JCC USSR, 1964HUMAN & CIVIL RIGHTS AND PROXY WARS

N U M U N X V • Y O U H A V E T H E F L O O R • A P R I L 1 2 - 1 5 , 2 0 1 8

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Introduction

Welcome to the JCC USSR committee for NUMUN XV! A coalition of various prominent

figures in the Soviet Union’s politics has convened in order to decide how to approach domestic

issues. Currently, the year is 1964 and Leonid Brezhnev has come into office as leader of the Soviet

Union.1 His domestic policy involves liberalizing Russian society, and introducing civil rights

legislation.2 Furthermore, he has diverted from Communist principles by decentralizing the

economy, and giving more control to industry.3 However, one can debate the effects of his policies

on the Russian economy. His term has been referred to as the “Era of Stagnation,” because it has

seen a reduction in industrial and agricultural production.4

With this information in mind, it is now time for the committee to address the following

questions: How should Russia proceed with its domestic policy? Should it continue to pass policies

to liberalize the state? Should Brezhnev’s economic reforms continue? Will they be successful in the

short and long term? How will these economic policies affect the quality of life for Soviet citizens?

How far should these policies stray from Communist stances?

This weekend, you will discuss these issues with a variety of individuals from a variety of

viewpoints - your committee will include Leonid Brezhnev himself, as well as major players such as

Anastas Mikoyan, the Soviet Head of State, and Vasily Garbuzov, the Minister of Finance. You will

have to negotiate with these committee members in order to improve the USSR’s domestic policy.

The power is in your hands. Good luck delegates!

1 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, “Leonid Brezhnev,” Encyclopedia Britannica, Sept. 2016, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonid-Ilich-Brezhnev. 2 Jason Cheung, “Brezhnevs domestic and foreign policy successes and failures,” accessed 29 Oct. 2017, http://www.academia.edu/6865542/Brezhnevs_domestic_and_foreign_policy_successes_and_failures. 3 Ibid. 4 “Brezhnev and Economic Stagnation,” accessed 29 Oct. 2017, http://www.justrememberthepast.com/brezhnev-and-economic-stagnation.html.

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Topic 1: Human and Civil Rights

History

Pre-Revolutionary and Revolutionary Russia

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was under the monarchical rule of Tsar Nicholas

II. Up until the Revolution in 1917, the Tsars of Russia ruled with little regard for their working and

peasant class people. In 1905, imperial guards opened fire on a demonstration outside the Tsar’s

Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, killing around 1000.5 With the liberal press blaming Tsar Nicholas

for the massacre, sailors and workers staged protests demanding greater rights for lower classes. As a

result, the October Manifesto was issued by the Tsar giving civil liberties to the lower classes and

establishing an elected parliament called the Duma.6 The 1905 revolution was the first sign of civil

unrest within the working class and was a step in the direction of overthrowing the Tsar. In 1914,

Germany declares war on Russia forcing the country to enter WWI.7 The demands of the Russian

military were hard to meet, and the population was strained to survive the war against Germany. The

proletariat soldiers were forced to fight, contributing to further strain between the working class and

the rest of society. The war ended in 1918 with the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty. Russia’s

population, railroad networks, industry iron supplies, coal, and food were ravished by the war.8

A class of intellectuals called the intelligentsia also existed during the Tsarist period. This

group included men like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels who developed visions of a socialist post-

5 The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. https://www.bl.uk/russian-revolution/articles/timeline-of-the-russian-revolution.. 6 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 7 The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. https://www.bl.uk/russian-revolution/articles/timeline-of-the-russian-revolution.. 8 The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. The British Library. n.d. Timeline of the Russian Revolution. Accessed 10 26, 2017. https://www.bl.uk/russian-revolution/articles/timeline-of-the-russian-revolution.. (Bushnell 2017)

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Tsar Russia. They were devoted to revolution in every aspect of their lives. A key part of their vision

for socialism was the division between the proletariat (working-class) citizens and the bourgeoisie

(wealthier class) that existed above the proletariat but below the ruling elite. The ideas about

socialism in Russia were based on giving power to the proletariat in order to control society. A

strong intelligentsia leader named Vladimir Lenin organized a party of Revolutionaries called the

Bolsheviks.

The February Revolution happened in the beginning of 1917, removing the Tsar, forcing

him to abdicate his monarchical rule, and establishing the Provisional Government led by Alexander

Kerensky comprised of Bolsheviks, Mensheviks—a less radical socialist party than the Bolsheviks—

and other liberals. With the desire to establish a true proletarian dictatorship, Lenin and the

Bolsheviks took over the government in October 1917. The October Revolution gave the

Bolsheviks complete control over the new socialist government and abolished the Provincial

Government. Throughout Russia, workers participated in local councils called Soviets. The

Bolsheviks rallied strong support from the Soviets because they promised to create a socialist society

with proletarian control. They carried themselves as the “vanguard of the proletariat.” 9

Russian Civil War and Post Revolutionary Russia

Following the end of WWI in 1918 and the October Revolution, a civil war erupted between

the Bolsheviks—reds—and Anti-Bolsheviks—whites. The internecine civil war hurt Russia and

caused famine and economic devastation.10 During the civil war, the Bolsheviks instituted the

economic policy of war communism which relied on the seizure of peasant grain and haphazard

9 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press.

10 BBC. 2013. Soviet Union Timeline. October 31. Accessed 10 25, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981.

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military production.11 Following the conclusion of the war in 1920, there was grave famine and

hardship faced by the peasant and working classes.12 As a response to the crisis, Lenin and the

Bolsheviks convene during the 10th Party Congress to establish the New Economic Policy (NEP).

