NATIONAL

OPTICAL

ASTRONOMY

OBSERVATORIES

NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORIES

LONG RANGE PLAN

FY 1994 - FY 1998

March 25, 1993

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

I. INTRODUCTION AND PLAN OVERVIEW 6

II. NOAO IN THE 1990s 8A. NOAO and Gemini 8B. Major New Initiatives for Solar Physics 12

1. Adaptive Optics 122. Radiative Inputs of the Sun to Earth (RISE) 133. Upgrade of the McMath-Pierce Telescope to a 4-m Aperture "Big Mc" 144. Large All-Reflecting Coronagraph (LARC) 155. Solar Synoptic Network 16

C. Repair and Strengthening of the Infrastructure 17D. Technology Transfer 19

III. NIGHTTIME ASTRONOMY 20

A. Science at CTIO and KPNO 20

1. The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe 212. The Formation and Evolution of Galaxies 23

3. Stellar Structure and Evolution 25

4. Star-Formation 27

B. Initiatives for CTIO and KPNO 28

1. WIYN 28

2. SOAR 29

3. Beyond 8-m Telescopes 30

C. Instrumentation for CTIO and KPNO 311. CTIO Instrumentation 31

2. Kitt Peak National Observatory 35a. KPNO Infrared 36b. KPNO Optical-Ultraviolet (O/UV) 42c. 3.5-m Mirror Project 45

IV. SOLAR ASTRONOMY 45

A. Science at NSO 451. Internal Dynamics 452. Magneto-Convection 47

B. Instrumentation for NSO 52

C. Infrastructural Initiatives 581. Upgrades to Telescopes 582. Facilities Maintenance Initiative 613. Service Observing Initiative 624. Education Initiative 63

D. Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) Project 63

V. OBSERVATORY OPERATIONS 67

A. Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory 67B. Kitt Peak National Observatory 70C. National Solar Observatory 73

VI. NOAO OPERATIONS 76

A. Scientific Staff 76

B. Computer Support 77C. Facilities Maintenance 83

VII. BUDGET 89

Index of Tables

Table 1 - CTIO Five-Year Instrumentation Plan Summary 31

Table 2 - KPNO ER Five-Year Instrumentation Plan Summary 35

Table 3 - KPNO OAJV Five-Year Instrumentation Plan Summary 41

Table 4 - NSO Five-Year Instrumentation Plan Summary 52

Table 5 - CTIO Telescope/Instrument Combinations 69

Table 6 - KPNO Telescope/Instrument Combinations 72

Table 7 - NSO Telescope/Instrument Combinations 75

Table 8 - CTIO Schedule of Major Capital Expenditures 78

Table 9 - NOAO/Tucson Schedule of Major Capital Expenditures 79

Table 10 - KPNO Schedule of Major Capital Expenditures 80

Table 11 - NSO/T and NSO/KP Schedule of Major Capital Expenditures 81

Table 12 - NSO/SP Schedule of Major Capital Expenditures 82

Table 13 - Maintenance Requirements 84

Appendix A - NOAO Budget Tables

Appendix B - NOAO Scientific Staff

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The mission of NOAO is "to conduct world-class scientific investigations in exploring the universe atoptical and infrared wavelengths. This includes building, operating, and conducting research with world-class facilities of a range of sizes and technical capabilities open to all US astronomers; and coordinating,participating in, and often leading the technology development programs essential to all optical/infraredefforts in the US." AURA defined this mission in a letter sent to the NSF in May 1988.

The mission statement translates into specific objectives for the observatory, including excelling in serviceto the community, in building and operating facilities and instrumentation, and in scientific research bythe staff; working for the best interests of US astronomy by cooperating with, and complementing thecapabilities and interest of, the US university community through joint programs and projects; completingand operating the GONG Project; representing the US interests in the Gemini program to construct unique8-m telescopes in both hemispheres; and modernizing the facilities at existing sites, both by upgrading thetelescopes already in operation and by participating in joint projects with universities to build modern 4-mclass telescopes.

These objectives are driven by the rapid evolution in understanding key problems in astronomy, the desireto provide facilities for the growing number of US research astronomers, and the qualitative change in thetype of problem that can be addressed because of the use of new technologies in detectors and focal planeinstrumentation. Because of the high quantum efficiency and photometric accuracy of optical detectors,large collaborative programs at the National Observatories and university and other private facilities havebegun to produce a picture of the large-scale distribution of galaxies and perturbations to the Hubbleexpansion. The possibility of large-scale streaming motions and the controversies over their reality,direction and origin are prompting further major investigations and redshift surveying. Infrared arraydetectors have allowed examination of the stellar populations and excited nebular components of high-redshift radio sources; the build-up of the chemical elements at the early epochs in cosmic time can betraced through quasar absorption-line studies. Extremely deep optical images reveal a population of veryblue galaxies at faint magnitudes, thought to be undergoing an episode of intense star-formation activity.Many more observations are required before the question can be answered as to whether the old stellarpopulation of the Milky Way represents a universal pattern of star formation and chemical enrichment withcosmic time.

