Notes

Introduction

1. Paolo Bagnoli, "Piero Gobetti and the Liberal Revolution in Italy:' Journal ofModernItalianStudies2, no. 1 (1997): 34, 37.

2. David D. Roberts, "Frustrated Liberals: De Ruggiero, Gobetti, and the Chal­lenge of Socialism," Canadian Journal of History 17 (1982): 62.

3. Gobett i's relative obscurity outside of Italy is explained by Norberto Bobbioas a consequence of his place in a distinctive context: "all of [Gobetti's1work isbound strictly to the political struggle in Italy in a period in which the historyof our country, which culminates in fascism, is so different from that of otherEuropean nat ions." Norberto Bobbio, Italia fedele. II mondo di Gobetti (Flor­ence: Passigli, 1986),64. Nevertheless, an English translation of selections ofGobetti 's work has recently been published, although with little historical con­textualisation. See Piero Gobetti, On Liberal Revolution, ed. Nadia Urbinati,trans. William McCuaig (New Haven and London : Yale University Press,2000). Full public access (in Italian) to Gobetti 's weekly review, La Rivoluzi­one Liberale, including the work of all those who contributed to it between1922 and 1926, is publically available on-l ine in a digital format. This excel­lent resource was created in consultation with the Centro Studi Piero Gobetti(Piero Gobetti Study Centre) in Turin and can be accessed at http://www.erasmo.itlliberale/.

4. A point also underlined by Bobbio, Italia[edele,64.5. For a detailed intellectual biography of Gobetti, see Marco Gervasoni,

L'intelletuale come eroe. Piero Gobetti e Ie culture del Novecento (Milan: LaNuova Italia, 2000). For shorter but still illuminating studies of Gobetti's lifeand thought, see in particular: Paolo Bagnoli, Piero Gobetti: cultura e politicain un liberale del Novecento (Florence: Passigli, 1984); Bobbio, Italia fedele;Anna Maria Lumbelli, Piero Gobetti "Storico delpresente" (Turin : DeputazioneSubalpina di Storia Patria, 1967).

6. An extensive bibliography of the numerous studies on Gobetti can be found inGiancarlo Bergami, Guidabibliografica degli scritti su Piero Gobetti, 1918-1975(Turin: Einaudi, 1981).

7. See, for example, Giuseppe Bedeschi, La fabbrica delle ideologie: II pensieropolitico nell'ItaliadelNovecento (Rorne-Bari: Laterza, 2002),142,143 .

8. Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach(Oxford: Clarendon, 1996).

160 NOTES

9. Quentin Skinner, Visions of Politics, Vol 1: Regarding Method (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2002),178-79.

10. Ibid ., 182.11. For a classic statement, see Aristotle, The Art of Rhetoric, trans . H. C. Lawson­

Tancred (London: Penguin, 1991). My views have been influenced to someextent by Charm Perelman , The Realm of Rhetoric (Indiana: University ofNotre Dame Press, 1982).

12. Here, I draw upon Larry Seidentop, "Two Liberal Traditions," in The Idea ofFreedom, ed. Alan Ryan (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1979), 153-74.

13. On this distinction between "negative" and "positive" freedom , see Isaiah Ber­lin, "Two Concepts of Liberty," in Four Essayson Liberty(Oxford: Oxford Uni­versity Press, 1969), 118-72. The distinction will be discussed in Chapter 7.

14. See Charles Taylor,"Kant's Theory of Freedom," in Philosophy and the HumanSciences, Vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985),318-37.

15. On the development of this European style of liberalism, including its Ital­ian variant, see Richard Bellamy,Liberalism and Modern Society:An HistoricalArgument (Cambridge: Polity, 1992).

16. For a discussion of the New Liberals, see Michael Freeden, The New Liberal­ism:An Ideology of Social Reform (Oxford: Clarendon, 1978).

17. On Gobetti and the liberal-socialist tradition in Italy, see James Martin, "Ital­ian Liberal Socialism: Anti-fascism and the Third Way," Journal of PoliticalIdeologies 7, no. 3 (2002),333-50; Nadia Urbinati, "La tradizione politica itali­ana," in Liberal-socialisti: II futuro di una tradizione, ed. Nadia Urbinati andMonique Canto-Sperber (Venice: Marsilio, 2004): 71-96.

18. For an important, contemporary example of this effort to critically reimagineliberty, see the work of Quentin Skinner: "A Third Concept of Liberty," Pro­ceedings of theBritishAcademy 117 (2002),237-68. I return to Skinner's workin Chapter 7.

19. See Lloyd F. Bitzer, "The Rhetorical Situation," in Contemporary Rhetori­cal Theory: A Reader, ed. John Louis Lucaites, Celeste Michelle Condit, andSally Caudill (New York and London: Guilford, 1999),217-25. Bitzer's workis, of course, controversial, and my reference to it here is merely to indicatethe need to understand the wider context to which rhetorical interventionswere responses.

20. My breakdown of Gobetti in Chapters 2 to 5 broadly follows Bobbie's scheme:the "early" period, 1918-20 (Chapter 2); the period of "maturation," 1920-22(Chapter 3); the "mature" period, 1922-25 (Chapters 4 and 5).See Italiafedele,14.

21. See Perelman, TheRealmof Rhetoric, 13-18.22. On the notion of an "ideal auditor," see Edwin Black,"The Second Persona ,"

in Lucaites, Condit and Caudill, Contemporary Rhetorical Theory: A Reader,331-40.

23. Throughout the text of this book, I follow the convention of using "fascism" or"fascist" with a lowercase initial to indicate the general ideology or movement,and with an upper-case initial to indicate the formal title of the state or party.

NOTES 161

24. On "paradiastole," see Skinner, Visions of Politics, Vol 1: Regarding Method,183-87.

25. On "metonymy:' see George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We LiveBy(Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1980),35-40.

26. Norberto Bobbio, Saggi sulla scienza politica in Italia, 2nd ed. (Rome-Bari :Laterza, 1996),222.

Chapter 1

1. "There is no figure in our history whose existence is identified, I would sayalmost integrated, with the history of the crisis of the liberal state and theadvent and consolidation of the fascist regime more than Gobetti, who wrotehis first article in November 1918 and his last in December 1925." NorbertoBobbio, Italiafedele. II mondodi Gobetti (Florence: Passigli, 1986), 14.

2. Giuseppe Mazzini, The Dutiesof Man and Other Essays (London: J. M. Dent,1907),82. See also, in the same volume, "Faith and the Future:' 141-94. OnMazzini's biography, see Denis Mack Smith, Mazzini (New Haven and Lon­don: Yale University Press, 1994). For an insightful assessment of his politi­cal thought, see Bruce Haddock, "State and Nation in Mazzini's PoliticalThought:' Historyof Political Thought 20, no. 2 (1999): 313-36. The impor­tance of Mazzini's ideological vision for later political projects is discussed inEmilio Gentile, II mito dello statonuovodall'antigiolittismo alfascismo (Rome­Bari: Laterza, 1982),259.

3. For a positive evaluation of liberal Italy,which diverges from what follows,seeSusan A. Ashley, Making Liberalism Work. The Italian Experience, 1860-1914(Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 2003). For a "revisionist" outlook on theRisorgimento that seeks to move beyond both its loyal defenders and harsh­est critics, see Lucy Riall, The Italian Risorgimento. State, Society and NationalUnification (London and New York:Routledge, 1994).

4. In this paragraph, I have drawn upon Martin Clark, Modern Italy, 1871-1995,

2nd ed. (London and New York:Longman , 1996), esp. chap. 2.5. Ibid. , 29.6. See Franklin H. Adler, Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism. The

Political Development of the Industrial Bourgeoisie, 1906-1934 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1995).

7. See Antonio Gramsci, Quaderni del carcere, ed. Valentino Gerratana, 4 vols.(Turin : Einaudi, 1975), 1957-2078.

8. Clark, ModernItaly,53.9. See John A. Davis, Conflict and Control: Lawand Orderin Nineteenth-Century

Italy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988). On the historical emergence of orga­nized crime, see John Dickie, Cosa Nostra:A Historyof theSicilian Mafia (Lon­don : Hodder and Stoughton, 2004), chap. 1-4 .

10. Clark, Modern Italy,40-41.

162 NOTES

11. Ibid., 63. For an outline of the different meanings in modern history attrib­uted to the terms "left" and "right;' see Giampiero Carocci, Destra e sinistranellastoriad'Italia (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 2002).

12. Clark, Modern Italy, 64-65.13. See Roberto Vivarelli, II fallimento de liberalismo: Studi sulle origini del [as­

cismo (Bologna: II Mulino, 1981), esp. chap. 1.14. Ibid., 36-40 .15. A summary of the "debate on the state" is provided in Clark, Modern Italy,

114-17.16. For an illuminating discussion of the crisis of Italian parliamentary politics

at the end of the century, see Giulia Guazzaloca, Fine secolo. Gli intelletualiitaliani e inglesi e la crisitra Otto e Novecento (Bologna: II Mulino, 2004).

17. On the problems of cultivating national identity in modern Italy,see the essaysin Bruce Haddock and Gino Bedani, eds., The Politics of Italian National Iden­tity:A Multidisciplinary Perspective (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2000).I have also examined this issue in "Ideology and Antagonism in Modern Italy:Poststructuralist Reflections;' CriticalReviewof InternationalSocialand Politi­calPhilosophy 8, no. 2 (2005): 145-60.

18. For a positive assessment of Giolitti 's strategy, see Giuseppe Bedeschi, La[ab­brica delle ideologie: II pensiero politico nell'Italia del Novecento (Rome- Bari:Laterza, 2002), 6-11. For more comprehensive historical commentaries, seeGiampiero Carocci, Giolitti e l'etagiolittiana. Lapolitica italianadall'inizio delsecolo alla prima guerra mondiale (Turin : Einaudi, 1971) and Emilio Gentile,Le originidell'Italia contemporanea: Leta giolittiana (Turin: Einaudi, 2003).

19. This argument is set out in Gentile, Le origini dell'Italia contemporanea.20. On Italian socialism's early history,see Gaetano Arfe, Storiadelsocialismo ital­

iano (1892-1926), 2nd ed. (Turin : Einaudi , 1977).21. See Donald Sassoon, One Hundred Years of Socialism: The WestEuropean Left

in the Twentieth -Century (London: Fontan a, 1997),5-26.22. Bedeschi, La fabbrica delle ideologie, 5; see also Arfe, Storia del socialismo,

98-110.23. See Bedeschi, Lafabbricadelle ideologie, 6.24. Clark, Modern Italy, 146-50.25. Giovanni Amendola, "II Convegno nazionalist a," (1910), in La cultura itali­

ana del'900attraverso le riviste. Vol. 3 "La Voce" (1908-1914), ed. A. Romano(Turin: Einaudi, 1960),259.

26. On the relationship between antigiolittismo and a desire for a "new state;' seePaul Corner, "State and Society, 1901-1922;' in Liberal and Fascist Italy, ed.Adrian Lyttelton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 17-43; Gentile, IImito della stato nuovo.

27. On the positivist and idealist strands of social theory in Italy at this time, seeRichard Bellamy,"Social and Political Thought, 1890-1945,"in Lyttelton, Lib­eraland Fascist Italy, 233-48.

28. For profiles of Salvemini , see Bedeschi, Lafabbricadelleideologie, 28-44 ; Nor­berto Bobbio, Ideological Profile of Twentieth-Century Italy, trans. Lydia G.

NOTES 163

Cochrane (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995),86-90; EugenioGarin, La culturaitaliana tra '800e '900 (Bari: Laterza, 1962), 103-54.

29. See Gaetano Salvemini, "Nord e Sud nel partito socialista italiano," CriticaSociale (December 16, 1902), in Movimentosocialista e questione meridionale,Opere IV, ed. Gaetano Arfe (Milan: Feltrinelli), 239-48.

30. For a helpful overview of the centrality of the South to Salvemini's politics, seeGaetano Arfe, "II meridionalismo di Gaetano Salvernini," II Ponte 11, no. 12(1955): 2001-13.

31. See Salvemini, "La questione meridionale:' Educazione Politica (December 25,1898 and June 10 and 28, February 26, and March 14 1899) in Movimentosocialista e questione meridionale, Opere IV, 71-89 .

32. Garin, La cultura italiana tra '800e '900, 117-23 .33. Salvemini, "La questione meridionale," 71.34. See Salvemini,"II ministrodella malavita" (1910), in II ministrodella malavita

e altri scritti sull'ltaliagiolittana, Opere IV, ed. Elio Apih (Milan: Feltrinelli,1962),73-141.

35. See, for example, Salvemini, "La lotta antiprotezionista e il partito socialista,"Avanti! (May 23,1914), in Movimentosocialista e questione meridionale, OpereIV, 553-56.

36. See Bedeschi, Lafabbrica delle ideologie, 19-28.37. Ibid., 19-20.38. On this point, see Garin, La culturaitaliana tra '800e '900, 116-17 .39. Emilio Garin, Intelletuali italiani del XX secolo (Rome: Editori Riuniti,

1974),3.40. Benedetto Croce, "Per la rinascita dell'idealismo," in Cultura e vita morale

(Naples : Bibliopolis, 1993), 34.41. Here, I draw upon Edmund E. Iacobitti, Revolutionary Humanism and Histori­

cismin ModernItaly (New Haven and London: YaleUniversity Press, 1981).42. On this tradition in Italian political theory, see Joseph Femia, The Machia­

vellian Legacy. Essays in Italian Political Thought (Basingstoke: Macmillan,1998).

43. On Croce, see Richard Bellamy,"Liberalism and Historicism: Benedetto Croceand the Political Role of Idealism in Italy, c. 1880-1950," in ThePromise ofHis­tory,ed. A. Moulakis (Berlin and New York:Walter de Gruyter, 1985),69-119;Iacobitti, Revolutionary Humanism and Historicism in Modern Italy; David D.Roberts, Benedetto Croce and the Uses of Historicism (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1987).

44. See Benedetto Croce , Historical Materialism and the Economics of KarlMarx(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1981).

45. For a discussion of Croce's Aesthetic, see Iacobitti, Revolutionary Humanismand Historicism in Modern Italyand "The Impact of Croce's Aesthetics of 1902and Today's Revolt against Modernity:' in TheLegacy ofBenedetto Croce. Con­temporary Critical Views, ed. Jack D'Amico, Dain A. Trafton, and MassimoVerdicchio (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 174-95.