The policy was a retreat from pure socialism because it reinstated elements of a market economy.

With the partial-capitalism system, the nation was able to recover from many of its hardships.13 In

1922, the Union Treaty created the Soviet Union with the joining of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and

Transcaucasia. After the Soviet Union’s inception, it created a constitution based on the idea of

proletarian dictatorship. In 1924, Lenin died and Josef Stalin rose to power as the head of the

Politburo (the head Bolshevik party leaders).14

Stalinist Russia

In 1928, Stalin discarded the NEP and began his first Five-Year Plan to create a strong

industrial society.15 The plan included collectivization and crash industrialization. Collectivization

was meant to increase productivity of peasant agriculture, but only led to more grain seizures and

famine. With his industrialization plan, Stalin hoped for such large growth that his plan was

physically impossible to achieve given the growth projections in the allotted time. All parts of the

economy based their output goals on the growth numbers that Stalin wanted, but could not

produces nearly enough when the growth numbers for factors of production like steel were too low.

This led to a massive collapse of the economy and a growth of zero.16 In addition to revamping the

11 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 12 Ibid. 13 Bushnell, John. 2017. "Stalinism." Lecture. Evanston, IL, 10.;Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 14 BBC. 2013. Soviet Union Timeline. October 31. Accessed 10 25, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981. 15 Ibid. 16 Bushnell, John. 2017. "Stalinism." Lecture. Evanston, IL, 10

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economy, Stalin created the Central Committee to censure art, literature, music and more.17 Due to

the failure of the first Five-Year Plan, Stalin imposed a second Five-Year Plan. He closed Russia’s

borders to the rest of the world and isolated it so that it could focus on perfecting industrialism.

While the Soviet Union faced major economic problems in the 1930s, Stalin’s industrialization

proved to be eventually successful in fielding a stronger military, and with widespread economic

collapse in the rest of the world, the USSR gained admirers across the West.

In 1934, leader of the Leningrad Soviet Sergei Kirov was assassinated. While it was done by

a lone gunman, Stalin became paranoid that it was inspired by prominent party faction leaders

Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Leon Trotsky.18 Stalin began his great purges by killing 70% of his central

committee.19 He was paranoid that his political party was filled by spies who had plots to assassinate

him. Therefore, he destroyed most of his party. During the purges from 1937 to 1938, the secret

police killed 1.6 million citizens and arrested 680,000.20 Additionally, the population of forced labor

camps known as the Gulags soared from 0.5 million people to reach 1.3 million by the end of the

purges.

World War II

In 1934, the Soviet Union was added to the League of Nations amid rising international

tension.21 In August of 1939, a week after the USSR and Nazi Germany concluded a non-aggression

pact, Germany proceeded to invade Poland, ultimately triggering World War II. Soon after, the

Soviets invaded Poland from the East and annexed a portion of the country. Stalin went on to annex

the Baltic States as well, and forced minor territorial concessions from Finland despite an

17 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 18 Ibid.

19 Bushnell, John. 2017. "Stalinism." Lecture. Evanston, IL, 10 20 Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 2008. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. 21 BBC. 2013. Soviet Union Timeline. October 31. Accessed 10 25, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981.

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embarrassingly weak performance by the Soviet military. Worried about potential domestic attacks,

the USSR signed a nonaggression pact with Japan in April of 1941. Germany invaded that June,

besieging Leningrad and nearly capturing Moscow before being stopped by a cold winter and Soviet

reinforcements transferred from the border with Japanese-occupied China.22 Despite the numerous

defeats the USSR experienced at the hands of the Nazis, the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943

fundamentally shifted the course of the war. Superior Soviet leadership, numbers of troops, and war

tactics combined with Adolf Hitler’s micromanaging, personal intransigence, and poor battlefield

leadership allowed the Soviets to force Nazi Germany on the defensive for the rest of the war.23

With the capture of Berlin in May of 1945 led by a Soviet general counter-offensive, World War II

had effectively ended. However, the postwar conditions of Europe left plenty for the USSR and

Allies to handle.

In 1945, the USSR and Allies reached an understanding of the “spheres of influence” in

Europe during the Yalta and Potsdam summit conferences. Stalin had also agreed to permit free

elections in Eastern Europe in return for lands lost to Japan during the Russo-Japanese War of

1905.24 These agreements also lasted only briefly, however, as the Soviet-American wartime

cooperation faded and the Cold War began. In order to promote the ideology of communism, the

USSR reneged on its promise free elections, installing left-wing governments in countries of Eastern

Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army during the war. A more practical reason why the

USSR took such steps was out of determination to prevent any possible renewed threat from

Germany. The strength of the USSR on the continent worried the US and Great Britain as they now

22 "Soviet Union timeline." BBC News. October 31, 2013. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981. 23 "Why did Germany lose the Battle of Stalingrad?" Why did Germany lose the Battle of Stalingrad? - DailyHistory.org. Accessed October 23, 2017. https://dailyhistory.org/Why_did_Germany_lose_the_Battle_of_Stalingrad%3F. 24 History.com Staff. "Yalta Conference." History.com. 2009. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/yalta-conference.

