal views on epidemiology, treatment and prevention.Complete records of the number of camel herds examined andkeepers interviewed were not kept, but the interviews of keyrespondents were recorded and participatory workshops wereheld to discuss the results. Physical examinations of the sickcamels were carried out whenever possible.

To investigate the relationship between Yudleye andtrypanosomosis, 0.5 ml of blood was collected from the jugularveins of ten affected camels from three different locations, andplaced in vacuum tubes containing ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid. The samples were then examined for the presenceof trypanosomes, as wet smears and after concentration of anytrypanosomes by the micro-haematocrit centrifuge technique(20). If an animal was found to be trypanosome-positive,giemsa-stained thin smears were prepared from fresh bloodsamples and were then examined in an attempt to identify theTrypanosoma spp.

ResultsLahaw-GaalA disease known in Somali as Lahaw-Gaal, which translates as‘camel fever’, affects herds in north-eastern Kenya. This diseaseoccurs during the rainy season when there are largepopulations of mosquitoes. The disease affects mostly adultanimals. The illness is only marked for three to seven days butthe effects thereof last longer.

The main signs of Lahaw-Gaal are high fever, lameness, swollenfeet, swollen eyelids, rough coat, reduced milk yield, a wateryconsistency of the milk, and abortion. Pastoralists in theendemic area practice no traditional treatment of this disease.Injections of broad-spectrum antibiotics produce noimprovement. Since the herdsmen believe that mosquitoestransmit the disease, they try to minimise mosquito-camelcontact by avoiding mosquito-infested areas, using smoke as amosquito repellent in the enclosure at night, and, recently byusing ‘pour-on’ insecticides.

FiraanfirThere is a wide belief among ethnic Somali pastoralists in theHorn of Africa that the naked mole-rat (Hetrocephalus glaber)bites camels and that camels bitten by these rats develop aserious disease known to the herdsmen as Firaanfir (the Somaliname for the mole-rat). The main signs of Firaanfir aredepression, high fever, swelling of the bitten area (which is

often the belly, between the udder and sternum, and, in malecamels, the penis [Fig. 1]). If left untreated, Firaanfir developsinto a chronic debilitating disease. Firing is a commontraditional method of alleviating the effects of Firaanfir. Theswollen area is encircled with a red-hot iron before crosses aremade inside this circle, leaving permanent, brand-likemarkings. Five camels suffering from Firaanfir and allegedlybitten by naked mole-rats recovered fully after each was givena single injection of a long-acting broad-spectrum antibiotic.

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Fig. 1A male camel showing swelling of the abdomen allegedlycaused by the bite of a naked mole-rat

JajabsaJajabsa, which literally translates as ‘the one that breaks up’, isa disease of pregnant camels during the later stages of gestationand is characterised by paralysis of the hind legs. The diseaseaffects all camel breeds, but the most susceptible is the ‘horr’breed, known for high milk yields. Most animals recover afterparturition but complications, such as dislocation of the hipjoint and piercing of the hipbone through the skin,occasionally occur. Animals that develop complications areoften killed. The only treatment known to pastoralists is firingon both sides of the pelvic area and around the tail (Fig. 2), butthis treatment is not likely to be very effective.

LaabaAfter the El-Niño phenomenon of 1997-1998, when thenorth-eastern province of Kenya received eight to ten timesmore rainfall than the annual norm, there was an outbreak ofa disease called Laaba. The disease was reported in camels fromareas of this province where heavy tick populations werepresent. Laaba, literally ‘the one that twists’, is a disease ofcamels characterised by unco-ordinated movements orunsteady gait, and paralysis of the hind legs, resulting inrecumbency. During recumbency, the necks of some camelstwist into an ‘S’ shape (hence the name Laaba). The animalsthat develop this ‘wry-neck syndrome’ (Fig. 3) often do notrecover and subsequently die, whereas those that do not

develop a twisted neck usually recover after a recumbency ofthree to seven days. Laaba occurs periodically and generally, asin the 1998 outbreak, after unusually heavy rains.