46. On this impact, see ]acobitti, "The Impact of Croce's Aesthetics," 180-81.

164 NOTES

47. See Norberto Bobbio, Politica e cultura, 2nd ed. (Turin: Einaudi, 2005),78-96.

48. See Croce, "II partito come giudizio e come pregiudizio," in Cultura e vitamorale (Naples: Bibliopolis, 1993), 185-91.

49. Croce, "Pede e programmi," in Cultura e vita morale (Naples: Bibliopolis,1993), 158.

50. Ibid ., 162.51. On this shift in Croce's politics, see Bellamy, "Liberalism and Historicism";

Bobbio, Politica e cultura, 177-228; and Roberts, Benedetto Croce and the Usesof Historicism.

52. See David Ward, "Intellectuals, Culture and Power in Modern Italy;' in TheCambridge Companion to Modern Italian Culture, ed. Zygmunt G. Baranskiand Rebecca J.West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 83-85.

53. SeeGiuseppe Prezzolini and Giovanni Papini,"La politica della 'Voce;" (1911),in La culturaitalianadel'900 attraverso Ie riviste. Vol. 3 "La Voce" (1908-1914),393-97.

54. See, for example, his praise for Sorel's revolutionary syndicalism in GiuseppePrezzolini, La teoria sindacalista (Naples: Francesco Perrella, 1909).

55. See Emilio Gentile, "La Voce" e Petagioliuiana (Milan: Pan, 1972).56. Prezzolini,"Che fare?" (1910), in Laculturaitalianadel'900 attraverso le riviste,

208.57. On Croce's historicism and its impact, see Iacobitti, Revolutionary Humanism

and Historicism in Modern Italy; Roberts, Benedetto Croce and the Uses of His­toricism; and Bellamy,"Liberalism and Historicism :'

58. On the vociani and their influence on nationalism, see Gentile, II mito dellostatonuovo, 81-101.

59. On the interventionist crisis and the differing positions of the various pro­tagonists , seeAdian Lyttelton, The Seizure ofPower. Fascism in Italy, 1919-1929(London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973),20-25.

60. On Croce's position in relation to the war, see Bedeschi, Lafabbrica delle ide­ologie, 96-109 and David D. Roberts, "Croce and Beyond: Italian Intellectualsand the First World War,"International HistoryReview3 (1981): 201-35 .

61. See Bedeschi, Lafabbrica delle ideologic, 95.62. A point made by Bedeschi, ibid., 91, and underscored by Lyttelton, Seizureof

Power, 22.63. Clark, Modern Italy, 185.64. Lyttelton, Seizure of Power, 30.65. Emilio Gentile, TheOrigins of Fascist Ideology, 1918-1925 (New York:Enigma,

2005),39.66. Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes. The Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991

(London : Michael Joseph, 1994),30,49.67. Gramsci, Quaderni, 311. I have partly adapted my trans lation in light of the

English version: Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, ed.Qunitin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (London: Lawrence & Wishart,1971),275-76.

NOTES 165

68. Lyttelton, Seizureof Power, 30.69. Hobsbawm, Ageof Extremes, 56.70. For an examination of the varying forces in play during the lead-up to the

fascist takeover, see Joseph Baglieri, "Italian Fascism and the Crisis of LiberalHegemony: 1901-1922," in Who Were the Fascists? Social Roots of EuropeanFascism , ed. Stein Ugelvik Larsen, Bernt Hagtvet, and Jan Petter Myklebust(Bergen: Universitetsforlaget, 1980),318-36.

Chapter 2

1. See the editor's introductory comments in Stanlislao Pugliese, ed., ItalianFas­cismand Anti-Fascism:A Critical Anthology(Manchester and NewYork:Man­chester University Press, 2001),61-62.

2. See Marco Gervasoni , L'intelletuale come eroe. Piero Gobetti e Ie culture delNovecento (Milan: La Nuova Italia, 2000), 19-25.

3. SeeLucyRiall, TheItalianRisorgimento. State, Society and NationalUnification(London and New York:Routledge, 1994), 14-15.

4. Gobetti, "Le un iversita e la cultura. Torino;' Conscientia (January 23, 1926),Scritti politici, ed. Paolo Spriano (Turin : Einaudi , 1960),909. From hereon,this collection of Gobett i's writings will be abbreviated SP.

5. On the civic role of Turin's university, as well as Gobetti's relation with it, seeAngelo d'Orsi, La cultura a Torino tra Ie due guerre (Turin : Einaudi, 2000),4-6.

6. See Gobetti, "Le universita e la cultura. Torino;' 911.7. d'Orsi, La culturaa Torino, 6-11.8. See Norberto Bobbio, Italia fedele. II mondo di Gobetti (Florence: Passigli,

1986),205-16.9. Paolo Bagnoli, Piero Gobetti: cultura e politica in un liberale del Novecento

(Florence: Passigli, 1984), 16. For a survey of Turin's intellectuals, see Nor­berto Bobbio, Trent'anni di storia della cultura a Torino (1920-1950) (Turin:Einaudi,2002).

10. Martin Clark, ModernItaly, 1871-1995, 2nd ed. (London and NewYork: Long­man, 1996), 192.

11. Antonio Gramsci, "La settimana politica [XVI]. La funzione storica dellecitta," rOrdine Nuovo (January 17, 1920), in rOrdine Nuovo 1919-1920, ed.Valentino Gerratana and Antonio A. Santucci (Turin : Einaudi, 1987),387 .

12. Clark, ModernItaly, 193.13. The use of the word "nove" comes from the Latin novus, meaning new or

young. In commentaries, the title "Energie Nove" is therefore sometimes ren­dered "Energie Nuove" (nuovomeaning "new" in Italian) .

14. Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes. The Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991(London: Michael Joseph, 1994),26.

15. On combattentismo, see Emilio Gentile, The Origins of Fascist Ideology, 1918­1925 (New York:Enigma, 2005).

166 NOTES

16. See Gobetti, "Rinnovamento," Energie Nove (November 1-15, 1918), SP,5. Seealso "Volonta," Energie Nove (November 1-15 , 1918), SP, 15-16.

17. Gobetti, Carteggio 1918-1922, ed. Ersilia A. Perona (Turin: Einaudi, 2003), 3.See also his letter of February 2, 1919, to the editors of the Torinese studentmagazine, L'Azione Studentesca: Gobetti, Carteggio, 30-31.

18. Gobetti, "Rinnovarnento," 5.19. Gobetti, "Propaganda italian a all'estero:' Energie Nove (November 15-30,

1918), SP,23. Gobetti's metaphors of"youth" and "heroism" are examined inchap. 5 of Gervasoni, L'intelletuale comeeroe.

20. Gobetti, "Cornmenti e giustificazioni," Energie Nove (December 15-31, 1918),SP,30.

21. Ibid ., 32.22. Ibid .23. Gobetti, Carteggio, 5.24. Ibid ., 12. See also Gobetti's various public defenses of Croce: "B. Croce e i

pagliacci della cultura," Energie Nove (November 15-30, 1918), SP, 17-21; and"Croce oppositore," La Rivoluzione Liberale (September 6,1925), SP,876-81.Gobetti was keen to distinguish Croce from his many admirers: "I hate theCroceans: they are empty, inert windbags like the anti-croceans. I despisethem just as much as I admire Croce," in "Nota III [I crociani]," Energie Nove(January I-IS, 1919), SP, 46.

25. On Gobetti's relationship with Prezzolini and La Voce, see Emilio Gentile,"Gobetti e La Voce:' L'Osservatore politico letterario (1971), 14-20; GiuseppePrezzolini, ed., Gobetti e "La Voce" (Florence : Sansoni, 1971).

26. See also "Giolitti, giolittismo e antigiolittismo," Energie Nove(July 5, 1919), SP,125-28.

27. Gobetti, "La Nostra Fede:' Energie Nove (May 5,1919), SP,77.28. Ibid., 78.29. Ibid., 86-87.30. See Bobbio, Trent'anni, 40-43.31. "La Nostra Pede,' 88.32. Ibid., 87.33. See Antonio Gramsci, La cittafutura 1917-1918, ed. Sergio Caprioglio (Turin:

Einaudi, 1982),3-35.34. See Gramsci, "Indifferenti,' La citta futura (February 11, 1917), in La citta

futura 1917-18, 13-15; and "La disciplina," Lacitta[utura (February 11, 1917),in La citta[utura, 19-20.

35. See Gervasoni, L'intelletuale come eroe, 34. Gobetti criticized revolutionarysocialist politics for its empty phraseology in Gobetti, "La Nostra Fede," 79,82-83. For his critique of Bolshevik collectivism, see "Rassegna di questionipolitiche," Energie Nove (July 25,1919), SP, 138-53.

36. Carteggio, 27. See also 38. Gobetti praised Salvemini for his influence on Ener­gie Nove and for his distance from any single party in "II problema dei prob­lemi," Energie Nove (January 15-31, 1919), SP,46-48.

NOTES 167

37. In addition to a number of articles by Gobetti, as well as others, scatteredthroughout the review-see "II problema della scuola media [I] Il liceo'' Ener­gie Nove (March 1-15, 1919), SP, 53-65; "II problema della scuola media [II]II ginnasio" Energie Nove (March 15-31 , 1919), SP,66-70; Energie Nove alsodevoted a special issue (Series II, no. 9) to scholastic reform.

38. Gobetti, "La Societa delle Nazioni," Energie Nove (January 1-15, 1919), SP,36-41.

39. "Traditore 0 incapacer," Energie Nove (December 1-15, 1918), SP,28-29.40. Paolo Spriano, Gramsci e Gobetti, 3rd ed. (Turin : Einaudi , 1977), 103.41. See Gobetti's letter to Ada Prospero of April 19, 1919, in Piero Gobetti and

Ada Gobetti, Nella tua breve esistenza. Lettere 1918-1926, ed. Erslia A. Perona(Turin: Einadui, 1991),35.

42. See"II nostro movimento," Energie Nove (May 5,1919), SP, 104-5;"Verso unarealta politica concreta," Energie Nove (May 20,1919), SP, 105-13.

43. Gervason i, L'intelletuale comeeroe, 58.44. Christopher Seton-Watson, Italyfrom Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925 (Lon­

don and New York:Methuen, 1967),511 .45. Clark, ModernItaly,203-4.46. On the history of postwar Italian nationalism, see Giuseppe Bedeschi, Lafab­

brica delle ideologie: II pensiero politico nell'Italia del Novecento (Rome-Bari:Laterza, 2002), 44-62 and Adrian Lyttelton, The Seizure of Power. Fascism inItaly, 1919-1929 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973), 15-30.

47. Seton-Watson, Italy,516-19 .48. On early fascism, see Philip Morgan, ItalianFascism, 1919-1945 (Basingstoke:

Macmillan, 1995), 13-16 . I will discuss the roots of fascism in more detail inChapter 5.

49. Seton-Watson, Italy,512-15.50. Ibid., 512.51. Ibid., 519-27.52. SeeAntonio Gramsc i, "Salveminiana,"L'Ordine Nuovo (June 28-July 5,1919),

in L'Ordine nuovo, 1919-1920, ed. Valentino Gerratana and Antonio A. San­tucci (Turin : Einaudi, 1987), 112, 113. Although the article is contained in thiscollection of Grarnsci's work, the editors indicate that the original was notsigned and it is very likely,in fact, to have been penned by one of the paper'sother editors, Angelo Tasca. See also Gramsci, "Maturi til;' L'Ordine Nuovo(June 7,1919), in L'Ordine Nuovo,64-65.

53. SeeGiovanni Gentile, Opere filosofiche (Milan: Garzanti, 1991),453-681 . For auseful, and critical, overview of Gentile's ideas, see chap. 6 of Richard Bellamy,Modern Italian Social Theory. Ideology and Politics from Pareto to the Present(Cambridge: Polity, 1987). A full discussion of Gentile's philosophy can befound in H. S. Harris, The Social Philosophy of GiovanniGentile (Urbana andLondon: University of Illinois Press, 1960), and a neat, if wholly uncritical,defense can be found in A. J. Gregor, GiovanniGentile: Philosopher of Fascism(New Brunswick and London: Transaction, 2001). Biographical informationand a useful account of his relationships with other thinkers is available in

168 NOTES

Gabriele Turi, GiovanniGentile: una biografia, 2nd ed . (Turin: UTET Libreria,2006).

54. See Gregor, Giovanni Gentile, 20-22; Harris, Social Philosophy, 15-19.55. On the difference between Croce and Gentile's philosophies, see Harris, Social

Philosophy, 19-22; David D. Roberts, Benedetto Croce and the Uses of Histori­cism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 105-16.

56. Gentile, "Le due democrazie.r''Liberalismo e liberali" and "L'idea monarchica"in Dopo la vittoria: Nuovi frammenti politici (Rome: La Voce, 1920), 110-11,172-73, and 154-55, respectively. See also his comments in "II problema polit­ico" of 1920, in Gentile, Discorsi di religione (Florence: Sansoni, 1957),25.

57. As Harris points out, Gentile's use of the word "state" implied no t the concretestructures of power and command so much as the idea of a unified moralwill, which any empirical state would only ever approximate: "It is fair to saythat when he talks about 't he State' Gentile usually means, or ought to mean,what we call 'conscience.''' See Harris, Social Philosophy, 62. Nevertheless, Har­ris recognizes the "dangerous ambiguities" of this usage (see Social Philosophy,63, note 72).1 will return to Gentile's idea of the ethical sta te in Chapter 5.

58. Gregor, Giovanni Gentile, 29-33. On Gentile's nationalism, see Bedeschi, Lafabbrica delleideologie, 109-16.

59. See Gentile, Guerra e fede. Frammenti politici (Naples: Riccardo Ricciardi,1919) and Dopola vittoria.

60. See, for example, Gen tile , 'Teducazione nazionale," in Guerra e fede (Naples:Riccardo Ricciardi, 1919). Gobetti's support for Gentile's pedagogic inter­ventions is noted in "La questione della scuola," Energie Nove (January 1-15,1919), SP, 42-43, and also in a letter to Ada of August 1919, where he talksof "having already gotten close enough to Gentile's position" on pedagogy,which he admired for its "poetic attraction" by which "all problems, in uni­fying themselves, acquire a new light." Nella tua breve esistenza, 89. See alsoGervasoni, Eintelletuale comeeroe, 45-46.

61. Palmiro Togliatti, '''Guerra e fede' di Giovanni Gentile," L'Ordine Nuovo (May1, 1919), in Opere, Vol. 1, 1917-1926, ed. Ernesto Ragionieri (Rome: EditoriRiuniti), 20.