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sought to maintain the democracies of Western Europe. Thus, by 1947, the Cold War was well

under way as the US unrolled the Marshall Plan and the USSR responded with openly communist

regimes in Eastern Europe.25

A series of passive aggressions ensued during 1948 to 1953. This included the Berlin

Blockade, another component of the USSR’s salami tactics to divide and conquer further portions of

Europe. Hoping to strip Germany of its wealth and machinery, the USSR sought to prevent the

country from ever rising to the power it once was while the US wished to rebuild German

industries.26 Another significant event was the termination of the American monopoly on the atomic

bomb as the USSR successfully exploded their first warhead in 1949. Shortly after, the waves of

communism succeeded in mainland China and North Korea, with the USSR setting off an indecisive

Korean War against the US-supported South Korea.27

After Stalin’s death in 1953, Georgi Malenkov became prime minister and Nikita

Khrushchev became the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. By 1955,

Malenkov was replaced by Nikolay Bulganin and the Warsaw Pact was set up, placing the Soviets in

command of the armed forces of the USSR and seven of its European satellites in preparation of

attack from outside forces.28 A post-Stalin thaw then began in 1956, with Khrushchev denouncing

the dictator’s rule and his cult of personality to the 20th Communist Party Congress. This proved

helpful as Khrushchev had secured the position of prime minister by 1958. Whilst this occurred, the

USSR continued to improve its arms and space technology as it exploded its first hydrogen bomb

and launched the first-ever artificial earth satellite Sputnik in full orbit of the Earth. That being said,

25 The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Cold War." Encyclopædia Britannica. February 17, 2017. Accessed October 23, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War. 26 What Caused The Berlin Blockade. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.johndclare.net/EC3.htm. 27 The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Cold War." Encyclopædia Britannica. February 17, 2017. Accessed October 23, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War. 28 "The Warsaw Pact is formed." History.com. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-warsaw-pact-is-formed.

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during the late 1950s, the decreased hostility towards the US led to China falling out of the Moscow

policy as it disagreed with any peaceful coexistence with the West. The USSR now faced internal

issues as it was being questioned of its allegiance to communism by those who had adopted the

ideology because of Soviets in the first place.29

Current situation

De-Stalinization and Power Shifts Under Khrushchev

On February 25th, 1956, Khrushchev gave a speech to the 20th Congress of the Communist

Party of the Soviet Union that would come to be known as On the Personality Cult and Its

Consequences.30 In the speech, Khrushchev described Stalin, a revered figure in the Soviet mythos, as a

ruthless dictator who murdered and tortured dissenters. Despite the fact that it was intended to be

kept secret, and no copies were allowed except the ones read to local parties within the USSR,

rumors swirled throughout the Western world of the secret speech. The rumors were confirmed

when that summer, several Western newspapers, including the New York Times and The Observer,

received and published copies of the speech.31 Khrushchev’s speech marked the beginning of the

Thaw, a trend of moving away from Stalinist practices such as the murder and imprisonment of

dissidents and other perceived threats. For example, over 8 million people were freed from Gulags

during the Thaw. The Thaw also featured relaxations, albeit inconsistent ones, on censorship, with

the allowing of books that were more critical of the USSR to be published. 32

29 "Soviet Union timeline." BBC News. October 31, 2013. Accessed October 23, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981. 30 Richard Cavendish. “Stalin Denounced by Nikita Khrushchev,” History Today, February 2006, http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/stalin-denounced-nikita-khrushchev 31 John Rettie. “The Secret Speech That Changed World History,” The Guardian, February 25 2006, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/feb/26/russia.theobserver 32 “Khrushchev Thaw,” The New World Encyclopedia, April 10 2013, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Khrushchev_Thaw

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In the late 1950s, Khrushchev began consolidating power within the party, rather than the

government. In 1957, when members of the Presidium, the legislative authority in the USSR,

demanded that Khrushchev step down from his role as Prime Minister and become the Minister of

Agriculture, Khrushchev kept them busy while Minister of Defense George Zhukov mobilized the

Khrushchev supporters in the Central Committee to the Kremlin to give Khrushchev the majority.

Khrushchev’s opponents, such as Vyacheslav Molotov and Georgy Malenkov, were removed from

their roles in the Presidium and the Central Committee and were labeled as the anti-party group

because they opposed the party running the country rather than the government. With this move,

Khrushchev was able to consolidate power with the Communist Party, which remained the status

quo until the collapse of the Soviet Union.33

Khrushchev’s Fall From Popularity and Economic Policy

In 1962, the United States discovered Soviet nuclear missiles on the island of Cuba, leading

to a thirteen day standoff during which the world was preparing for the possibility of nuclear war

between the East and the West. However, the situation was defused when Nikita Khrushchev, then

the Secretary General of the Soviet Communist Party and leader of the USSR, negotiated a deal with

John F. Kennedy, then the U.S. president, to remove the missiles in exchange for a public promise

to not invade Cuba and a private removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey.34 Since then, between

unpopular foreign and domestic policies, along with the perceived embarrassment that was the

Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchev became increasingly unpopular among party leadership and in

October was ousted from his role as leader of the Soviet Union.35

33 Robert Conquest, Martin McCauley, John C. Dewdney, and Richard E. Pipes. “Union of Soviet Socialist Republics” Encyclopaedia Britannica, March 10, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union 34 “Cuban Missile Crisis,” History.com, Accessed October 29, 2017, http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/cuban-missile-crisis. 35 “Factors in the Fall of Khrushchev and the Behavior of the New Soviet Regime,” Central Intelligence Agency, 22 October 1964, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/1964-10-22.pdf.

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One of the biggest factors that contributed to people’s and government officials’ discontent

throughout Khrushchev’s administration was his economic policy. During his tenure Khrushchev

introduced several agricultural initiatives addressing the country’s chronic food issues and shortages.

His insistence on agricultural development also likely stems from his own personal experience and

tragedy. In 1921 his first wife died of typhus because of a famine.36 One of Khrushchev’s plans

consisted of greatly increasing chemical fertilization of farmland to increase crop yields. This

campaign was part of a broader effort by Khrushchev to try to and prioritize consumer goods over

heavier industry and defense development. As a result, Soviet defense officials started to resent what

they saw as Khrushchev overstepping his boundaries and micromanaging, since Khrushchev wanted

to allocate military resources to his chemical program.37 This alienation of the military lead to them

and high-ranking government officials who disagreed with Khrushchev to collaborate and scheme in

opposition of Khrushchev, ultimately leading to his deposition from power.