Pastoralists attribute the disease to a particular type of tick(which they call the Laaba tick), since outbreaks of the diseasecease when herds leave tick-infested areas. In Kenya, the districtveterinary officer for the Wajir district, Dr M.H. Yussuf, recentlycollected ticks from recumbent camels suffering from Laabaand these were identified as Rhipicephalus appendiculatus by theKenya Agricultural Research Institute in Maguga (M.H. Yussuf,personal communication). The ticks attach to the lower parts ofthe legs of animals in pasture and then spread to other parts ofthe body, particularly under the tail, the udder and the head, asthe infested animals sink into sternal recumbency. The onlytreatment measure attempted by pastoralists is the removal ofticks from the camels, either manually or by use of acaricides.

YudleyeThe term Yudleye is a description of an emaciated animalaimlessly moving or jolting forward. Pastoralists associate

Yudleye with insect bites and the disease is common after heavyrains when camels are exposed to high and prolongedchallenge from biting flies. In the earlier stages, Yudleyeresembles trypanosomosis, with affected animals presentingwith a rough coat, intermittent fever, progressive emaciation,loss of hair from the tail and a characteristic smell of urine. Theanimals subsequently develop a nervous disorder, consideredby pastoralists as madness, and stray from their herds, stopeating, lift their heads unusually high and walk throughnormally effective barriers such as those forming the traditionalthorn-bush enclosures. Loss of appetite causes the normallylarge and extended bellies of the camels to become reduced insize and the animals appear much sleeker, like breeds of racingcamels.

Trypanosomes were detected in the blood samples of seven ofthe ten camels examined. On the basis of morphologicalcharacteristics, all the parasites detected were identified asTrypanosoma evansi. In addition, all ten Yudleye casesinvestigated recovered fully after treatment with a single,standard dose of either isometamidium chloride orquinapyramine sulphate. Similarly, trained community-based

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Fig. 2A camel showing the marks of firing, on both sides of the pelvicarea, to alleviate Jajabsa

Fig. 3A camel affected by Laaba showing an ‘S’ shape twisted neck,also called ‘wry-neck syndrome’

animal health workers reported to have successfully treatedover 200 cases of Yudleye with the above trypanocidal drugs (I. Farah, personal communication).

Using specimens previously identified by the Welsh Museum ofNatural History in Cardiff, Wales (7), flies taken from camels atvarious Yudleye-affected locations in the north-eastern provinceof Kenya in 1998 were identified as Pangoninae (Pangonia[Stenophera] zonata), Tabanidae (Tabanus taeniola and Atylotusagrestis) and as unidentified species of Haematopota, Stomaxysand Ceratopogonidae (biting midges).

DiscussionLahaw-Gaal

The epidemiology and clinical manifestations of Lahaw-Gaalindicate a mosquito-borne viral disease. Another such disease,bluetongue, affects mostly sheep and goats but camel infectionswith the virus remain sub-clinical (5). Lahaw-Gaal has manysimilarities with and is closely related to or identical to the cattledisease known as bovine ephemeral or three-day fever. Catleyand Mohammed (3) reported a disease called Laxawgal inSanaag, characterised as a mild respiratory disease only, butwhich still fits the term ‘camel fever’.

FiraanfirSeveral observations support the view of pastoralists that nakedmole-rats are implicated in the transmission of this disease. Themole-rat, which has a poor thermo-regulation system, isattracted to the warmth of recumbent camels, particularly thearea between the hind legs and the sternum, and probably bitesin defence as the camel, irritated by the rat, moves in search ofa more comfortable position. The four sharp incisors andpowerful jaw muscles of the naked mole-rat, which feeds onhard roots and tubers, are quite capable of wounding a camel.Other rodents may transmit pathogens to mammals when theybite. The bites of Rattus spp., for example, may transmit themicro-organisms responsible for rat-bite fever in humans (13).The fact that camels suffering from Firaanfir generally respondwell to treatment with antibiotics adds further weight to thepossibility that Firaanfir is caused by micro-organismstransmitted through the bites of the mole-rat.

JajabsaThe main characteristics of Jajabsa (sudden onset, paralysis,recumbency and recovery after parturition) resemble those ofthe fairly common condition of cattle and small ruminantsknown as ante-partum paralysis, although this problem hasnever been described in camels.