62. For the argument that both Gramsci and Gobetti were influenced by Gentile'sidealism, see Augusto Del Noce, II suicidio della tivoluzione (Mi lan: Rusconi,1978) .

63. On the "myth of the new state;' and particularly its place in th e emergenceof fascism, see Emilio Gentile, II mito dello stato nuovo dall'antigiolittismo alfascismo (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 1982).

64. Togliatti, "Parassiti della cultura," L'Ordine Nuovo (May 15, 1919), in Opere,Vol. 1,27-29. Togliatti's title-"Cultural Parasites"-is a parody of the title ofGobetti's article-"B. Croce and the Clowns of Culture"-defending Croce.See Gobetti, "B. Croce e i pagliacci della cultura."

65. See Gobetti, "Polemica con L''Ordine Nuovo' (Nota),"Energie Nove (May 15,1919), SP,113-15. Gobetti also mentioned Togliatti's attack in a letter to Cara­mella (see Gobetti, Carteggio, 54) . OrdineNuovofollowed with a short defense

NOTES 169

of the ir critique of Gobetti and the "academic vanity" of the professors uponwhom he drew support. The article was unsigned, but is attributed to Gram­sci: see Gramsci, "Contributi a una nuova dottrina dello stato e del colpo distato," L'Ordine Nuovo (June 7,1919), in L'Ordine Nuovo,72-73.

66. Gervasoni, L'intelletuale comeeroe, 34.67. Clark, Modern Italy,204-5; Seton-Watson, Italy,539-43 .68. Seton-Watson, Italy,540.69. See Gobetti, "Frammenti di estetismo politico:' Energie Nove (November 30,

1919), SP, 164-78.70. Seton-Watson, Italy,549-50.71. These results were later confirmed in the local elections in the autumn of

1920. See Clark, Modern Italy,212-13 .72. See Mario Missiroli, Polemica liberale (Bologna : Zanichelli, 1919).73. An argument developed in an earlier publication, La monarchia socialista:

Estrema destra (Bari: Laterza, 1914).74. Gentile, "Liberalismo e liberali," 172.75. Ibid ., 173-74.76. Gentile, ''' II pericolo ," in Dopola vittoria,185-87 .77. Guido De Ruggiero, "Polemica liberale," II Nuovo Giornale (November 20,

1919), in Scritti politici 1912-1926, ed. Renzo De Felice (Bologna: Cappelli,1963),306.

78. De Ruggiero, "Discussioni socialiste," II Resto del Carlino (July 17, 1919), inScritti politici, 277. De Ruggiero's analyses were developed in his study ofEuropean liberalism, published in 1925.See De Ruggiero, TheHistoryof Euro­pean Liberalism, trans. R. G. Collingwood (Boston : Beacon Press, 1959). For acomparison of De Ruggiero with Gobetti, see David D. Roberts, "FrustratedLiberals: De Ruggiero, Gobetti, and the Challenge of Socialism:' CanadianJournal of History 17 (1982): 59-86. For a general overview of De Ruggiero'spolitical thought, see Bedeschi, Lafabbrica delle ideologie, 230-46.

79. Togliatti, "Che cos'e il liberalismor," L'Ordine Nuovo (September 2D-27, 1919),in Opere, Vol. 1,63-69.

80. Gobetti, "Frammenti di estetismo politico:' 169 (emphasis in original).81. Gobetti, "Rassegna di questioni pelitiche," lSD-51.82. Ibid ., 151.83. Ibid . See also his remarks on Trotsky: "Trotzki," II Resto del Carlino (AprilS,

1921), SP, 206-10; and on Lenin: "L'Ora grave:' OrdineNuovo (September 3,1921), SP,218-22, 221.

84. Gobetti, "Rassegna di questioni politiche,' 152, 151, 152.85. Gobetti, "Frammenti di estetismo politico:' 175.86. Ibid ., 170-71.87. In Gentilean fashion , Gobetti contrasted the "empirical" forms of state in his-

tory with its "eternal idea."See ibid., 172-73.88. "Rassegna di questioni pelitiche," 152.89. "Per iI1920:' Energie Nove (December 20,1919), SP, 178-80.90. Carlo Levi,"Gli anni di Energie Nove," II contemporaneo 3, no. 7 (1956): 3.

170 NOTES

91. On Gobetti's influence on Levi, see David Ward, Carlo Levi. Gli italiani e lapauradella uberta (Milan: La Nuova Italia, 2002) .

92. Barbara Allason, "Ricordo di Piero Gobetti," in Trent'anni di storia italiana(1915-1945), ed. Domenico Zucaro (Turin : Einaudi, 1961), 131-32.

93. Prezzolini, Gobetti e "La Voce:' 37.94. See his letters to Santino Caramella and Giovanni Ansaldo of July, August,

and October 1919 in Carteggio, 66-69, 70-71, 75-76, 79-82, and also "Per il1920:'

95. See"Intermezzo:' Energie Nove (February 12, 1920), SP, 181-82.

96. See his letter to Caramella of February 18, 1920, Carteggio, 98-103.97. See his letter to Caramella of February 13, 1920, Ibid., 95-96. Throughout

1920, Gobetti continued to suggest in correspondence that he intended torepublish Energie Nove.

98. See "Esperienze liberale [VI]:' La Rivoluzione Liberale (June 18, 1922), SP,

378-80.99. Gobetti, "I miei conti con l'idealismo attuale," La Rivoluzione Liberale (Janu ­

ary 18, 1923),SP,445.

100. Spriano , Gramsci e Gobetti, 106.

Chapter 3

1. For a historical account of the occupations, see Paolo Spriano, L'occupazionedellefabbriche, settembre 1920 (Turin: Einaudi, 1964), 159. The English trans ­lation is The Occupation of the Factories. Italy 1920, trans. Gwyn A. Williams(London: Pluto, 1975). See also Martin N. Clark, Antonio Gramsci and theRevolution that Failed (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1977).

2. FlOM: Federazione italiana operai metallurgici (Italian MetalworkersFederation) .

3. AMMA: Associazione tra gli industriali, metallurgici, meccanici e affini (Asso-ciation of Metallurgical, Mechanical and related Industrialists).

4. Spriano, Occupation, 63, 117-18.5. Ibid., 118.6. Ibid., 68.7. See Antonio Gramsci, "II programma dell 'Ordine Nuevo," L'Ordine Nuovo

(August 14, 1920), in L'Ordine Nuovo 1919-1920, ed. Valentino Gerra tana andAntonio A. Santucci (Turin : Einaudi, 1987) [hereafter, ON], 621.

8. Ibid., 619.9. On De Leon's influence on OrdineNuovo,see Paolo Spriano, "L'Ordine Nuovo"

e i consigli di fabbrica. Con una sce/ta di testi dall'''Ordine Nuovo" (Turin :Einaudi, 1971), 66-69. Spriano's text also contains numerous writings fromOrdineNuovoby Gramsci and other writers.

10. Gramsci's writings are collected in L'Ordine Nuovo.The best theoretical assess­ment of Gramsci's ideas in Ordine Nuovo is Darrow Schecter, Gramsci andthe Theory of Industrial Democracy (Aldershot : Avebury, 1991). Alterna tivecontextual discussion can be found in Carl Levy, Gramsci and the Anarchists

NOTES 171

(Oxford: Berg, 1999). For a sketch, see also James Martin, Gramsci's Politi­calAnalysis. A Critical Introduction (Basingstoke and New York: Macmillan,1998),24-29.

11. Gramsci, "Lo sviluppo della rivoluz ione," L'Ordine Nuovo (September 13,1919) , ON, 206.

12. See Gramsci, "La conquista dello stato," L'Ordine Nuovo (July 12, 1919), ON,131-32. On Gramsci's criticisms of reformist trade un ionism, see "Sindacati econsigli," L'Ordine Nuovo (October 11, 1919), ON, 236-41, and "I sindacati ela dittatura," L'OrdineNuovo (October 25,1919), ON,256-62.

13. See Gramsci, "Lo sviluppo della rivoluzione," 206, and "Sindacalismo e con-sigli,"L'Ordine Nuovo (November 8,1919), ON, 298-99.

14. "Lo sviluppo della rivoluzione," 206.15. "Sindacati e consigli," 238-39.16. For Gramsci's critique of Italian syndicalists, see "Sindacalismo e consigli,"

and for his critique of anarchists, see "Socialisti e anarchici," L'Ordine Nuovo(September 20-27, 1919), ON, 215-19. On Gramsci's relationship to anar­chism generally, see Levy,Gramsci and theAnarchists.

17. See Gramsci, "Note sulla rivoluzione russa," II Grido del Popolo (April 29,1917), in La Citta futura 1917-1918, ed. Sergio Caprioglio (Turin: Einaudi,1982), 138-42.

18. See Gramsci, "Lo stato italiano," L'Ordine Nuovo (February 7, 1920), ON,403-8.

19. Gramsci, "II nostro Marx;' II Grido delPopolo (May 4,1918), in II Nostro Marx1918-1919, ed. Sergio Caprioglio (Turin: Einaudi, 1984),6.

20. Ibid ., 5-6.21. On Bordiga and II Soviet, see Paolo Spriano, Storia del Partito comunista ital-

iano, 1.Da Bordiga a Gramsci (Turin: Einaudi, 1967), chap. 3.22. Spriano, "L'Ordine Nuovo " 100-104.23. Ibid ., 111-12. See Tasca's defense from Gramsci's criticism in Ibid, 266-90.24. Gramsci,"Per un rinnovamento del partito socialista," L'OrdineNuovo(May 8,

1920), ON, 511.25. Piero to Ada, in Gobetti and Gobetti, Nella tua breve esistenza. Lettere 1918­

1926, ed. E. A. Perona (Turin: Einaudi, 1991),375-76.26. Gobetti's reaction to the factory occupations, the Turinese workers, and evi­

dence of the influence of Gramsci upon him is visible mostly in wr itings sub­sequent to the events . See, in particular, Gobetti, "Storia dei comunisti torinesiscritta da un liberale," LaRivoluzione Liberale (March 26, 1922), Scrittipolitici,ed. Paolo Spriano (Turin: Einaudi, 1960),278-95 (hereafter SP).An Englishtranslation of this important article can be found in volume one of JamesMartin (ed .), Antonio Gramsci: Critical Assessments of Political Philosophers(London: Routledge, 2002), 213-24.

27. For an illuminating sketch of Gramsci and Gobetti, see Paolo Spriano, Gram­sci e Gobetti, 3rd ed. (Turin: Einaudi, 1977). I have made a (rather rough)translation of the first chapter of this book (previously in an article publ ishedin Studi storici) in Martin (ed.), Antonio Gramsci: Critical Assessments,60-82.

172 NOTES

28. See Gramsci, "Stato e sovranita," Energie Nove (February 1-28, 1919), in IINostroMarx, 518-23.

29. Gobetti, Carteggio 1918-1922, ed. Ersilia A. Perona (Turin: Einaudi, 2003),120-21.

30. Gobetti, "Storia dei comunisti," 282.31. Gobetti, "Uomini e idee [X]," La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 22, 1924), SP,

646.32. Gobetti, Carteggio, 124.33. Gobetti, "Storia dei cornunisti," 289.34. Ibid ., 290.35. See his letter of May 14, 1921, to Prezzolini in Gobetti, Carteggio, 209. The

project continued in preparation in June with, it seems, Gramsci's approval.See Gobetti's further letter to Prezzolini in which he indicates Gramsci's pref­erence concerning the volume's contents: Gobetti, Ibid , 211-12. However,Gramsci's departure for Moscow in 1922 appears to have interrupted theseplans .

36. Grarnsci, "Vecchia musica," L'Unita (July 2,1925), in La costruzione delPartitoComunista 1923-1926, ed. Elsa Fubini (Turin: Einaudi , 1971),377.

37. See Gramsci, "Some Aspects of the Southern Question;' (September-Novem­ber 1926), in Gramsci: Pre-Prison Writings,ed. Richard Bellamy (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1994),313-37.

38. In Chapter 6, however, I examine Gramsci 's references to Gobetti in his laterwork.

39. Gobetti, "Storia dei comunisti," 294.40. See, for example, Gobetti, "La rivoluzione italiana. Discorso ai collaboratori di

"Energie Nove," L'Educazione Nazionale (November 30,1920), SP, 187-94 .41. Gobetti, "Storia dei comunisti," 283.42. On the various aspects of Gobetti's interest in Russia, see Bruno Bongiovanni,

"Piero Gobetti e la Russia,"Studi storici 37, no. 3 (1996): 727-46.43. Ibid., 730.44. See Paradosso dello spirito russo, in Gobetti, Scritti storici, letterari e filosofici,

ed. Paolo Spriano (Turin: Einaudi, 1969),289-341.45. Gobetti, "Rassegna di questioni pelitiche," Energie Nove (July 25, 1919), SP,

151.46. See Georges Sorel, Reflections on Violence, ed. Jeremy Jennings (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1999), and also the essayscollected in Sorel, FromGeorges Sorel. Essays in Socialism and Philosophy, ed. John L. Stanley (NewYork:Oxford University Press, 1976). For an illuminating study of the forma­tion of Sorel's ideas, see Marco Gervasoni, Georges Sorel, una biografia intellet­uale. Socialismo e liberalismo nellaFrancia della BelleEpoque(Milano: EdizioniUnicopli,1997) .

47. Sorel, Reflections, 118-19 .48. Ibid., 118.49. "Myths must be judged as a means of acting on the present . . . even suppos­

ing the revolutionaries to have been wholly and entirely deluded in setting up

NOTES 173

this imaginary picture of the general strike, this picture may yet have been, inthe course of the preparation of the revolution, a great element of strengthif it had embraced all the aspirations of socialism and if it had given to thewhole body of revolutionary thought a preci sion and a rigidity which no othermethod of thought could have given" (Ibid., 116-17) .

50. On Sorel's reception and influence in Italy, see Gian Biagio Puriozzi, Sorel eI'Italia (Messina : G. D'Anna, 1975). On the var ious strands of Italian syndical­ism, see Carl Levy,"Currents of Italian Syndicalism before 1926,"InternationalReview of Social History45 (2000): 209-50.

51. See Giancarlo Bergarni, "Sorel e i giovani rivoluzionari di Torino," IIPonte8-9(1970): 1062-64.

52. See, for instance, Sorel's discussion of the distinction between bourgeois"force" and "proletarian" violence: Sorel, Reflections, 165-72.