Another unpopular initiative of Khrushchev was the Virgin Lands Program, in which

Khrushchev attempted to vastly increase the amount of farmable land by cultivating regions that had

never been farmed before such as Siberia and Kazakhstan.38 The program was initially successful,

achieving a historically high yield of grain in 1956 and thereby encouraging Khrushchev to invest

and devote more resources to it. However, in the succeeding years the percentage yield fluctuated

considerably between harvests, sometimes losing 40% of the yield after only 1 year.39 After 11 years

of intensive farming and fertilization the soil became exhausted, and since anti-erosion measures

were not properly taken millions of tons of topsoil was also lost to the wind, leaving the farmland

36 Watkins, Thayer. “The Virgin Lands Program in the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev.”San José State University Department of Economics, San José State University, www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/virginlands.htm. 37 “Factors in the Fall of Khrushchev and the Behavior of the New Soviet Regime,” Central Intelligence Agency, 22 October 1964, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/1964-10-22.pdf. 38 Medvedkov, Yuri V., and Geoffrey Alan Hosking. “The Khrushchev Era (1953–64).”Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 13 Sept. 2017, www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Khrushchev-era-1953-64. 39 Watkins, Thayer. “The Virgin Lands Program in the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev.”San José State University Department of Economics, San José State University, www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/virginlands.htm.

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barren. This project was viewed as a failure and contributed to an increasingly negative view of

Khrushchev’s competency as a leader.

New Leadership

Since Khrushchev’s removal from power, leadership in the country has largely been split

between two people: the new First Secretary of the Communist Party, Leonid Brezhnev, and the

new Premier, Aleksey Kosygin.40 Brezhnev is openly a supporter of of Khrushchev and his policies

of de-Stalinization, and he has made himself the logical next choice to lead the Party after becoming

Khrushchev’s Second Secretary of the Central Committee.41 Kosygin on the other hand has risen to

power independent of Khrushchev, and many of his shining moments have occurred at times when

Khrushchev looked bad in the eyes of the public; additionally, Kosygin has been against the removal

of the anti-party group that opposed Khrushchev in the 50s.42 Largely thanks to Khrushchev, Soviet

Union has fundamentally changed since the death of Stalin. Khrushchev’s economic plans are still

affecting the Soviet Union and there is more individual freedom and less censorship. Furthermore,

old methods of killing or imprisoning anybody seen as a political enemy are no longer in favor and

power has shifted from the state itself to the Communist Party.

Questions to Consider

1. How should Russia handle the transition of power following Krushchev?

2. How can Russia improve its economy?

3. How should the Cold War affect Russia’s domestic policy?

40 Ibid. 41 The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, “Leonid Brezhnev,” Encyclopædia Britannica, September 27 2016, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonid-Ilich-Brezhnev. 42 “Factors in the Fall of Khrushchev and the Behavior of the New Soviet Regime,” Central Intelligence Agency, 22 October 1964, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/1964-10-22.pdf.

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Topic 2: Proxy Wars

Historical Background

The United States and the Nuclear Arms Race

U.S.-USS. hostility began in 1917, when the Bolshevik Revolution effectively removed

Russia from World War I. The US participated in an abortive attempt to support anti-Communist

forces during the Russian Civil War, but ultimately abandoned the project. It was not until 1933 that

the United States established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, and, by then, the hostile

nature of the Stalin regime made a friendly relationship between the two countries unlikely.43

Tensions did ease somewhat during World War II when the U.S. provided aid to the Soviet Union

and other allied powers through the Lend-Lease Act.44 However, the end of the war came with a

massive change of the global political climate as the U.S. used the first atomic bombs on Nagasaki

and Hiroshima in 1945. Four years later, the Soviets tested their first atomic bomb, ending the

United States’ monopoly on nuclear weapons.45

In 1947, between the end of WWII and the successful development of the Soviet Union’s

first atomic bomb, U.S. President Harry Truman gave a speech asking Congress to approve aid to

the Greek Government in its civil war against the Greek Communist Party. In his speech, Truman

declared that the U.S. would provide monetary, political, and military aid to any country fighting

43 “Revelations from the Russian Archives,” Library of Congress, last modified February 1, 2001, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html. 44 Ibid. 45 Ray Locker, “What’s the arms race? A short history,” USA Today, December 23, 2016, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/12/23/whats-arms-race-short-history/95792412/.

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internal or external authoritarian forces, including Communists. This policy became known as the

Truman Doctrine.46

With the Soviet Union now a nuclear power, Truman authorized the development of the

hydrogen bomb, a bomb 800 times more powerful than those that destroyed Nagasaki and

Hiroshima. Though the U.S. had developed its first hydrogen bomb by 1952, the Soviet Union

followed soon after by 1953.47 Tensions continued to build between the two countries as each built

up its own nuclear arsenal. These tensions came to a head in October 16, 1962 when the U.S.

discovered that the Soviet Union was placing nuclear missiles capable of reaching the mainland

United States in Cuba.48 Khrushchev developed the plan as an attempt to outplay the United States

in the strategic deployment of nuclear weapons and to protect Cuba’s Communist government from

another U.S.-backed invasion. Over the next twelve days, the two governments communicated

extensively until they reached an agreement that the Soviet Union would remove the missiles in

exchange for assurance that the U.S. would not invade Cuba and dismantle nuclear missiles it had

placed in Turkey.49

NATO and the Warsaw Pact

After WWII, the Western Allies were concerned about the Soviet Union’s growing sphere

of influence since pro-Soviet communist governments had been installed in countries the USSR had

freed from Nazi occupation.50 In 1948, a Soviet-backed coup successfully overthrew the

democratically elected government in Czechoslovakia; later that same year, the Soviet Union blocked