LaabaThe distribution of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (which is thevector of the protozoan blood parasite Theileria parva thatcauses East Coast fever in cattle) is normally limited to therelatively wet, high and coastal areas of Kenya (17). However,during years of above-average rainfall, this tick species isknown to spread to normally arid and semi-arid areas (in whichmost camels are kept), disappearing from these areas as theybecome dry once again (16, 21). In 1998, for example, as aresult of the heavy rains and floods caused by El-Niño,Rhipicephalus appendiculatus spread into many parts of thenorth-eastern province of Kenya, reaching as far as Mandera onthe border with Somalia and Ethiopia.

Although tick-borne paralysis has been reported in camels inSomalia (18) and Sudan (15), the phenomenon of twistednecks of affected camels has never previously been linked toticks. Twisting of the neck, however, has been associated withthe disease, thought to be a nervous disorder, called Shimbir inSomali or ‘wry-neck syndrome’ (9, 19). Tick paralysis and‘bent-neck syndrome’ are reported to be the second mostcommon causes of mortality in summer among the camels ofthe Butana plains in Sudan (2). In Sanaag, herders associatedshilincas (Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi) with camel paralysis –they called the disease ‘muglo’ (3).

Plant poisoning due to Capparis tomentosa (the Somalivernacular name is Gomorr or Gomboor) should also bementioned at this point. The symptoms of poisoning caused bythe plant may last as long as two weeks. The animal loses co-ordination and collapses after three to four days. Poisoning byCapparis tomentosa was implicated as the prime cause of ‘thebent-neck syndrome’ (or ‘wry-neck’) by Idris et al. (11) whoattempted to produce a similar condition by experimentallydosing camels with the leaves of the plant.

Based on the above, the ‘wry-neck syndrome’ might nottherefore be a specific disease or ailment, but a commonmanifestation of several factors (multi-factorial genesis) thataffect the central nervous system. The possible bacterial role ofat least some of these was suggested when many purulentmeningoencephalitis cases were encountered during randomscreening of camel diseases in Somalia (O. Abdurahman and F. Jama, 1997, unpublished data). Unfortunately, the materialexamined was from abattoirs and the clinical history of thecases could not be retrieved.

YudleyeTrypanosomosis is widespread in most camel-rearing countriesof the world and is usually considered to be the most importantdisease of camels (6, 7, 10). Somali pastoralists distinguish twoforms of the disease, namely, a chronic form (Dhukan or Salaf)associated with biting flies other than tsetse, and an acute form(Gandi) transmitted by tsetse flies (12). Camel owners in north-eastern Kenya generally have a good understanding of the

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aetiology of trypanosomosis and use several long-held andtime-proven strategies to minimise vector-camel contacts.Pastoralists avoid areas infested with biting flies, allow theircamels to graze at night, use smoke as a fly repellent and nowalso use pour-on insecticides. In most years, these strategies aresufficient to curtail the spread of the disease in the herds. Aswith ticks, however, exceptional weather, such as that causedby El-Niño, may permit unusually large populations of bitingflies to develop, to persist for periods of more than a year andto spread to unusual areas such as the open plains. At suchtimes, the routine strategies of pastoralists may not be effectiveenough to prevent a major outbreak of camel trypanosomosis.

Although over 90% of pastoralists in the north-eastern provinceof Kenya treat camels suffering from trypanosomosisthemselves, their knowledge of modern veterinary drugs andtheir ability to use such drugs safely and effectively are ratherpoor (8). Abuses and quackery such as under-dosing (caused,for example, by splitting a dose intended for one animalbetween four or five camels) or the use of the wrong route ofadministration (such as the intravenous inoculation of allinjectable drugs) are widespread. The owners of all ten animalschecked for trypanosomes claimed that they had treated theanimals with quinapyramine sulphate, but all were found tohave received doses of the drug that were far too small.Unsurprisingly, the owners reported that their ‘treatments’resulted in a rapid but slight improvement followed by a relapseseven or eight days later.

Yudleye is one of the very few camel diseases that puzzle evenexperienced herders. Some consider the disease to be a form oftrypanosomosis, whereas others (because of the indications ofcentral nervous system involvement, the failure of ‘treatments’with trypanocides, the common occurrence of the disease inonly a few animals in large herds, and the apparent associationof the disease with heavy rains), regard it as a separate entity.Schwartz and Dioli (19) reported, confusingly, that ‘Yudle’ is theSomali name for rabies. Although signs of madness may beobserved in some animals with late-stage Yudleye,aggressiveness and salivation which characterise animals with

rabies do not seem to occur. Rabies (Warabow in Somali) is alsowell known to pastoralists and is not commonly seen in camelsin the area. Yudleye or Yudle does appear to be a form oftrypanosomosis, but further studies are required to shed morelight on this disease.