53. Ibid ., 159-60 .54. Ibid., 159.55. See chap. 7 of Reflections.56. For commentary on Sorel 's influence on Grarnsci, see Darrow Schecter, "Two

Views of the Revolution: Gramsci and Sorel, 1916-1920," in Antonio Gram­sci: CriticalAssessments, vol. 1, ed. James Martin (London: Routledge, 2002),153-71. On Sorel 's influence on Gobetti, see Pietro Polito, "Gobetti e Sorel,"Mezzosecolo: materialidi ricercastorica 6 (1985-86): 29-62 .

57. See, for example, Gramsci's critique of the syndicalists, "Sindacalismo econsigli."

58. Gramsci, "La conquista dello stato," 128.59. This point is made by Schecter, "Two Views of the Revolution:' 165.60. Gobetti, Carteggio, 140.61. Gobetti, "Storia dei comunisti," 287.62. Ibid., 29263. Gobetti, "II nostro protestantisrno," LaRivoluzioneLiberale (May 17, 1925), SF,

824.64. Ibid., 825.65. Gobetti, "Storia dei cornunisti," 292.66. See Giampiero Carocci, "P iero Gobetti nella storia del pensiero politico ital­

iano," Belfagor, 6 (1951): 148.Norberto Bobbio also begins his study ofTurinesecultural life with a chapter devoted to Gramsci and Gobetti together, pointingto their joint role as instigators of a distinctive culture of intellectual militancyin the city. See Trent'anni di storia della culturaa Torino (1920-1950) (Turin:Einaudi, 2002), 5-14. For a more recent, critical evaluation of the intellectualrelationship, see Franco Sbarberi's "Gramsci e Gobetti: un eredita difficile," inEutopia della libertaeguale. I1liberalismo sociale da Rosselli a Bobbio (Torino:Bollati Boringhieri, 1999),25-53.

67. A po int underlined by Paolo Bagnoli, Rosselli, Gobetti e la rivoluzione demo­cratica, Uomini e idee tra liberalismo e socialismo (Florence: La Nuova Italia ,1996), 132-33 .

174 NOTES

68. Gobetti ,"II problema della civilta russa,"L'Ora (November 23,1923), in Scrittistorici, 425. On this interpretation of the Russian Revolution as a Menshevitestrategy delivered by Bolsheviks, see the discussion by Bongiovanni, "PieroGobetti e la Russia;' 738- 39, 742-44.

69. Gobett i, "La rivoluzione italiana. Discorso ai collaboratori di 'Energie Nove;"L'Educazione Nazionale (November 30,1920), SP, 187-94.

70. Gobett i, Carteggio, 141.71. Ibid., 183.72. Gobetti, Carteggio, 194, 205, 222. See also his scathing critique of the social­

ist leader Fillipo Turati, "Lettu re sui partiti polit ici," La Rivoluzione Liberale(April 8, 1922),SP,304-8.

73. Gobett i, "Storia dei cornunisti," 293.74. Ibid., 290.75. Ibid., 293.76. Ibid., 289.77. See, for example, the assessment made by Schecter, Gramsci and the Theoryof

IndustrialDemocracy.78. Franco Sbarberi, Gramsci, un socialismo armonico (Milan: Angeli, 1986). This

tension, argues Sbarberi, continues into Gramsci's later writings in prison.Sbarberi compares the tension in Gramsci with Gobetti 's "conflictualism" inEutopia della uberta eguale, 49-53.

79. Gobetti , "Storia dei comunisti,"288.80. See Polito, "Gobett i e Sorel;' 44.81. See the discussion by Marco Revell i,"Gobetti 'liberal comunista?" in I dilemmi

delliberalsocialismo, ed. Michelangelo Bovero,Virgilio Mura, and Franco Sbar­beri (Rome: La Nuova Italia Scientifica, 1994),63-84.

82. See Spriano, Occupation, 89-95.83. Ibid., 122-23.84. On the PSI and the "twenty-one condit ions," see Spriano, Storia del Partito

comunista italiano I, 70-71.85. On the format ion of the PCdI, see ibid., chap. 7.86. Gobetti, "Storia dei cornun isti,"291.87. Ibid., 292-93.88. Ibid., 29289. Ibid., 294.

Chapter 4

I. Gervasoni distinguishes three phases in Gobetti's editorship of La Rivoluzi­one Liberale: the first from February to October 1922, the second from thenuntil mid-1924, and the remaining third until its closure in late 1925. SeeL'intelletuale come eroe. Piero Gobetti e Ie culture del Novecento (Milan: LaNuova Italia, 2000), 73-164 .

2. See La rivoluzione liberale: Saggio sullalotta politica in Italia, in Scrittipolitici,ed. Paolo Spriano (Turin : Einaudi, 1960), 913-1078 (hereafter SP). For a

NOTES 175

comprehensive discussion of the book, treated as a statement of Gobetti'sliberal ism, see Gervasoni, Eintelletuale comeeroe, 118-43 . I base my readingof Gobetti's liberalism in this chapter on the original articles rather than thebook version.

3. "Ai lettori," La Rivoluzione Liberale (February 12, 1922), SP, 225-26.

4. "Agli amici dell'Unita," La Rivoluzione Liberale (February 12, 1922), SP,226-27.

5. "Manifesto;' La Rivoluzione Liberale (February 12, 1922), SP,228-29 ; empha-sis in original.

6. Ibid., 229.7. Ibid.8. Ibid., 230.9. Ibid ., 236.

10. Ibid ., 238.11. Ibid., 238-39.12. Ibid ., 239; emphasis in original.13. The responses were publi shed under the heading "Polernica sui 'Manifesto" in

La RivoluzioneLiberale, no. 3 (February 25,1922). The paragraph that followsdraws upon the original publication.

14. See Max Weber, TheProtestant Ethicand theSpiritofCapitalism, trans. TalcottParsons (Mineola, NY; Dover Publications, 2003). Weber's study was first pub­lished in German in 1904.

15. "Politica e storia (Polemica sui 'Manifesto' );' La Rivoluzione Liberale (February25,1922), SP,253.

16. Ibid ., 254.17. Ibid., 257.18. Ibid., 255.19. See Gobetti, "II nostro protestantismo," La Rivoluzione Liberale (May 17,

1925), SP, 823-26. This art icle was first published in December 1923 in theProtestant journal, Conscientia.

20. Ibid., 824-25.21. Ibid ., 825.22. On the question of religious reform in Gobetti's thought, see Giorgio Spini ,

''L'eco in Italia della Riforma mancata," in Gobetti tra Riforma e rivoluzione,ed. Alberto Cabella and Oscar Mazzoleni (Milan: F.Angeli, 1999),43-58. Iagree with Roberto Paris's argument (in the same volume) that Gobetti wasinterested primarily in the significance of Protestantism in promoting a civicpolitical culture and not in religious reform as such . See "Piero Gobetti etl'absence de Reform protestante en Italie," in Gobetti traRiformae rivoluzione,especially 36-37.

23. See Lafilosofia politica di Vittorio Alfieri,now in Gobetti, Scritti storici, letterariefilosofici , ed. Paolo Spriano (Turin: Einaudi, 1969),87-146.

24. See Risorgimento senza eroi (1926) in ibid ., 23-83 . Gobetti had planned topublish the text before his death. The incomplete manuscript was edited byhis friend Santino Caramella.

176 NOTES

25. "Politica e storia (Polemica sui 'Manifesto');' 255-56.26. See John Stuart Mill, On Libertyand Other Writings, ed. Stefan Collini (Cam­

bridge: Cambridge University Press , 1989).27. "La nostra cultura politica," La Rivoluzione Liberale (March 8, 1923), SP,

458-59.28. See Gobetti, "Note di politica interna [I];' La Rivoluzione Liberale (July 30,

1922), SP,397-400.29. "II liberalism e le masse [1];' La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 10, 1923), SP,

477-78.30. "Democrazia," LaRivoluzione Liberale (May 13, 1924), SP,677.31. See Gobetti, "Il liberalismo in Italia," La Rivoluzione Liberale (May 15, 1923),

1.32. "Liberali e conservatori," LaRivoluzione Liberale (March 26,1922), SP,277.33. "Revisione liberale (Postil/a);' La Rivoluzione Liberale (June 19, 1923), SP,

515.34. Gobetti, "La nostra cultura politica," 476.35. "Revisione liberale (Postil/a);' 515.36. For a profile of Einaudi and his thought, see Norberto Bobbio, Ideological

Profile of Twentieth-Century Italy, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1995),81-86.

37. Luigi Einaudi, Lelottedellavoro, ed. Spriano (Turin: Einaudi, 1972),9.38. Ibid., 6.39. Ibid., 9.40. Gobetti, "Il liberalismo di L.Einaudi," LaRivoluzione Liberale (April 23, 1922),

SP,323.41. Ibid ., 330.42. Ibid., 335-56.43. Le lottedi lavoro had as its subtitle, "La belleza di lotta" (The beauty of strug­

gle), and its introduction emphasized the author's "lively sympathy for theefforts of those who wish to improve their lot [elevarsi] by themselves andwho in this effort struggle, fall, and pick themselves up at their own expensein order to succeed and perfect themselves" (1) . Gobetti's publication of thevolume was part of an effort to revitalise liberal thought following Mussolini'srise to political office.

44. "Il liberalismo di L. Einaudi," 328-29. See also Gobetti's remarks on Marx in"L'ora di Marx;' La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 15, 1924), SP,640-41. On thisreading of Marx, see Gervasoni, L'intelletuale comeeroe, 157-58.

45. In the same article, Gobetti drew attention to "certain, absolutely Hegelianpoints" in Einaudi's work. See "II liberalismo di L. Einaudi," 331. It is worthnoting, however, that Einaudi distanced himself from Gobetti in his obituaryin II Barettiof 1926.

46. Ibid ., 331-32.47. "Il liberalismo in Italia," 1.48. "Esperienza liberale," LaRivoluzione Liberale (April 2, 1922), SP,301.49. Ibid.

NOTES 177

50. Piero to Ada, in Gobetti and Gobetti , Nella tua breve esistenza. Lettere 1918­1926,ed. E. A. Perona (Turin : Einaudi, 1991), 449; emphases in the original. Ihave briefly discussed De Ruggiero's liberalism in Chapter 2.

51. Letter to Ada, September 9,1921, ibid., 500.52. Gobetti, Carteggio 1918-1922, ed. E. A. Perona (Turin : Einaudi, 2003),160.53. Elementiwas repeatedly updated up until 1939.For a selection of key passages,

see Mosca, La classe politica, ed. Norberto Bobbio (Bari: Laterza, 1966). Thestandard English translation is The RulingClass, ed. Arthur Livingston (NewYorkand London: McGraw-Hill, 1939).

54. On this theme, see Joseph Femia, The Machiavellian Legacy. Essays in ItalianPolitical Thought (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998).

55. Bellamy highlights the role ascribed to intellectuals in Italian political theory.See Modern Italian Social Theory. Ideology and Politics from Pareto to the Pres­ent (Cambridge: Polity, 1987),7-8.

56. For a discussion of Gramsci's theory of intellectuals, see my "Between Ethicsand Politics: Gramsci's Theory of Intellectuals;' Modern Italy 3, no. 1 (1998),67-85.

57. On Pareto and Mosca's role in developing political science in Italy, see Nor­berto Bobbio, Saggi sullascienza politica in Italia, 2nd ed. (Rome-Bari: Laterza,1996).

58. As Bellamy points out, the three-times updated Elementicame to reflect thechanging view of its author on political events in Italy, marking a shift in hisviews from an anti-democratic to a reluctantly pro-democratic position. SeeModernItalianSocial Theory, 34-35.

59. Mosca, The RulingClass, 50.60. Ibid., 154.61. The scientific claims of Mosca's theory have been heavily disputed. For a

discussion, see Femia, Machiavellian Legacy, 126-44. Bellamy focuses on theideological motivation to his claims: Modern ItalianSocial Theory, 34-53.

62. Femia, Machiavellian Legacy, 142.63. In his Prison Notebooks, Gramsci, while dismissive of many of Mosca's claims,

also made use of his work to conceptualize the relationship between leadersand the led inside the revolutionary party. For a discussion of the influence ofMosca on Gramsci , see Maurice A. Finocchiaro, BeyondRightand Left: Demo­cratic Elitismin Mosca and Gramsci (New Haven and London : Yale UniversityPress, 1999).

64. Gobett i, "Un conservatore galantuomo," La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 29,1924), SP,656.

65. Ibid., 654-55.66. Ibid., 656.67. Ibid.68. Gobetti, "Il liberalismo in Italia,"69. Gobetti, "Un conservatore galantuomo,"657.70. Gobetti, "Il liberalismo in Italia,"71. Gobetti, "Un conservatore galantuomo," 656.

178 NOTES

72. Ibid., 657.73. On Gobetti's democratic elitism, see Bobbio, Saggi sullascienza politica in Ita-

lia,221-30.74. Gobetti , "Esperienza liberale,"302; italics in original.75. Ibid.76. Piero to Ada, September 9, 1921 in Gobetti and Gobetti, Nella tua breveesist­

enza, 500. See also Pietro Polito, "Gobetti e Sorel;' Mezzosecolo: materiali diricerca storica 6 (1985-86) : 45-46.

77. David D. Roberts, "Frustrated Liberals: De Ruggiero, Gobetti, and the Chal­lenge of Socialism;' Canadian Journal of History17 (1982): 78.

78. A point that Bobbio also underlines. SeeItaliafedele.ll mondodi Gobetti(Flor-ence: Passigli, 1986), 28.

79. Gervasoni, L'intelletuale comeeroe, 123.80. Ibid., 135-38.81. For a list of some of the many authors published by Gobetti, see Bobbio, Italia

fedele, II. That list includes literary works by Eugenio Montale , and works ofpolitical analysis by Salvemini, Amendola, Missiroli, Prezzolini, Guido Dorso,and Adriano Tilgher. For a discussion of the contributors to Rivoluzione Liber­ale,see Gervasoni, L'intelletuale comeetoe, 170-83.

Chapter 5

I. See Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (London and New York: Pen­guin,2004) .

2. Later responses to fascism from those who witnessed its initial developmentare now legion. Unlike Gobetti, all benefited from seeing the movement trans­form into a regime, and revised their earlier views considerably. For the lib­eral-democratic Left, see Gaetano Salvemini, Under the Axe of Fascism (NewYork:Viking Press, 1936); from the Marxist Left,see Palmiro Togliatti, Lectureson Fascism (New York: International Publishers, 1976), his Lenin school lec­tures in Moscow of the mid-1930s .