46 “The Truman Doctrine, 1947,” Office of the Historian, last modified March 26, 2007, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/truman-doctrine. 47 John Swift, “The Soviet-Americans Arms Race,” History Today, March 2009, http://www.historytoday.com/john-swift/soviet-american-arms-race. 48 “The Cold War,” Atom Central, last modified February 1, 2002, http://www.atomcentral.com/the-cold-war.aspx. 49 “Revelations from the Russian Archives,” Library of Congress, last modified February 1, 2001, https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html. 50 “Formation of NATO,” History.com, last modified April 14, 2010, http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/formation-of-nato-and-warsaw-pact.

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all ground supplies from reaching the American-controlled portion of Berlin in response to the

Western announcement of a new Deutsche Mark, which the USSR condemned in an extensive

propaganda campaign. The U.S., Britain, and France responded by airlifting in supplies in a massive

effort known as the Berlin Airlift. These events greatly escalated tensions and convinced United

States officials that they should take a harder stance against communist expansion and devise a

security agreement with their allies to combat it.51

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, otherwise known as NATO, was formed in April

of 1949 with founding members of Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy,

Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States.52 All member countries

became military allies under Article 5, which states that if any NATO member is attacked, the attack

would be perceived as an attack against all of the countries in NATO. Such an agreement sought to

ensure the member countries’ security and deter the Soviets from aggressive actions.

Following NATO’s formation, other European countries wished to join as well; Greece and

Turkey joined in 1952. To counter the growing power of NATO the Soviet Union formed the

Warsaw Pact in 1955, spurred by the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) joining NATO

earlier that year.53 The pact has a similar agreement to NATO’s Article 5 in which its members vow

to retaliate against any attack against any other member nations. Though the Warsaw Pact

emphasized the members’ independence from external interference, the Soviet Union has been able

to use the Warsaw Pact strengthen its influence over its satellite countries. 54 The formation of these

two rival coalitions have set the stage for the Cold War and become a source of diplomatic tension

and confrontation.

51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 “The Warsaw Treaty Organization, 1955,” Office of the Historian, last modified August 8, 2007, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1953-1960/warsaw-treaty. 54 Ibid.

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Communism Abroad: Korea, China, and Vietnam

After World War II, Korea, formerly under control of the Japanese, fell under the joint

control of the Soviet Union and the United States. The peninsula was divided at the 38th parallel,

with the Soviets taking the North side and the U.S. taking the South. By 1950, the U.S. backed

dictator Syngman Rhee led the South, and the Soviet backed dictator Kim Il-Sung led the North.55

Although neither the USSR nor the U.S. desired conflict on the Korean peninsula, both sides were

providing military aid and training to their respective ally.56 However, after several failures in

Europe, Stalin began to see Korea as another possibility to expand the influence of Communism

and the Soviet Union. In April 1950, Stalin gave permission for Kim Il-Sung to invade South Korea

with support from the Chinese government. The Soviet Union agreed to provide weapons and

training to both governments, but did not tie itself directly to the war, avoiding direct confrontation

with the United States.57 The war ended in an uneasy stalemate that could explode back into all-out

war at any moment.

The Sino-Soviet relationship dates to the formation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP),

which the Communist International (Comintern), a Moscow-based agency aimed at supporting

Communist parties worldwide, helped create. Through the 1920s, the CCP followed the

Comintern’s advice on ideology and methodology, allowing Moscow to control the development of

Chinese Communism. 58 However, the Soviet Union also supported the Kuomintang, believing that

China was ready for a democratic-Capitalist revolution rather than a socialist one. This caused

tension when Mao Zedong took control of the CCP in the 1930s, as he believed that China was

ready for a socialist revolution. This marks the beginning of the rift between the Communist parties

55 “Korean War,” History.com, last modified January 29, 2011, http://www.history.com/topics/korean-war. 56 Mark O'Neill, "Soviet Involvement in the Korean War: A New View from the Soviet-Era Archives," OAH Magazine of History 14, no. 3 (2000): 20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163360. 57 Ibid, 21. 58 “Sino-Soviet Relations,” Alpha History, last modified September 7, 2015, alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/sino-soviet-relations/.

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of the Soviet Union and China since the CCP supported Mao Zedong.59 After the successful

Communist revolution in China, the Soviets and the Chinese signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of

Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance. Despite this agreement, tension between the two

governments increased due to ideological beliefs, especially with Khrushchev’s policy of de-

Stalinization.60

Beyond Korea, the Comintern also helped to develop the Communist Party in Vietnam, and

Ho Chi Minh, one of the founders of the French Communist Party, even traveled to Moscow to

study Communist theory and activism. Initially, the USSR gave little support for the Communist

movement in Vietnam after WWII. However, as U.S.-Soviet tensions rose in the late 1940s and Mao

Zedong took control in China, the Soviet Union recognized Ho Chi Minh as the leader of Vietnam

in 1950. Moreover, the USSR encouraged China to provide military support for Ho Chi Minh and

his Viet Minh in their war for independence from the French. 1n 1954, after the death of Stalin, the

Soviet Union pressured the Viet Minh to sign the Geneva Accords rather than unify the rest of

Vietnam by force, leading to the formation of North and South Vietnam.61

Current Situation

Continuing Rising Cold-War Tensions

The ascension of Khrushchev promised an increasingly relaxed period of Cold War tensions

as he denounced Stalin’s rule and “cult of personality.” This expectation was tested in 1960 when

the Soviet Union shot down a U.S. U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory.62 Khrushchev refused to

accept that the U.S. government was unaware of its flights, demanding no more further flights over

59 Ibid. 60 Robert L. Worden, Andrea Matles Savada and Ronald E. Dolan, China: A Country Study (Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987). 61 “Chinese and Soviet involvement in Vietnam.”; “Vietnam profile - Timeline,” BBC, October 30, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16568035. 62 "Soviet Union timeline," BBC News, October 31, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17858981.