This paper has been presented in the hope of initiating thought-provoking discussions among veterinarians and practitionersworking with similar groups. The lives of the people in theHorn of Africa are inextricably linked with their livestock andthey have developed knowledge in animal husbandry anddiseases. Such indigenous knowledge, when integrated withscientific knowledge, is invaluable for preventing, diagnosingand treating disease efficiently and economically. Thereconsideration of traditional medical systems is also justifiedwhen modern medicine is too expensive and often beyond thereach of most camel producers, who are mainly pastoralists.Scientists must incorporate traditional knowledge and ethno-veterinary care of animals in their development plans. This willnot only result in acceptability and affordability, but willprobably also enhance efforts to make veterinary practices andthe animal health delivery systems in pastoral areas bothattainable and sustainable.

AcknowledgementThe authors wish to thank Dr A. Catley for reading themanuscript and the Swedish International DevelopmentCooperation Agency for the financial support provided to Dr Abdurahman.

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Observations de maladies peu connues du dromadaire (Camelusdromedarius) dans la Corne de l’Afrique

M.F. Dirie & O. AbdurahmanRésuméAnimal relativement robuste, le chameau est moins sensible aux nombreusesmaladies qui sévissent parmi les autres espèces élevées dans les mêmesrégions. Cependant, il n’est pas rare qu’il contracte d’autres maladies, dontcertaines sont toujours inconnues. Voilà des siècles que les éleveurs nomadesdes zones arides et semi-arides du Kenya et des autres régions de la Corned’Afrique gardent leurs troupeaux de chameaux. Ils ont été confrontés à unemultitude de maladies nouvelles, auxquelles ils ont donné un nom. Toutefois,l’origine de la plupart de ces maladies (Lahaw-Gaal, Firaanfir, Laaba, Jajabsa etYudleye, par exemple) reste un mystère.Les auteurs rapportent les observations des éleveurs nomades relatives àplusieurs maladies des chameaux du Nord kenyan. Ces observations offrent despistes fascinantes pour les vétérinaires contemporains qui s’efforcent decaractériser ces maladies et d’en établir l’étiologie pour leur trouver destraitements efficaces. En outre, les auteurs livrent quelques exemples du savoiret des pratiques ethno-vétérinaires qui pourraient contribuer au développementde la santé et de la production animales en Afrique.

Mots-clés Corne de l’Afrique – Diagnostic – Dromadaire – Épidémiologie – Kenya – Maladie –Pratiques ethno-vétérinaires – Signe clinique.�

Observaciones sobre enfermedades poco conocidas de loscamellos (Camelus dromedarius) en el Cuerno de África

M.F. Dirie & O. Abdurahman

ResumenEl camello es un animal relativamente resistente y menos susceptible a muchasenfermedades que otras especies ganaderas que comparten el mismo hábitat.Ello no es óbice para que contraiga numerosas dolencias, algunas de las cualesaún no se conocen. En las zonas áridas y semiáridas de Kenia y otros países delCuerno de África, los pastores llevan siglos ocupándose de rebaños de camellosy observando y bautizando gran número de nuevas enfermedades. Todavía sedesconocen, sin embargo, las causas exactas de muchas de estas patologías,que tienen nombres como Lahaw-Gaal, Firaanfir, Laaba, Jajabsa o Yudleye.Los autores dan cuenta de las observaciones de los pastores sobre algunas delas enfermedades observadas en los camellos del norte de Kenia. Esainformación proporciona indicios intrigantes a los veterinarios que estánintentando definir y caracterizar la etiología de las enfermedades con el objetivoúltimo de dar con tratamientos eficaces contra ellas. Los autores ofrecentambién ejemplos de conocimientos y usos etnoveterinarios que podrían resultarútiles de cara al desarrollo de la sanidad y la producción animal en África.

Palabras claveCamello – Cuerno de África – Diagnóstico – Enfermedad – Epidemiología – Kenia –Sintomatología clínica – Usos etnoveterinarios.

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