3. Recent debates have focussed on the search for a fascist "minimum," that is,a statement of the fundamental ideological core to fascism. For this view,see Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London and New York: Routledge,1991). I am not wholly convinced of the value of this enterprise, but for a use­ful discussion of the debates and controversies surrounding the historical andideological interpretation of fascism, see Aristotle A. Kallis, ed., The FascismReader (London and New York: Routledge, 2003) and Paxton, The Anatomyof Fascism. For a look at issues concerning the specifically Italian variety offascism, see Richard J. B. Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship (London: Arnold,1998).

4. This is not the place for a full discussion of the character of Mussolini . But fora very useful and up-to-date biographical discussion, see Richard J. B. Bos­worth, Mussolini (London : Arnold, 2002).

NOTES 179

5. See Emilio Gentile, The Origins of Fascist Ideology, 1918-1925 (New York:Enigma, 2005), 1-3 . As Gentile points out , although Mussolini disavowedviewing fascism as one political ideology amongst others, it is neverthelesspossible to draw out some of the guiding threads in the development of histhought that fed into the movement.

6. The changing historical meanings of both fascism and anti-fascism are use­fully discussed in Giovanni De Luna and Marco Revelli, Fascismo/antifas­cismo: Le idee, le identita (Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1995) and Aurelio Lepre,L'anticomunismoe l'antifascismo in Italia (Bologna: il Mulino, 1997).

7. Benito Mussolini, "Trenchocracy," II Popolo d'Italia (December 15, 1917), inFascism, ed. Roger Griffin (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 29.

8. On Corradini, see Mauro Marsella, "Enrico Corradini's Italian Nationalism:The 'Right Wing' of the Fascist Synthesis;' Journal ofPolitical Ideologies 9, no. 2(2004) : 203-24.

9. For a discussion of the intellectual lineage of fascism, see A. J. Gregor, Musso­lini'sIntellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought (Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press, 2005).

10. Mussolini's intellectual and personal formation is discussed in A. J. Gregor,Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism (Berkeley and London:University of California Press, 1979) and Bosworth, Mussolini.

11. On this aesthetic revolt, see Walter L. Adamson, Avant-garde Florence: FromModernism to Fascism (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard UniversityPress, 1994). The aesthetic of self-creation in fascism is explored in SimonettaFalasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: the Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

12. Rocco's ideas are sketched in Giuseppe Bedeschi, Lafabbrica delle ideologie: IIpensiero politico nell'Italia delNovecento (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 2002), 55-62.

13. On combattentismo, see chap . 2.14. On the fasci, see Philip Morgan , Italian Fascism, 1919-1945 (Basingstoke:

Macmillan, 1995), 13-16.15. Adrian Lyttelton , The Seizure of Power. Fascism in Italy, 1919-1929 (London:

Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973),46.16. Benito Mussolini, "The Naple's Speech;' (October 24,1922), in Fascism, 44.17. See Mussolini, "Trenchocracy," 28-29.18. See the analysis of the results of the 1919 elections in Morgan , ItalianFascism,

16-17.19. Lyttelton, Seizure of Power, 47-52.20. Ibid ., 36-38. See also the discussion of the biennio rosso in Morgan, Italian

Fascism, 21-34.21. Lyttelton, Seizure of Power, 60-62. For a detailed discussion of the expansion

of fascism into the provincial towns, see Paul Corner, Fascism in Ferrara 1915­1925 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), 104-208 and Anthony L. Car­doza, Agrarian Elites and Italian Fascism: The Province of Bologna, 1901-1926(New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1982),290-386, esp. 346-53.

180 NOTES

22. Cardoza, Agrarian Elites, 294; Corner, Fascism in Ferrara, 109-11; Morgan,Italian Fascism, 34-40.

23. Cardoza, Agrarian Elites, 326-27 .24. See ibid., 331-35.25. Lyttelton, Seizure of Power, 62.26. Ibid., 38.27. See, for example, Cardoza, Agrarian Elites, 308-9.28. Morgan, Italian Fascism, 41-42.29. Ibid ., 40-43 .30. The description is Philip Morgan's : ibid., 48. See also Lyttelton, Seizure of

Power, 72-76.31. Morgan, Italian Fascism, 54-56.32. Lyttelton, Seizure of Power, 90.33. Lyttleton expresses doubt about how realistic a military coup was. See ibid.,

83-93. See also Morgan, Italian Fascism, 57-59 .34. See Lyttelton, Seizure of Power, 115.35. Ibid ., 99, 97.36. See Fabio Fernando Rizi, Benedetto Croce and Italian Fascism (Toronto: Uni ­

versity of Toronto Press, 2003), 43-49. Croce was later accused of providingpassive support for the dictatorship. Fabio Rizi goes a long way in providingevidence contrary to this accusation.

37. A view developed in the first two chapters of Benedetto Croce, Politics andMorals (London: George Allen & Unwin , 1946).

38. See "Note di politica interna [I]," La Rivoluzione Liberale (July 30, 1922) in .Scritti politici, ed. Paolo Spriano (Turin: Einaudi, 1960) (hereafter SP), 397­400; "Esperienza liberale [V]," La Rivoluzione Liberale (May 28, 1922), SP,354-57.

39. On Italian fascism as a form of "political religion" in which politics itselfbecomes a site and object of worship , see Emilio Genti le, The Sacralizationof Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard UniversityPress, 1996). Falasca-Zam poni provides an alternative, "aesthetic" reading offascism's use of symbo ls in her Fascist Spectacle.

40. Gobetti, "Esperienza liberale [Vj," La RivoluzioneLiberale (May 28,1922), SP,356.

41. Ibid., 357.42. This argument is also developed in "II liberalismo in Italia," La Rivoluzione

Liberale (May 15, 1923), 1.43. Gobetti , "Note di politica interna [I]," La RivoluzioneLiberale (July 30, 1922),

SP,397.44. Ibid., 398-99.45. Ibid., 399-400.46. Gobetti, "Note di politica interna [III] (Risposta a M. A. Levi)," La Rivoluzione

Liberale (September 10, 1922), SP,406.47. See Gobetti, "Commemorazione,' La Rivoluzione Liberale (October 30,1923),

SP,533 and "L'ora di Marx," LaRivoluzioneLiberale (April 15, 1924), SP,640.

NOTES 181

48. Gobetti, "Dopo Ie elezioni," La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 15, 1924), SP,637.See also his claim that there were no "substantial differences between Mus­solini and Giolitti" in "Lo storicismo di un mistico (Postilla):' La RivoluzioneLiberale (December 7,1922) , SP, 435.

49. Gobetti, "Uomini e idee [V]:' La Rivoluzione Liberale (May 28,1922), SP,358.See also his derisory comments on the Futurists: "Uomini e idee [1Il]:' (May4,1922), SP,348.

50. Gobetti, "Uornini e idee [V]," 359-60.51. On Gobetti's distinctive interpretation of fascism, see Marco Revelli, "Piero

Gobetti e il fascismo . La teo ria della 'rivelazione,?' in Perche Gobetti. Giornatadi studio su Piero Gobetti (Torino, 16 aprile 1991), ed. Cesare Pianciola andPietro Polito (Turin, 1993), 103-20.

52. "Elogio della ghigliottina," La Rivoluzione Liberale (November 23, 1922), SP,431-34.

53. "Noi e Ie opposizioni," La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 22, 1924), SP,644.54. See Aldo Agosti, Togliatti: Un uomo di frontiera (Turin: UTET Libreria, 2003),

45-46.55. Lyttelton, Seizure of Power, 104-5.56. Gobetti, "Illiberalism e Ie masse [I]," LaRivoluzione Liberale (April 10, 1923),

SP,479.57. Gobetti, "Problemi di liberta," La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 24, 1923), SP,

494.58. Ibid; italics in original.59. On Gentile's role as the philosopher of fascism, see A. J. Gregor, Giovanni Gen­

tile: Philosopher of Fascism (New Brunswick and London: Transaction, 2001),47-65; H. S. Harris, The Social Philosophy of Giovanni Gentile (Urbana andLondon: University of Illinois Press, 1960), 160-223. For Gregor, Gentile's phi­losophy long anticipated the fundamental principles of the fascist doctrine.

60. See Harris, Social Philosophy, 167-78; Gabriele Turi, Giovanni Gentile: unabiografia (Florence: Giunti, 1995),315.

61. Gobetti, "I miei conti con l'idealismo attuale," La Rivoluzione Liberale (Janu­ary 18, 1923), SP,441-48.

62. For a discussion of Amendola, see Bedeschi, La fabbrica delle ideologie,143-53.

63. See Amendola, 'Thalia sulla soglia del dopoguerra," (1919), in La NuovaDemocrazia (Naples: Riccardo Ricciardi, 1951),3-19.

64. Amendola, "II governo e la situazione," Corriere della Sera (September 17,1920), in In difesa d'Italia liberale. Scritti e discorsi politici (1910-1925), ed.Antonio Carioti (Florence: Liberallibri, 2001), 90.

65. Amendola, "II Mezzogiorno e la crisi politica italiana," Speech at SalaConsilina(October 1, 1922), LaNuova Democrazia, 144.

66. SeeAmendola, "Prefazione a 'Una Battaglia Liberale," (March 1924), LaNuovaDemocrazia, xxxi.

67. Amendola, "II Mezzogiorno e la crisi politica italiana," 145; italics in original.

182 NOTES

68. See Amendola, "AIdi sopra degli equivoci,"IIMondo (April l l, 1923), In difesad'ltalia liberale, 119- 20.

69. See, in particular, his letter to Fillipo Turati of August 1923. In difesa del'ltalialiberale, 123-26.

70. See Prezzolini, "Per una Societa degli Apoti," La Rivoluzione Liberale (Septem­ber 21,1922), in Gobetti e "La Voce;' ed. Giuseppe Prezzolin i (Florence: San ­soni, 1971), 60.

71. Ibid ., 62.72. Gobetti, "Per una societa degli apoti [I] ;' La Rivoluzione Liberale (September

28,1922), SP,409-10.73. Ibid., 410.74. Gobetti,"Per un a societa degl i apoti [II];' La RivoluzioneLiberale (October 25,

1922), SP, 412.75. Ibid., 414-15.76. lbid., 414.77. See, for example, his comprehensive diagnosis of Italian political culture, "La

nostra cultura pol itica," La RivoluzioneLiberale (March 8, 1923), SP, 456-76.78. "Questioni di tattica," La Rivoluzione Liberale (November 23, 1922) , SP,

429-30.79. Gevasoni also notes an "oscillation" in Gobetti's support of other anti-fascists.

See Marco Gervasoni, L'intelletuale come eroe. Piero Gobetti e Ie culture delNovecento (Milan: La Nuova Italia, 2000) ,146.

80. See the extracts collect ed in Stanislao Pugli ese, ed., Italian Fascism and Anti­Fascism: A Critical Anthology (Manchester and New York: Manchester Univer­sity Press, 2001), 117-25.

81. Gen tile in ibid., 119.82. Croce in ibid ., 124.83. See Sergio Caprioglio, "Gobetti, Gramsci c il manifesto del primo maggio

1925;' Belfagor XLVIII, no . 6 (1993),633.84. Spriano, Gramsci e Gobetti, 118-20.85. Ibid., 130-32. Although it took as its obj ect "cultur al" rather than political

concerns, II Baretti was motivated by a similar desire, on Gobetti's part, togenerate a critical liberal outlook.

86. Ibid., 120-21. Gobetti's criticism of th e parliamentary opposition to fascismwas typically scathing. See "Noi e Ie opposizioni": "Democrazia," LaRivoluzi­one Liberale (May 13, 1924), SP,674-78, and "Congiure e opposizione (Pos­tilla)," LaRivoluzione Liberale (May 22,1923), SP, 500-502.

87. Morgan, Italian Fascism, 65-66.88. Ibid., 71-75.89. See Giacomo Matteotti, "L'elezione, secondo no i, ecssenzi almente non valida,"

in Italian Fascism and Anti-Fascism, 65-69.90. On Matteotti's murder and its consequences, see Lyttelton, Seizure of Power,

237-40; Morgan, Italian Fascism,75- 78.91. Lyttelton, Seizure of Power, 239-40.

NOTES 183

92. Morgan, ItalianFascism, 75-76.93. For Gobetti's response to Matteotti's murder, see "Ho conosciuto Matteotti,"

LaRivoluzione Liberale (June 17, 1924), SP,707-8; "Due tattiche,"LaRivoluzi­one Liberale (June 24,1924), SP,732-34; and "Matteotti," La Rivoluzione Lib­erale (July 1,1924), SP,735-52.

94. "La situazione," La Rivoluzione Liberale (July 8, 1924), SP, 752-57; "La set­timana;' La Rivoluzione Liberale (November 25,1924), SP,793-800.

95. See, for example , "Salute all'altro parlamento," La Rivoluzione Liberale(November 11, 1924), SP,791-93.

96. See"La successione," La Rivoluzione Liberale (December 10, 1924), SP,801-4.97. "Gruppi della "Rivoluzione Liberale," La Rivoluzione Liberale (July 8, 1924),

SP,758-60. See also Gervasoni, L'intelletuale comeeroe, 149-50.98. "Bilancio," LaRivoluzione Liberale (May 24,1925), SP,826.99. Ibid., 828.100. Ibid.101. See the reproduced article in Caprioglio, "Gobetti, Gramsci e il manifesto del

primo maggio 1925;' 641-42.102. Prezzolini , quoted in ibid., 640.103. Amendola, quoted in ibid., 643.104. Gobetti, "II fronte unico," La Rivoluzione Liberale (June 7,1925), SP,841.105. Ibid ., 842.106. A point noted by Gervasoni, L'intelletuale come eroe, 154.107. See Gobetti, "Noi e Ie opposizioni," La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 22, 1924),

SP,641-44.108. Ibid., 641-42.109. Ibid., 644.110. Ibid ., 643.111. On Gobetti's "existential" (as opposed to "political") anti-fascism, see De Luna

and Revelli,Fascismo/antifascismo.112. Lyttelton, The Seizureof Power, 242-43113. Ibid., 258.114. Lyttelton, Seizure of Power, 243.115. See Ibid ., 265-67 and Benito Mussolini, "La situazione sara chiarata," in Italian

Fascism and Anti-Fascism, 70-76.116. Lyttelton, Seizureof Power, 267-78.117. See Gervasoni, L'intelletuale comeeroe, 111.118. Ada Gobetti's heartrending entries in her diary on receipt of the news of Pie­

ro's death go some way in expressing the shock of his loss: Nella tua breveesistenza. Lettere 1918-1926, 697-707.