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the state and an apology. The USSR’s insistence caused a collapse of a Paris summit conference

between the U.S., USSR, United Kingdom, and France.63 Such distrust continued with the Cuban

Missile Crisis in 1962. Such events in 1963 stimulated the creation of a direct “hotline,” a form of

communication between Washington and Moscow to defuse future situations.64 The two countries

also signed the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963, banning above-ground nuclear weapons testing.

Despite the peaceful negotiations, Khrushchev proceeded to invest in intercontinental ballistic

missiles capable of reaching the U.S. from Soviet territory. The Soviets were determined to achieve

military superiority, building conventional and strategic forces and arms that the U.S. would have to

follow.65

Fight for Communism in Vietnam Continued

Despite the agreements of the Geneva Accords, political dissidents began rallying in South

Vietnam in response to rising Communist insurgency since 1957. Weapons and troops from North

Vietnam began infiltrating the South, pressuring the U.S. to increase aid and military advisors to

South Vietnam.66 Soviet continued to provide only information supplies, technical advisors, and

moral support for North Vietnam leaders throughout the early 1960s, . Worried about direct U.S.

conflict, Khrushchev sought to further disassociate the USSR from rising troubles in Vietnam.67 By

1963, the Viet Cong, communist guerrillas, managed to defeat the ARVN, the South Vietnamese

Army. In addition, South Vietnamese President Diem was overthrown in a U.S.-backed military

coup. After North Vietnamese patrol boats fired on two U.S. Navy destroyers, the U.S. Congress

63 "U-2 Incident," Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified May 2, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/event/U-2-Affair. 64 "Cuban Missile Crisis," History.com, last modified March 13, 2010, http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/cuban-missile-crisis. 65 “Cold War," Encyclopædia Britannica, last modifiedSeptember 18, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War. 66 "Vietnam profile - Timeline," BBC News, October 30, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16568035. 67 "Chinese and Soviet involvement in Vietnam," Alpha History, last modified April 3, 2016, http://alphahistory.com/vietnamwar/chinese-and-soviet-involvement/.

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approved the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, officially allowing U.S. military action in the region this

year.68

1964 has also ushered in the Brezhnev era, which installed Aleksy Kosygin as prime minister

once Khrushchev was removed as leader in October. Foreign policy attitudes markedly shifted as

Kosygin placated hardliners in Soviet military through a public message of support for the National

Liberation Front and as Brezhnev announced a state visit to North Vietnam in the new year. Soviet

diplomats are also in negotiations for a defense treaty with the North Vietnamese in which the

USSR would provide financial aid, military equipment advisors, and training.69 Soviet relations with

China, however, continue to deteriorate, and there is worry that China’s relative stagnation in the last

decade will cause the Chinese Communist Party to take action that Moscow does not approve.70

Another indicator of severed ties was the USSR withdrawal of support for China’s nuclear weapons

program, believing that Mao was unreliable.71

Spreading Communism in Europe

In 1956, after Khrushchev criticized Stalin’s dictatorial ways, the Hungarian Revolution

began. Khrushchev's rhetoric encouraging debate, unrest, and discontent in Hungary led to a

breakout of internal hostility in October. In the first phase of the uprising, the rebels groups were

victorious. When Imre Nagy became premier, his agreement to a multiparty system and appeal to

the United Nations for support angered the Soviet Union. In November, the USSR invaded

Hungary to halt the Revolution and remove Nagy from rule. Despite this Soviet response, Hungry

gradually evolved into an increasingly autonomous state, independent of Soviet influence.72

68 "Vietnam profile - Timeline.". 69 "Chinese and Soviet involvement in Vietnam.". 70 Ibid. 71 “Détente,” United States History, last modified March 9, 2004, http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1946.html. 72 "Hungarian Revolution," Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified February 1, 2001,. https://www.britannica.com/event/Hungarian-Revolution-1956.

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In contrast to Hungary, the situation in Czechoslovakia is more complex. The Stalinist

regime in the state was threatened in March 1953 after Stalin’s death. The emergence of the

staunchly communist Antonin Novotny as First Secretary led to intense purges against sporadic

farmers riots against communist authorities, as well as government officials who attempted to ease

repression.73 After President Zapotocky died in 1957, Novotny assumed presidential duty with the

help of his apparatchik faction, which sought to maintain Stalinism. However, acute economic

problems, pressure from Slovak groups, and a rising student population restless from restriction

continues to brew.74

New Proposed Policies

Appointed as leader of the Soviet Union in late 1964, Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev is an astute,

cautious political figure with distinct goals in foreign policy. He aspires to dispose any breakdown of

communism in political, military, and economic terms, normalize the relationship between the U.S.

and the USSR, and support communist movements throughout the world.75

Brezhnev practices two major forms of foreign action. Although it has not yet been formally

outlined, allies of Brezhnev have made it a policy to intervene in any Warsaw Pact nation being

threatened by capitalist forces, both internal and external. Since the death of Stalin, subversive

capitalist elements have emerged in many Eastern Bloc states, trying to reverse the progress of

communism. Brezhnev's policy makes one thing very clear: Eastern Bloc states are only independent

of Moscow as long as they can maintain communism for their citizens. Beyond intervention, post-

World War II conquests and the existence of the Warsaw Pact’s military alliances have created

73 John Bradley and Milan Hauner, "Czechoslovak history," Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified March 7, 2016 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Czechoslovak-history/Czechoslovakia-1918-92#ref42118. 74 Ibid. 75 "Foreign policy in 1965-1984," Russia the Great, last modified April 1, 2002, http://russia.rin.ru/guides_e/7219.html.