119. See the special issue of IIBaretti3, no. 5 (March 16,1926). On the reception ofGobetti's thought immediately following his death, see Ersilia A. Perona, "Aileradici della fortuna di Piero Gobetti," in Gobettitra Riformae rivoluzione, ed.Alberto Cabella and Oscar Mazzoleni (Milan : F.Angeli, 1999), 122-28 .

184 NOTES

Chapter 6

1. For comprehensive surveys of Gobetti's posthumous intellectual legacy, seePaolo Bagnoli, "On the Fortune of Piero Gobetti in Italian Historiography;'The Journal of Italian History2, no. 2 (1979), 293-335 and Ersilia A. Perona,"AIleradici della fortuna di Piero Gobet ti," in Gobetti traRiformae rivoluzione,eds. Alberto Cabella and Oscar Mazzoleni (Milan : F.Angeli, 1999).

2. See Antonio Gramsci, Quaderni del carcere, ed. Valetino Gerratana, 4 vols(Turin: Einaudi, 1975). English translations of key selections are: Selectionsfrom the Prison Notebooks, ed. Quntin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith(London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1971) and Further Selections from the PrisonNotebooks, ed. Derek Boothman (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1995). OnGramsci's imprisonment and the conditions under which he wrote his Note­books, see Alistair Davidson, Antonio Gramsci: Towards an Intellectual Biogra­phy (London: Merlin Press, 1977),242-69.

3. For a fuller account of the content of Gramsci's prison writings, see JamesMartin, Gramsci's Political Analysis. A Critical Introduction (Basingstoke andNew York:Macmillan, 1998), especially chaps . 2-4; Richard Bellamy and Dar­row Schecter, Gramsci and the Italian State (Manchester: Manchester Univer­sity Press, 1993), and Joseph Femia, Gramsci's Political Thought: Hegemony,Consciousness and the Revolutionary Process (Oxford: Clarendon, 1981).

4. On this phase in Gramsci's thinking, see Martin, Gramsci's Political Analysis,29-37.

5. See Gramsci's letter to the communist party leadership of February 9,1924,Lettere 1908-1926, ed. Antonio A. Santucci (Turin: Einaudi, 1992), 223-38and, in particular, "Uri esame della situazione italiana" in Gramsci, La costru­zionedelPartito comunista 1923-1926 (Turin: Einaudi, 1971), 113-24.

6. See Gramsci's letter to Togliatt i of August 1923, Lettere, 127-28.7. See"La situazione italiana e i compiti del PCI" [Lyons Theses] in La costruzi­

onedelPartito comunista, 488-513.8. See "Alcuni temi della quistione meridionale" in ibid., 137-58. Below, I make

use of the following translation: "Some Aspects of the Southern Question;'(September-November 1926), in Gramsci: Pre-Prison Writings, ed. RichardBellamy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994),313-37.

9. Gramsci, "Some Aspects of the Southern Question;' 334.10. Ibid ., 335.11. Ibid., 336.12. Ibid., 337. Gramsci's continued interest in Gobetti is further evidenced by

letters to party colleagues in 1924 from Vienna, where he had been posted.Gramsci asked that copies of LaRivoluzioneLiberale be sent him and also com ­mented positively on the merits of Gobetti's analysis of fascism. See Gramsci,Lettere, 137-38, 162,216, and 334.

13. For excellent discussions of Gramsci's theory of hegemony, see Femia, Gram­sci's Political Thought; Bellamy and Schecter, Gramsci and the Italian State.See also the relevant articles in James Martin, ed., Antonio Gramsci: Critical

NOTES 185

Assessments of Political Philosophers (London: Routledge, 2002), particularlyvol. 2, part 8.

14. Gramsci, Quaderni, 2010.15. Ibid., 1376-78.16. Ibid., 937.17. See ibid ., 763-64, 1049-50,2302-3.18. See ibid., 1353 and 2023.19. See ibid ., 1815, 1975. See also his recollection of the exchange between Prezzo­

lini and Gobetti on the "Society of Abstainers;' Gramsci, Quaderni, 2216-18.20. For a discussion of the postwar "revisionist" interpretation of the Risorgi­

mento as a rivoluzione mancata, see William A. Salomone, "The Risorgimentobetween Ideology and History: The Political Myth of rivoluzione mancata,"TheAmericanHistorical Review68, no. 1 (1962),38-56. See also chaps . 1 and 6of Lucy Riall, The ItalianRisorgimento. State, Society and National Unification(London and New York: Routledge, 1994).

21. See Gobetti, "II nostro protestantisrno," LaRivoluzione Liberale (May 17, 1925)in Scritti politici, ed. Paolo Spriano (Turin: Einaudi, 1960) (hereafter SP),823-26.

22. See Gramsci, Quaderni, 1682-85.23. Ibid ., 318. See also 515.24. Ibid., 1683.

25. On the differences between Gramsci and Gobetti's interpretation of theRisorgimento, see Richard Bellamy, "Two Views of Italy's Failed Revolution;'Journal of Modern ItalianStudies 6, no . 2 (2001),265-69.

26. Gramsci, Quaderni, 1591.27. See his analyses in Ibid ., 2139-81.28. On the thesis of Italy's "backwardness" in Gobetti's interpretation of fascism,

see Marco Revelli, "Piero Gobetti e il fascismo . La teoria della 'rivelazione, " inPerche Gobetti. Giornata di studiosu Piero Gobetti (Torino, 16 aprile1991), ed.Cesare Pianciola and Pietro Polito (Tur in: Piero Lacaita, 1993), 103-20.

29. Franco Sbarberi, L'utopia della libertil eguale. Illiberalismo sociale da Rosselli aBobbio (Torino: Bollati Boringhieri, 1999),47.

30. See the discussion in Gramsci, Quaderni, 1513-30, on the "organic" and "tra­ditional" intellectuals, which is built around an enquiry into the "new type ofintellectual" emerging from the industrial factory production processes.

31. See Gramsci's notes on the Modern Prince in ibid., 1555-61. I have discussedhis theory of the party in chap. 4 of Martin, Gramsci'sPolitical Analysis.

32. For an in-depth discussion, see Anne S. Sassoon, Gramsci's Politics, 2nd ed.(London: Hutchinson Education, 1987).

33. See, for example, Stuart Hall 's "Gramsci and Us" in TheHardRoadtoRenewal:Thatcherism and the Crisis of the Left (London: Verso, 1988): 161-73.

34. See, inter alia, the essays in Chantal Mouffe, Gramsci and Marxist Theory(London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979); Massimo L. Salvadori, Gramsci e ilproblema storico della democrazia (Torino: G. Einaudi, 1970); Femia, Gramsci's

186 NOTES

Political Thought; Sbarberi, Gramsci, un socialismo armonico (Milan: Angeli,1986); and Bellamy and Schecter, Gramsci and the ItalianState.

35. I have discussed these tensions in "Between Ethics and Politics: Gramsci's The­ory of Intellectuals," Modern Italy 3, no .l(I998), 67-85, reprinted in Martin,ed., Antonio Gramsci: Critical Assessments of PoliticalPhilosophers.

36. As the eminent communist party historian and Gobetti scholar, Paolo Sprianoremarked in 1976 of the early reception of Gobetti in the 1940s and postwarperiod, "[Gobetti's] paradigm of the liberal revolution appeared to us as beingnaturally impossible as well as completely alien . We preferred our own ouvri ­erisme, which seemed to lend an overall view of the process of social renewalto his libertarianism. We translated Gobetti's references to the historic liberat­ing role of the working class into Gramsci's concept of hegemony." Quoted inBagnoli, "On the Fortune of Piero Gobetti," 324.

37. See Ibid ., 303, 308. Gramsci's essay on the "Southern Question" was publishedin Lo Stato operaio in 1930 and served as a justification for the communists'appropriation of Gobetti. See Perona's discussion in ''Aile radici della fortunadi Piero Gobetti," 135-39.

38. Levi, cited in Perona, "Aile radici della fortuna di Piero Gobetti," 142.39. For an excellent account of Rosselli's life and thought, see Stanislao Pugliese,

Carlo Rosselli: Socialist Heretic and Anti-fascist Exile (Cambridge, MA andLondon: Harvard University Press, 1999). In this chapter, I have drawn uponmy own account of Rosselli in "Italian Liberal Socialism: Anti-fascism and theThird Way;'Journal of Political Ideologie 7, no . 3 (2002) ,339-41.

40. See Carlo Rosselli, Liberal Socialism, trans. William McCuaig (Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1994).

41. Rosselli's article appeared in the July 15 issue of 1924. For Gobetti's note, see"Liberalismo socialist a;' La Rivoluzione Liberale (July 15, 1924), SP,761.

42. Ibid ., 761.43. See Pugliese, Carlo Rosselli, 79-84.44. Rosselli, Liberal Socialism, 77.45. Ibid ., 78.46. See Ibid ., 53-54.47. See Rosselli,"Non vinceremo in un giorno, rna vincererno," Giustizia e Liberia

(n. 1, November 1929), in Scritti de/l'esilio. I "Giustizia e libertii" e la concen­trazione antifascista (I 929-1934), ed. Costanzo Casucci (Turin: Einaudi, 1988),10-12; "II nostro movimento e i partiti,"Giustizia e Liberia (n. 10, September1930), in Scrittidell'esilio, 13-15 .

48. Rosselli, "Agli operai," Giustizia e Liberta (n . 24, March 1931), in Scrittidell'esilio, 26-32; C. Rosselli, "Chiarimenti al programma;' Quaderni di"Giustizia e Liberta" (n. 1, January 1932), in Scrittidell'esilio, 35-49.

49. C. Rosselli, "Liberalismo rivoluzionario," Quadernidi "Giustizia e Liberto" (n.1, January 1932), in Scrittidell'esilio, 51.

50. Ibid .51. Ibid., 52.52. Ibid., 53-55.

NOTES 187

53. C. Rosselli, "Risposta a Giorgio Amendola;' Quadernidi "Giustizia e Liberta"(n , 1, January 1932), in Scritti dell'esilio, 61. The controversy is discussed inBagnoli, "On the Fortune of Piero Gobetti," 302- 5 and in Perona, "Alle radi cidella fortuna di Piero Gobetti," 137-41.

54. Rosselli, "Risposta a Giorg io Amendola;' 62.55. Ibid., 63.56. Ibid., 65.57. Bagnoli, "On the Fortune ofPiero Gobetti," 304.58. For an outline of the unifying themes of "Azionismo," see Giovanni De Luna,

"I'Azionismo," in La politica italiana. Dizionario critico 1945-95, ed. Gian­franco Pasquino (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 1995), 165-80. For a historical account,see Claudio Novelli, II Partito d'Azione e gli italiani (Milan: La Nuova Italia,2000). The place of Gobetti amongst the azionisti is surveyed in Bagnoli, "Onthe Fortune of Piero Gobetti," 305-8.

59. See his essays "Liberalsocialismo" (1942); "Orientarnento per una nuovasocialita" (1943); and "Complessita del Iiberalsoc ialismo " (1945) in Aldo Capi­tini, Liberalsocialismo (Rome: Edizioni elo, 1996), 19-42,43-50, and 59-66.

60. Guido Calogero, Difesa delliberalsocialismo ed altri saggi, ed. Michele Schia-vone and Dino Cofrancesco (Milan: Marzorati, 1972), 199.

61. Ibid ., 79.62. Ibid ., 69.63. Calogero, Difesa delliberalsocialismo, 77.64. Ibid ., 226.65. De Luna, "L'Azionismo," 172.66. See Novelli, IIPartito d'Azioneegli italiani.67. A point made by Bagnoli in "On the Fortune ofPiero Gobetti," 306.68. An argument made explicitly by Aldo Garosci in "II passato nel presente. Ered­

ita Gobettiana da respingere e da accettare," Nuovi Quaderni di Giustizia eLiberti'll (1944): 78-85.

69. A point made by Sbarberi in Eutopia della liberta eguale, 43.70. For a detailed account of Croce 's anti-fascism, see Fabio Fernando Rizi, Bene­

detto Croce and ItalianFascism (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003).71. See Ada Gobetti, Diariopartigiano (Turin: Einaudi, 1996).72. On the politics of Croce 's historicism, see chapter 5 of David D. Roberts,

Benedetto Croce and the Uses of Historicism (Berkeley: University of Californ iaPress, 1987).

73. See the English translation: A Historyof Italy, 1871-1915 (Oxford: Clarendon,1929). Croce pursued a similar argument in History of Europe in the Nine­teenth Century (London: Allen & Unwin, 1934) and History as the Story ofLiberty (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1941).

74. Croce, Politics and Morals (London: Allen & Unwin, 1946),78,80.75. Ibid ., 81. Croce and Einaudi's positions are republished in Benedetto Croce

and Luigi Einaudi, Liberismo e liberalismo, ed. Paolo Solari (Milan-Naples:Riccardo Ricciard i, 1957). Croce's view of history was criticised by Gramscifor not recognizing moments of struggle and conflict. For a defense against

188 NOTES

Gramsci, see Richard Bellamy, "A Crocean Crit ique of Gramsci on Histori­cism, Hegemony and Intellectuals," Journal of Modern Italian Studies6, no. 2(2001): 209-29.

76. On this shift and its continuity with his historicism, see Richard Bellamy,"Between Economic and Ethical Liberalism: Benedetto Croce and the Dilem­mas of Liberal Politics;' Historyof the Human Sciences 4 (1991): 175-95; Nor­berto Bobbio, Politica e cultura, 2nd ed. (Turin: Einaudi, 2005) .

77. See Croce, Historyas theStoryof Liberty.78. On Croce 's concept of liberty and its influence on the anti-fascists, see David

Ward , Antifascisms: Cultural Politics in Italy, 1943-46: Benedetto Croce and theLiberals, Carlo Leviand the"Actionists" (Cranbury, NJ and London: AssociatedUniversity Presses, 1996),46-52. See also Bobbio,Politica e cultura, 90-93.

79. Ward, Antifascisms,72.80. See his "Liberta e giustizia" (1943) in Croce and Einaudi, Liberismo e liberal­

ismo,88-100.81. See Croce, Politics and Morals, 84: "The liberal mind regards the withdrawing

of liberty and the times of reaction as illnesses and critical stages of growth,as incidents and steps in the eternal life of liberty; and therefore it under­stands the purpose that such times have fulfilled and the useful task they haveaccomplished."