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satellite states which are dependent upon the USSR for support.76 Under Brezhnev, foreign policy

has shifted from verbal to physical threats as the Soviet Union explicitly promised a swift punishing

end to any rebels seeking to weaken communist governments.77

Brezhnev has also made easy tensions with the United States a policy priority, especially

since the near-disaster of the Cuban Missile crisis. While less extreme communists disagree with

Brezhnev’s aggressive policies towards Eastern Bloc states, more extreme factions in the USSR are

voicing concern that rapprochement with the United States cold weaken the Soviet Union. The

USSR has already been snubbed by some communists in Southeast Asia in favor of the more

aggressively anti-Western Chinese, and Soviet hardliners are worried that friendly relations with the

US would hard the USSR’s legitimacy even more.

Questions to Consider

1. How can the Soviet Union successfully pursue its interests abroad without creating

potentially devastating conflict?

2. How should the USSR proceed with the development of nuclear weapons with the ever-

present threat of mutually assured destruction?

3. What components of communism should Russia begin integrating in other countries’

institutions?

76 Robert Wilde, "The Brezhnev Doctrine: The USSR Raises the Whip," ThoughtCo, last modified August 31, 2017, https://www.thoughtco.com/the-brezhnev-doctrine-1221487. 77 Wilde, "The Brezhnev Doctrine.”

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Committee Bloc Positions

Anti-Westernization

Since the liberalizing domestic reforms of Khrushchev, these individuals want to halt any

further social changes that attempt to uproot the country’s core values. They believe these changes

are undermining the strengths of the Soviet Union and the core tenets that allowed them to grow

into a global superpower. Rather than emulate the West, they view the West and its form of

governance as undermining their ability to rule. Not everyone agrees upon how much change is

necessary. While some merely want to maintain the new status quo established by Khrushchev,

others want to reverse the clock and initiate policies more similar to those that existed before he

came to power.

Pro-Westernization

These individuals view the current tumultuous relationships with the West as threatening to

Soviet existence. Rather than demonize the West, they desire to further incorporate some of its

liberal policies to improve the nation’s financial standing. Led by Kosygin, this faction believes that

reform, especially in regard to increasing industry and the production of consumer goods, would

greatly benefit the economy. However, they face strong opposition from conservative minded

individuals who do not want to see any significant change.

Committee Biographies

Alexei Kosygin, Premier of the Soviet Union

Alexei Kosygin took his position as Premier of the Soviet Union in 1964 with the fall of

Khrushchev. He is considered liberal in his domestic policies by many Soviets, as he seeks to

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decentralize economic planning in the hopes of creating a more efficient economy focused on

fulfilling consumer needs. 78

Anastas Mikoyan, Head of State

Mr. Mikoyan was the chairman of the presidium of the Supreme Soviet, or president of the

Soviet Union. Domestically, he has been influenced by American merchandising and attempted to

implement these capitalistic tactics into the Soviet Union. He is well known for his understanding

and quick reaction to Soviet party politics as well as his moderate stance on new leadership.

Nikolai Podgorny, Member of the 22nd Presidium

Podgorny holds a progressive view regarding the economic policies of the Soviet Union due

to his support for a consumer goods-focused economy a . He is moderate in regard to social issues.79

Matvei Zakharov, Marshal of the Soviet Union

Reappointed to his military post by Brezhnev, Zakharov had not been a fan of Khrushchev.

Zakharov believes that the politicians should not interfere with the will of military officials who

know more about matters of war. Interference could weaken the military, an essential tool for Soviet

power and global influence. 80

78 J.Y. Smith, “Alexei Kosygin, Premier of Soviet Union for 16 Years, Dies at 76,” Washington Post, December 20, 1980, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1980/12/20/alexei-kosygin-premier-of-soviet-union-for-16-years-dies-at-76/0fd526c7-3731-4436-a95f-4ef9a2d10c94/?utm_term=.d10badcd4c2a. 79 J.Y. Smith, “Anastas Mikoyan, Prominent in Soviet for Half Century Dies,” Washington Post, October 23, 1978, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1978/10/23/anastas-mikoyan-prominent-in-soviet-for-half-century-dies/c0c5c187-2efc-4719-9fe2-364a7485c7f7/?utm_term=.f017003eacf8. 80 Dale Herspring, The Soviet High Command, 1967-1988: Personalities and Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014), 50-54.

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Nikolai Shchelokov, Minister of Public Order

Shchelokov’s high position in the Soviet Union is due, in large part, to Brezhnev, his friend,

who he has consistently supported. 81 In his role, he ensures that the Soviet Union’s populace is

under control and that the country is operating efficiently.

Andrei Gromyko, Minister of Foreign Affairs

Andrei Gromykno serves as the Minister of Foreign Affairs. He typically supports

conservative policies regarding economic and social reformsConsidered a conscious politician, He is

known as a risk-averse invididual compared to others members of the party.

Rodion Malinovksy, Minister of Defense

Rodion Malinovksy serves as the Defense Minister, focusing on the restructuring and

military buildup of the Soviet Union. Malinovsky adheres strictly to Soviet doctrines and is one of

the key internal Soviet members whomBrezhnev has relied on for support within the government. 82

Nikolai Psurtsev, Minister of Communications

Nikolai Psurtsev was appointed the USSR Minister of Communications in 1948. Psurtsev

has been interested in expanding the nation’s broadcasting capabilities in addition to passing

legislation that would prevent the inflow of information and media from other countries.83

81 “Ex-General Buried in Moscow,” New York Times, December 16, 1984, http://www.nytimes.com/1984/12/16/world/ex-general-buried-in-moscow.html. 82 “Lebow,” Jonathan Renshon Department of Political Science at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, http://jonathanrenshon.com/Teaching/NPS/DecisionMaking/Lebow.pdf. 83 Leonid Trofimov, The Soviet Media at the Onset of the Cold War, 1945–1950 (Ann Arbor: University of Illinois at Chicago, 2004).

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Vasily Garbuzov, Minister of Finance

Vasily Garbuzov has been the Finance Minister of the Soviet Union under both Khrushchev

and Brezhnev.84 He supports communist economic doctrines and encourages rapid economic

growth within the Soviet Union. Additionally, he is currently focused on increasing the share of the

national income that reaches the general population to further grow the Soviet economy.

Vladimir Semichastny, Chairman of the Committee for State Security

As the leader of the KGB, Semichastny not only runs operations inside the country to

restore order and find political dissidentsbut also to collect information about countries throughout

the world. It was partly on his recommendation that the Berlin wall was built. He sees the KGB as

vital to the success of the Soviet Union and would not like to see its power weakened.85

Dmitry Ustinov, First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers

Ustinov was a pioneer in the development of Soviet rocket technology. He understands that

technological advancement and the battle of arms is quintessential in determining which nation will

have the upper hand.86 Only through domestic coordination and cooperation can these weapons,

which are vital on the international stage, properly develop. He also believes that a hard-line stance

must be taken against the United States.87

84 George James, “Vasily Garbuzov Dead at 74; Long Soviet Finance Minister,” New York Times, November 14, 1985, http://www.nytimes.com/1985/11/14/world/vasily-garbuzov-dead-at-74-long-soviet-finance-minister.html. 85 “Vladimir Semichastny,” The Economist, January 18, 2001, http://www.economist.com/node/478480. 86 “Dmitri Ustinov,” Global Security, last modified February 21, 2016, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/ustinov.htm. 87 Serge Schmemann, “Defense Minister of Soviet Union is Dead at Age 76,” New York Times, December 22, 1984, http://www.nytimes.com/1984/12/22/world/defense-minister-of-soviet-union-is-dead-at-age-76.html.

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Boris Ponomarev, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Boris Ponomarev is a member of the secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet

Union and serves as the Head of the International Department under Brezhnev. Domestically, he

believes it is necessary to return to pure Marxist-Leninist policies. He is a strong proponent of

traditional communist practices and opposes the “Westernization” of the economy.88

Anatoly Dobrynin, Ambassador to the U.S.

Dobrynin communicates Soviet interests abroad, relays U.S. desires back to the Soviet

Union, and prevents miscommunication between the nations that could result in a destructive

nuclear war. Kurashov has already shown his talents, having met with Robert F. Kennedy during the

Cuban Missile Crisis in which clear lines of communication were established between the two

powers.89

Efim Slavsky, Minister of Medium Machine-Building Industry

Andrei Sakharov is a well-known dissident of communist politics. He is a champion of

human rights and directly opposes the corruption of the Soviet hierarchy. Previously, he was a

physicist responsible for the creation of the Soviet Union’s first nuclear bomb.90

88 Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 112-116. 89 Robert McFadden, “Anatoly F. Dobrynin, Longtime Soviet Ambassador to the U.S., Dies at 90,” New York Times, April 8, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/09/world/europe/09dobrynin.html. 90 Walter Sullivan, “Papers Reveal Sakharov’s Wide Insight on Science,” New York Times, July 26, 1982, http://www.nytimes.com/1982/07/26/us/papers-reveal-sakharov-s-wide-insight-on-science.html.

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Sergei Kurashov, Minister of Health

Sergei Kurashov works to improve the medical and psychiatric facilities in the Soviet Union

to improve public health. Kurashov supports pro-Westernization with regard to the USSR’s

healthcare system. 91

Alexander Shelepin

Shelepin is a power player in Soviet politics, siting on the Politburo and Secretariat, wielding

considerable influence. The director of the KGB from 1958-1961, his influence is generally credited

with causing Khruschev to fall out of favor with the KGB, and Shelepin is considered a principle

player in Brezhnev’s rise to power. However, Shelepin is on of the last remaining hardline Stalinists

and is viewed with suspicion by the thawed Soviet leadership.

Leoinid Brezhnev

Brezhnev is, at least officially, the man in change of the Soviet Union. Although his grip on

power is not as tight as Stalin’s was, all people in the Soviet Union are theoretically loyal to him.

How successful Brezhnev can be will not be decided by his extreme official authority, but whether

he can outmaneuver those who seek to undermine him.

Mikhail Suslov

Suslov is generally considered to be the power behind Brezhnev and is one of only four

Soviets to hold positions on both the Politburo and Secretariat. Known for his work in promoting

“collective leadership,” Suslov is the chief ideological architect of Brezhnev’s platform, and has

influence with the more intellectual wing of the Communist Party.

91 Joseph Richard Quinn, The United States- USSR Exchange Agreements in Public Health, 1958-1967 (Ann Arbor: Georgetown University Press, 1968).

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Sergei Kurashov

Kerashov is the Minister of Public Health, able to impart policy changes on topics ranging

from nutrition to disease to biological warfare.

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