82. On Croce's view of fascism , see Ward, Antifascisms, 73- 75.83. For a comparison of Gobetti and Croce, see Bagnoli, "On the Fortune of Piero

Gobetti," 311.84. Ibid., 310. On the formation of Italy's "republic of parties" and the constraints

its political system imposed on politics, see Pietro Scoppola, La Repubblica deipartiti. Evoluzione e crisi di un sistema politico 1945-96 (Bologna: II Mulino,1997).

85. For a fuller discussion of Bobbio's life, see his autobiography, A PoliticalLife,ed. Alberto Papuzzi (Cambridge: Polity, 2002). Illuminating assessments canbe found in Richard Bellamy, Modern ItalianSocial Theory. Ideology and Poli­ticsfrom Pareto to the Present (Cambridge: Polity, 1987), 141-56; Reset andCorrado Ocone, eds., Bobbio ad usodi amici e nemici (Venice: Marsilio, 2003);Perry Anderson, "The Affinities of Norberto Bobbio,"New Left Review 170(1988): 3-36; Sbarberi, L'utopia della liberta eguale, 162-213.

86. See Bobbio, Politica e cultura.87. See his "Difesa della liberta" and "Dialogo tra un liberale e una comunista" in

ibid ., 31-40 and 41-52, respectively.88. Ibid ., 37.89. See "Politica culturale e politica della cultura," in ibid ., 18-30.90. Ibid ., 23.91. Bellamy, Modern ItalianSocial Theory, 144. Bobbio's own reflections on Bob­

bio's approach to a politics of culture can be found in "Croce e la politica dellacultura" in Bobbio, Politica e cultura, 78-96.

92. See Norberto Bobbio, Which Socialism? Marxism, Socialism and Democracy,ed. Richard Bellamy (Cambridge: Polity, 1986).

NOTES 189

93. This critical relationship to the Left underlay Bobbio's own widely read inter­pretation of Gramsci in the late 1960s. See his "Gramsci and the Conceptof Civil Society" in Mouffe, ed., Gramsci and Marxist Theory. Bobbio's vari­ous essays on Gramsci are collected in Saggi su Gramsci (Milano : Feltrinelli,1990).

94. See Norberto Bobbio, Liberalism and Democracy, trans . Martin Ryleand KateSoper (London and New York: Verso, 1990).

95. On Bobbie's interpretation of Gobetti, see Bagnoli, "On the Fortune of PieroGobetti," 328-35. Bobbie's reflections on Gobetti and his influence are to befound in Norberto Bobbio, Italiafedele. II mondodi Gobetti (Florence: Passigli,1986).

96. Bobbio, cited in Bagnoli,"On the Fortune of Piero Gobetti," 329.97. Norberto Bobbio, Saggi sulla scienza politica in Italia, 2nd ed. (Rorne-Bari:

Laterza, 1996),229-30.98. Bobbio, cited in Bagnoli,"On the Fortune of Piero Gobetti," 334.99. Perona, "AIle radici della fortuna di Piero Gobetti," 156.

Chapter 7

1. Gobetti, "Revisione liberale (Postil/a);' La Rivoluzione Liberale (June 19, 1923)in Scrittipolitici, ed. Paolo Spriano (Turin : Einaudi, 1960)(hereafter SP),515.

2. However, Bobbio notes Gobetti's "agonistic conception" of history in Saggisullascienza politica in Italia, 2nd ed. (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 1996),228. MarcoGervasoni also notes, in passing, the similarity of Gobetti's liberalism with thework of Chantal Mouffe, which I explore later in this chapter: see Eintelletualecome eroe. Piero Gobetti e le culture del Novecento (Milan: La Nuova Italia,2000), 123, 141. See also Nadia Urbinati , "Introduction: Liberalism as a The­ory of Conflict;' in On Liberal Revolution, ed. Nadia Urbinati (New Haven andLondon: Yale University Press, 2000): xv-lvi.

3. For a cogent restatement of this view, see Norberta Bobbio, Liberalism andDemocracy, trans. Martin Ryleand Kate Soper (London and New York:Verso,1990).

4. Ibid., 22.5. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty and Other Writings, ed. Stefan Collini (Cam­

bridge : Cambridge University Press, 1989),34-35.6. See John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (1971; reproOxford : Oxford University

Press, 1999).7. See John Rawls, Political Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press,

1996).8. For a discussion of these issues, in particular as they concern "communitarian"

critiques of liberal individualism, see Shlomo Avineri and Avner de-Shalit,eds. Communitarianism and Individualism (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1992) and Stephen Mulhall and Adam Swift, Liberals and Communitarians(Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell,1996).

190 NOTES

9. My reasoning here follows the criticisms made by Chantal Mouffe. See TheDemocraticParadox (London: Verso, 2000), 22-31.

10. For a critique of Western liberalism in this regard , see Anthony Arblaster, TheRiseand Decline of Western Liberalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1984).

11. See, in particular, Chantal Mouffe, The Return of the Political(London: Verso,1993).

12. See, in addition to Mouffe's work previously cited: William E. Connolly, TheEthos of Pluralization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995) andIdentity/Difference: Democratic Negotiationsof Political Paradox (Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 2002); John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Poli­ticsand Culture at the Closeof theModern Age (London: Routledge, 1995) andTwo Faces of Liberalism (Cambridge: Polity, 2000); Mouffe, The DemocraticParadox; Jacques Ranciere, Disagreement: Politics and Philosophy (Minneapo­lis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); Sheldon S. Wolin, "Fugitive Democ­racy;' Constellations I, no. 1 (1994) ,11-25; and Quentin Skinner, "A ThirdConcept of Liberty;' Proceedings of the British Academy 117 (2002) : 237-68.Also, from a more analytical perspective, see Stuart Hampshire, Justiceis Con­flict (London: Duckworth, 1999).

13. See Friedrich Nietzsche, "Homer's Contest;' in his On the Genealogy of Moral­ity, ed. KeithAnsell-Pearson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. RevisedStudent Edition, 2007), 174-81.

14. Gray, Enlightenment's Wake, 68.15. A point underscored by Mouffe in her "A Politics Without Adversary;' The

Democratic Paradox, 108-28.16. On the link between liberty and conflict, see Piero Meaglia, "Gobetti e il lib­

eralismo. Sulle nozioni di liberta e di lotta ," Mezzosecolo: materialidi ricercastorica 4 (1980-82) , 193-222.

17. Marco Revelli argues that, for Gobetti, conflict is a political value superiorto autonomy. See "Gobetti 'liberal comunista'?" in I dilemmi delliberalsocial­ismo, ed. Michelangelo Bovero,Virgilio Mura , and Franco Sbarberi (Rome: LaNuova Italia Scientifica, 1994),83-84.

18. See Gobetti, "La nostra cultura politica," La Rivoluzione Liberale (March 8,1923), SP,456-76.

19. Gobett i, "Liberali e conservatori," La Rivoluzione Liberale (March 26, 1922),SP,277.

20. Gobetti, "Dernocrazia,"La Rivoluzione Liberale (May 13, 1924), SP,677.21. See Gobetti's criticism of what he saw as De Ruggiero's individualistic liberal ­

ism, at page 80.22. See Carl Schmitt, The Crisis of ParliamentaryDemocracy, trans. Ellen Kennedy

(Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press, 1988).23. See Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, trans. George Schwab (Chicago

and London: University of Chicago Press, 1996),32.24. See Chantal Mouffe, ed., The Challenge of Carl Schmitt (London and New

York: Verso, 1999).

NOTES 191

25. For a discussion of conflict in Schmitt, see William Rasch, "Conflict as a Voca­tion: Carl Schmitt and the Possibility of Politics;' Theory, Culture & Society 17,no. 6 (2000), 1-32.

26. See Schmitt, TheConcept of thePolitical, 38."The political can derive its energyfrom the most varied human endeavors, from the religious, economic, moral,and other antitheses. It does not describe its own substance, but only the inten­sity of an association or disassociation of human beings whose motives can bereligious, national (in the ethnic or cultural sense) , economic, or of anotherkind and can effect at different times different coalitions and separations."

27. Piero to Ada in Gobetti and Gobetti, Nella tua breve esistenza. Lettere 1918­1926, ed. Ersilia A. Perona (Turin: Einaudi, 1991),449.

28. Antonio Gramsci, "Some Aspects of the Southern Question;' (September­November 1926), in Gramsci: Pre-Prison Writings, ed. Richard Bellamy (Cam­bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994),335.

29. For his classic statement on "positive" and "negative" liberty, see Isaiah Berlin,"Two Concepts of Liberty; ' in Four Essays on Liberty(Oxford: Oxford Univer­sity Press, 1969), 118-n.

30. See Charles Taylor,"What's Wrong with Negative Liberty?" in TheIdeaofFree­dom:Essays in Honourof Isaiah Berlin, ed. Alan Ryan (Oxford: Oxford Univer­sity Press, 1979), 175-93.

31. Meaglia, "Gobetti e illiberalismo."32. This argument is pursued by Skinner in a number of works spanning sev­

eral years, each with a different context in mind. See, inter alia, "The Idea ofNegative Liberty: Philosophical and Historical Perspectives;' in Philosophy inHistory, ed. J. B. Schneewind and Quentin Skinner (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1984), 193-221; "The Paradoxes of Political Liberty;' TheTanner Lectures on Human Value 7 (1986) : 225-50; Liberty Before Liberal­ism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); and "A Third Conceptof Liberty."

33. Skinner, "A Th ird Concept of Liberty;' 250.34. Ibid., 256-61.35. Gobetti, "Il liberalismo di L. Einaudi,"LaRivoluzione Liberale (Apr il 23, 1922),

SP,331-32. On Gobetti's conception of the state, see Chapter 4.36. Gobetti, "Illiberalism e Ie masse [I];' La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 10, 1923),

SP,477-78.37. To Gray, for instance, liberalism should be regarded as a modus vivendi

rather than a superior, rational form of government. See Gray, Two Faces ofLiberalism.

38. See Mouffe, The Democratic Paradox, 103-4.39. Ibid., 67-69.40. Gobetti, "Un conservatore galantuomo," La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 29,

1924), SP, 657.41. See Gobetti, "Il liberal ismo in Italia," La RivoluzioneLiberale (May 15, 1923).42. Meaglia, "Gobetti e il liberalismo," 214.43. Ibid ., 219.

192 NOTES

44. See Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York:HarperPerennial,1975).

45. Indeed, at one point, Gobetti claimed that for a liberal, the democratic statecannot be equated with an electoral system since a state is formed throughan aristocracy derived from the dialectic of liberatory struggle in society. SeePiero Gobetti, "Esperienze liberale [IV]:' La Rivoluzione Liberale (April 23,1922), SP,338-42.

46. See David Held's critique in Models of Democracy, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Polity,1996),194-96.

47. See Mouffe, The Democratic Paradox, 2-5.48. This distinction between liberalism and democracy is noted by Bobbio in Lib­

eralism and Democracy.49. See C. B.Macpherson, Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval(Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1973).50. Bobbio, Saggi sullascienza politica in ltalia, 230.51. I have examined Gramsci's "politics of consent " in Gramsci's Political Analysis.

A Critical Introduction (Basingstoke and New York: Macmillan, 1998), chap. 3.52. Interestingly, Mouffe's work aims to combine both a theory of democratic

equality (conceptualized via a neo-Gramscian theory of hegemony) and a ver­sion of agonist ic pluralism, which I have associated with Gobetti. Her impor­tant interpretation of Gramsci can be found in "Hegemony and Ideology inGramsci," in Gramsci and MarxistTheory, ed. Chantal Mouffe (London: Rout­ledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), 168-204.

53. See David D. Roberts, "Frustrated Liberals: De Ruggiero, Gobetti, and theChallenge of Socialism,"Canadian Journal of History17 (1982): 59-86.

Afterword

1. For an insightful discussion of one recent example of "anti-politics" in Italy,see Paul Ginsborg, Silvio Berlusconi: Television, Power and Patrimony, 2nd ed.(London: Verso,2005).

2. See, for example, Paolo Flores d'Arcais's enthusiastic essay,"Gobetti, liberaledel futuro:' in the single volume reprint of Piero Gobetti, La Rivoluzione Lib­erale. Saggio sullalottapolitica in Italia (Turin: Einaudi, 1995), vii-xxxii.

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Index

Acerbo Law, 104Actualism, 41, 45agon ism

Gobettiand, 7,11,119,136-37,142-43,146-47, 149, lSI,152-53,189 n2

political philosophy and, 7,11,140-41, 146-47, 148, 149, ISO,155

Albertoni, Luigi, 78Alfieri, Vittorio, 73Allason, Barbara, 47Amendola, Giorgio, 123Amendola, Giovanni, 21, 78,100-102,

105,106,108, Ill, 123, 143, 178n81

AMMA, 50, 170 n3anarchists, 53Ansaldo, Giovanni, 72Ansaldo Steelworks, 51anti-fascism

early Italian, 2, 101, 104, 106-7, IIIGobetti's, 10,89-90,97,106-7,108later Italian, 2, II , 109, 111, 120-26,

128-29,133Seealso Aventine Secession

Austrian-Hungary, 28Avanti!,23, 28Aventine Secession , 104-8azionisti, Ill, 120, 124, 126, 128

Bagnoli, Paolo, 123, 129Banca Commerciale Italiana, 50Baretti, 104, 108, 176 n45, 182 n85Bellamy, Richard, 131Bentham, Ieremy. S

Berlin, Isaiah, 143-44bienniorosso, 49, 64, 94Bitzer, Lloyd, 9,160 n19Bobbio, Norberto, 2,11,25,11 1,124,

129-32,133,137, lSI, 159 n3, 173n66, 189 n93

Boccioni, Umberto, 92Bologna, 94Bolshevikslism, 1,44,45,52,53,

58-59,62,65,78, 166 n35Bordiga, Amadeo, 39, 54, 57, 65-66,

99,113Bulgaria, 30Burzio, Filippo, 71, 72

Calogero, Guido, II, 124-25Capitini, Aldo, 124-25Caporetto, 29Caramella, Santino, 175 n24Catholic Church, 14, 16,24,70,72,

116,146Catholic parliamentarians, 19,28,39,

43,90Seealso Italian Popular Party

(Partito populare italiano, orPPI)

Cavour, Count Camillo, 14,32Christian Democrats, 125, 129, 130Christianity, 73, 124, 125citizenship, II, 14, 18,69,137,139,

147,149-50, 153civic republicanism, 136civil society, 16-17, 18Cold War, 129, 157Cole, G. D. H., 121combattentismo, 34, 38, 93, 165 n15

204 INDEX

CommunistManifesto, 115Communist Party of Italy (Partito

comunistad'italia, or PCd!), 57,65,70,96,99,105,113,120,126,131

communists/ism, 1,6,49, 52,54,57,62,63,65,68,90,101,112,121,123, 124, 125, 150, 157

Communitarians, 136, 140, 189 n8conflict, 1,6-7, 10,63,68,73,74-77,

78-79,80,84,87,88,89,100,113,125,135-53, 156, 157, 187 n75,190 n17

Connolly, William E., 140consensus, 7, 11, 18,29,67, 75, 119,

136-37, 138-40, 143, 146, 147-49,152,153,156

Corradini, Enrico, 92Corriere della sera, 78Croce, Benedetto, 3, 9, 11,31,42,46,

54, 56, 60, 81, 92, 100, 115, 116,135,141 ,143,187 n75

and philosophical idealism, 13-14 ,23-27,35-36,40,53,126-29

and politics, 21, 28, 25-27, 41,96-97,103-4,107,113-14,126-29 ,131 ,147

D'Annunzio, Gabriele, 42de Leon, Daniel, 52democracy, 4, 8, 11,28,52,54,81,84,

85,91,127,135,139,156Antonio Gramsci and, 119Carlo Rosselli and, 121elite, 83-84,148-49,153Giovanni Amendola and, 101-2,

106Gobetti's "combative" theory of, 11,

137, 142-43, 146-52, 157Guido Calogero and , 124Italian parliamentary, 13, 18, 19,20,

26,82-83,90,99,105, Ill, 148Norberto Bobbio and, 129-32radical, 136, 151, 157workplace, 49, 51, 52, 73

Democratic League for the Renewal ofNational Politics, 38, 43

d'Entreves, Alessandro Passerin, 33Depretis, Agostino , 17De Ruggiero, Guido, 44, 80,143,169

n78, 177 n50Diariopartigiano (Partisan Diary), 126dicianovismo (l919-ism), 38, 42Dorso , Guido , 178 n81Dworkin, Ronald, 139

Einaudi, Luigi, 10,33,43,63,68,77-80, 104,12 7, 141, 176n45

elections1919,42-43,50,931921,951924,105

Elementi di scienza poiitica, 81, 82-83,84, 177 n53, 177 n58

elite(s), 1, 10, 11,37,38,39,43,45,64,66,67,68,71,84-85,94, 149,151,157

Seealso ruling classelitism, 34, 71, 81-86,148-49,153

See also ruling classEmory, Luigi, 108Energie Nove, 34-38, 46, 47, 48, 56, 58,

67,68,165 n13, 166 n36Engels, Friedrich, 115England, 71equality, 4, 11, 26, 149, 152

factory councils, 1, 49, 50, 51- 55, 57,58,59,61,62,63,64,65,66,81,141, 150

factory occupations (September 1920),9,48,49,50-55,56,58,65,78,171 n26

Fasci italiani di combattimento (ItalianCombat Groups), 39, 93,122

fascism, 1,2 ,3,6,10, 13, 14,26,27,30,44,86,87,89-109,113,118,121,122, 123, 124, 125, 141, 142-43,160 n23, 178 n2, 178 n3, 179 n5,179 n6, 180 n39

agrarian, 94-95Croce and , 96-97,100,103-4,107,

126-29,147Gobetti's interpretation of, 75,

89-90,97-99,100,107,123,125origins of, 18,39,90-93, 167n48seizure of power, 90-96urban, 94Seealso Mussolini; squadri

Fascist Grand Council, 99Fascist Party, 100Femia, Joseph v.,83Ferrara, 94Fiat, 33,51, 61, 106FlaM, 50,65, 170 n2First World War, 1,3,8,13,19,27-29,

31,32,91,135Fiume, 38, 42Florence, 94Foa, Vittorio, 124Formentini, Ubaldo, 71, 72Fortunato, Giustino, 114foundationalism

anti-, 7, IIrational, 8, 135-36, 139

France, 15, 16, 17,28,32,71,108,120,121

Freeden, Michael , 4French Revolution, 29, 32, 70Futurists, 28, 92, 93

general strike, 59-60Gentile, Giovanni, 3, 25, 53, 54, 60,

100, 124, 168 n60, 168 n62and fascism, 100, 103-4idealist philosophy of, 40-41on liberalism, 44, 100on the "ethical state;' 41,100,168

n57German Social Democratic Party

(SPD),19Germany, 28, 30, 58, 90Gervasoni, Marco, 88, 189 n2Ginzburg, Leone, 120

INDEX 205

Giolitti, Giovanni, 18-21,22,23,28,30,32,50,65,75,98,162 n18, 181n48

giolittismo,21, 23, 28, 35, 39, 44, 92, 98Giretti, E., 63Giustiziae liberta (Justice and

Liberty), 120, 122, 129Gobetti, Ada (neeProspero), 46, 55,

59,80,81,85,108, 126, 183 nll8Gobetti, Paolo, 108Gramsci, Antonio, 2, 3, 4, 11, 16,29,

33,36,39,40,41,49-66,70,71,82, 99, 106, 108, Ill, 132, 143,148,167 n52, 169 n65, 174 n78,187 n75, 189 n93, 192 n52

and Gobetti, 9-10, 47,55-64,83,92,112-20, 168 n62, 172 n35, 173n66 , 184 n12

and the communist party, 55, 65-66,118-19,152

and the factory councils, 51-55,63-64,66,118,150

and the Russian Revolution, 53-54on "hegemony," 112-13, 115-20,

151-52on Marx/Marxism, 54, 113on the "ethical state," 61, 145See also OrdineNuovo; ordinovisti;

Prison Notebooks (Quadernidel carcere)

Gray, John, 140, 191 n37Great Britain, 5, 6,17,28, 122Green, Tou., 5

Hegel, G. W. F.,24, 25, 80hegemony, 9,13,16,24,82,112, 115,

151,192 n52historicism, 24-27,126-29,147Historic Left, 17-18Historic Right (destra storica), 17,44Hobhouse, 1. To, 5Hob sbawm, Eric, 29, 34humanism, 24Hungary, 30

206 INDEX

idealismliber al, 6philosophical, 9,14,21,24-27,31 ,

40-42,45, 75,100,126Seealso Croce, Benedetto; Gentile,

Giovanniideology, 4, 25-26, 76, 125, 136, 152,

156Industrial Workers of the World , 52intellectual(s), 1,2,3,6,8,9,11 ,27,

30,31 ,32,33,34, 35,37,41,43,46,57,59,68,81-82,86-88,113-16,118-19,120,124,126,128, 130-32, 133, 135, 165 n9,177 n55

interventionism, 28, 38, 91-92,101interventionist crisis, 28, 64, 164 n59Itala,51Italian Liberal Party, 21Italian Nat ionali st Association , 92Italian Popular Part y (Partito populare

italiano, or PPJ), 39, 43, 70, 96,105,107

Italian Socialist Par ty (Partito socialistaitaliano,or PSI), 19-20, 22, 23, 28,39-40,43,65,66,95,96,98,104,105, 107, 126, 131

Kant , Immanuel.fi, 138Kautsky, Karl, 19Kelsen, Han s, 131

Labriola, Antonio, 54La Malfa, Ugo, 124Lenin , Vladmir Ilych,43, 45, 54, 58,

65, 119, 143, 151Leonardo, 27Levi, Carlo, 2,46-47,120,124liberalism, 1-11

communist, 62-64European.S, 138Ital ian, 1,8, 13,27,32,43-46, 76,

141-42revolutionary, 1,31 ,46, 68, 71,85,

86-88,89,97,120,133,141 ,152

liberals"Classical" English,S , 78, 79, 80European, 1, 5New, 5--6

liberal-socialism (liberalsocialismo), 6,11,124-25,128

liberty"positive" and "negative;' 4-5, 80,

143-46Lipari, 120, 122Locke, John,SLyon Theses, 113Lyttelton, Adrian , 95

Machiavelli , Niccol6, 25, 70, 81,118,145

Macph erson, C. B., 150Malaparte, Curzio, 103Manifesto of Ant i-Fascist Intellectuals,

103-4Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals,

103-4Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 92, 103Mar x, Karl, 25, 52, 54, 78, 115Marxism, 6, 23, 24-25, 36, 45, 49, 54,

56,59, 60,62,63,71-72, 78,92,113,115,11 7,118,121,122,127,130,1 31

Masaryk, Thomas, 116Matteotti, Giacomo, 105, 107, 149Mazzini, Giuseppe , 13,81 ,104Meaglia, Piero, 148Mezzogiorno, 15Mill, John Stuart, 75,121 ,137Missiroli , Mario, 43-45, 178 n81Mondo, 106Montale, Eugen io, 120, 178 n81Mosca, Gaetano, 10,33,43,68,81-86,

104,131,148,1 77 n61 , 177 n63Mouffe , Chantal, 139-40, 142, 148,

149-50,189 n2, 192 n52Mussolini, Benito, 2,10-11,13,23,

28,39,42,43, 75,88,89,91-96,97,98,99,100,103,105,106,107,

108,111,122,124,178 n4, 179 n5,181 n48

myth, 50,58, 59-60,61,62,64,66, 76,77,78,80,83,93, 100, 121, 146,148,151, 172-73 n49

nationalism, 27,14,38-39,43,91-92,167 n46

Nazis/ism, 90, 142Nietzsche, Friedrich, 27, 35,140

On Liberty, 75, 137Seealso Mill, John Stuart

OrdineNuovo, 40, 41, 42, 49, 51-55,56,57,61,63,64,66,71, 114, 123

ordinovisti,40, 42, 52, 54, 56, 60, 64,65,114

Papini, Giovanni, 27, 42, 92paradiastole, 10Paradosso dello spirito russo (Paradox

of the Russian Spirit) , 59, 108Pareto, Vilfredo, 82, 84, 131Paris, 108Paris, Roberto, 175 n22Parri, Feruccio, 125Partito d'Azione (Action Party) , 11,

120, 124-26 , 129, 132Pelloux, General, 19Perelman, Chaim, 9Perona, Ersilia Alessandrone, 133Perrone group, 50Piedmont, 73Pirandello, Luigi, 103political, concept of the, 7, 139Popolo d'ltalia.92positivism , 21, 22-23 , 24, 26, 32, 36,

59, 116Po Valley, 94Prezzolini, Giuseppe, 3, 27, 35, 42, 46,

47,56,57,92,102,106,108,135,166 n25, 172 n35, 178 n81

Prison Notebooks (Quadernidelcarcere), 112-13, 115-20 , 177 n63

Seealso Gramsci, Antonio

INDEX 207

Protestantism/Reformation, 72, 73,116-17,175 n22

Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 60

Ranciere, Jacques, 140Rawls,John, 138, 139Reflections on Violence, 59Revelli,Marco, 190 n17revolutionary party, 54-55, 66rhetoric, 4-5

Gobetti's, 8-12, 86-8, 97, 99, Ill,132-33, 138, 155

Risorgimento, 14,27 ,32,48,63,68-74,87,100,116,124

Risorgimentosenzaeroi (Risorgimentowithout Heroes), 73,108

Rivoluzione Liberale (LiberalRevolution), 1, 10,48 ,59,67-88,97, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108,114,121,123,148,159 n3, 174 n l ,184 n12

Roberts , David D., 153Rocco, Alfredo, 92, 103Rosselli, Carlo, 11, Ill, 120-24 , 125,

129,132Rosselli, Nello, 120Ruffini, Francesco, 33, 104ruling class, 9,10,1 7,21,28,30,67,69,

70,71,74,75,81-85,148,151Seealso elitels) ; elitism

Russia, 6, 28, 45-46, 53, 59, 62, 116Russian Revolution, 30, 45, 48, 49,

53-54,58-59,62,64,78,87,174n68

Salandra, Antonio, 104Salvemini, Gaetano, 3, 9, 13,21-23,27,

28,31,37,38,40,46,48,56,58,166 n36, 178 n81

Sardinia, 15Sbarberi, Franco, 64, 118, 174 n78Schmitt , Carl, 7,142Schumpeter, Joseph, 148-49Second World War, 90,149,156Seton-Watson, Christopher, 38

208 INDEX

Sicily,15Skinner, Quentin, 4, 140, 144-45, 191

n32social contract, 24, 79, 137socialism, 5,19,25,26,44,120,121,

127,131,153liberal, 121-22reformist, 36, 45, 59, 63, 70, 92revolutionary, 4, 10,43,45,49,59,

62,68,82,90,91-92,101, Ill,112,124,166 n35

state, 72, 157Turati's, 20, 22Seealso liberal-socialism

Socialismo liberale (Liberal Socialism),120

Solari, Gioele, 33Sonnino, Sidney, 18, 19Sorel, Georges, 43, 50, 53, 54, 59-61,

62,64,77,78,80,83,92,118,135,141,173 n50

Southern Question (questionemeridionale), 22, 57, 58, 113-14,186 n37

Soviets, 54Soviet Union, 100, 157Spriano, Paolo, 48, 51, 104, 170 n9,

186 n36squadri(squads), 94,105state, 25, 142

ethical, 61, 79-80Gobetti's views on, 45, 62, 68-70,

79-80Italian, 9,10,13-19,22-23,24,27,

50,58,68-74,130,141organic, 10,52-53,60,64, 118

Storia d'Italia (A History of Italy), 127Sturzo, Don Luigi, 39syndicalism, 27, 53, 60, 92, 93

Tasca,Angelo, 51, 54-55, 167 n52Taylor,Charles, 144Terracini, Umberto, 51Third International Workers'

Movement, 65Tilgher, Adriano, 178 n81Togliatti, Palmiro, 33, 40, 41, 42, 44,

51,65,113,120,130,168 n65transformism (trasformismo), 17,

20-21Trotsky, Leon, 45Turati, Filippo, 19-20,22,121Turin, 1,9,32-33,49,50,51,54,55,

56,57,58,61,62,64,65,94,108,114, 150, 165 n9, 173 n66

University of, 32-33, 38, 47, 48, 51,165 n5

Unitd,22,37,38, 58,68, 106universalism, 7, 24, 26, 75, 82, 137-39,

146,147, 149, 156

Vico, Giambattista, 24Vivarellli, Roberto, 18Voce, 27, 35, 57, 166 n25vociani, 164 n58

Weber, Max, 72Westinghouse, 51Wilson, President Woodrow, 37, 38Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 148Wolin, Sheldon, 140