Infrared arrays have allowed direct probing of the environments of individual protostellar objects and thedepths of the clouds of molecules and dust that enshroud nascent star clusters. Direct determinations ofthe initial mass functions and the physical structures of the disks and jets of forming stars are leading tofundamental advances in the understanding of the process of star formation. The infrared also allowsaccess to spectral features with great sensitivity to local magnetic field strength, which has allowed directdetermination of the strength and direction of the magnetic field on the solar surface. The true magneticfield strength has been measured in solar plages and shows spatially coherent and correlated variations offield strength and area filling factor. The causes of this phenomenon are not understood and are leadingto a deeper look at models of the field production and evolution.

A concerted observational and theoretical effort is underway to understand the internal dynamics of theSun and the postulated dynamo origin of the solar cycle. GONG will provide the most accuratedetermination of the internal rotation rate of the Sun ever obtained, as well as addressing the questionsof the solar internal thermal structure and the nature of convection. High-1 helioseismology will yield maps

of the horizontal flows as a function of both depth and heliographic position in the convection zone. Theabsorption of acoustic wave energy by sunspots and the possible emission of waves by flares mayelucidate the subsurface structure of sunspots and active regions. Other techniques may be used to mapthe global pattern of convection in the Sun.

Another major driver for current uses of ground-based telescopes is synergism with space-basedobservations. All-sky surveys by ROSAT and EUVE require significant programs of ground-based follow-up; imaging and spectroscopy with the Hubble Space Telescope often are combined with complementaryobservations from the ground. The microwave background measurements of COBE have focused attentionon the observable consequences of a limited range of allowable spectra of primordialdensity fluctuations.

The intellectual excitement of astronomy remains high among the professionals, the popular press, andthe general public. A vital NOAO plays a key role in maintaining that excitement and the flow of newdata and information in addressing these key problems.

The purpose of long-range planning is to define the desired future position of the organization andformulate a program to achieve that position. By the late 1990s, NOAO sees itself as

• maintaining its primarycommitment to serve the US astronomical community by enabling excellencein research

• being the focus for US community participation in the Gemini 8-m Telescopes Project

• defining and implementing new telescope control and instrument interface protocols on NOAOtelescopes that will lead to the Gemini standards of operation

• taking an active role in the development of Gemini instrumentation

• operating telescopes that have been upgraded to control the thermal environment and improve theirimaging performance

• operating observatories at multiple sites with creative approaches to scheduling and data acquisitionfor its users

• maintaining its commitment to providing cutting edge instrumentation and leadership in itsdevelopment

• leading the community in collaborative involvement in new initiatives in solar physics, includingRISE, developments in adaptive optics and coronographic imaging, and significant upgrades to theMcMath-Pierce observing complex

• working with the community to exploit the successfully acquired GONG database

• responding to national priorities for research support by maintaining active programs in technologytransfer and educational outreach

The organizational steps to achieve these goals require strengthening the appropriate functions withinNOAO. The US Gemini Project Office and US Gemini Project Scientist are based at and supported byNOAO. The Project Office supports the involvement of US astronomers in the scientificoversight of thetechnical development of the Project and disseminates information to the community about its progress.The Project Office will also enable the direct participation of US astronomical instrument and technicalgroups in the Project through the technical management of workpackages to produce instrumentation andother subsystems for the telescopes. NOAO staff scientists provide the daily points of contact with theProject for scientific advice and wish to play a major role in developing instruments for the 8-mtelescopes. CTIO will be the operations base for the southern hemisphere telescope and host theconstruction efforts on Cerro Pachon. NOAO is planning to host the international headquarters of theProject during the operations phase, as well as being the operations center for the US. The purpose is toprovide sufficient technical resources, withthe USas majorpartner, to oversee contracts for the fabricationof additional instrumentation, for upgrading the performance of the telescopes, and for continuingdevelopment of software, with the goal of maintaining a common set of standards and interfaces for bothGemini telescopes. The Gemini Project and NOAO Tucson plan to share personnel in a way that bothorganizations benefit from the broader pool of technical expertise.

The highest priority recommendation of the Bahcall NAS decade survey committee for ground-basedastronomy was repair and strengthening of the infrastructure. A primaryrealization of this recommendationis to provide new observing facilities and to improve the scientific performance of the older telescopes.At KPNO, the WIYN telescope is expected to see first light by the end of calendar year 1993 and beginthe early scientific operations phase near fall 1994. The project is nearing completion on schedule and onbudget. The telescope has a lightweight, spin-casthoneycomb mirrorfrom the StewardObservatory MirrorLab that will have an active thermal control system. The dome is of modern construction, small becauseof the fast convergence of the primary beam, and fully ventilated to achieve rapid thermal equilibrium.Few heat sources and little human activity are based in the dome. The SOAR consortium is pursuing itsfundraising goals in order to produce a 4-m telescope to be operatedby CTIO on Cerro Pachon that willbe based on a ULE meniscus mirror and modeled after the ESO NTT. These new facilities should comeclose to achieving the image quality delivered by the atmosphere above the sites and enable a qualitativeimprovement in the kinds of investigations that can be pursued.

At the same time, the older telescopes can be made capable of more competitive performance. CTIO hastaken the lead in refurbishing the dome of the 4-m to allow more thorough ventilation, in cooling the oilfor the telescope mount support, in improving the figuring of appropriate optical elements, and inthermally controlling their primary mirror. KPNO has investigated advances in computer control andinterfaces as replacement for the 1960s technology in the oldertelescopes. Ajoint program between CTIOand KPNO of telescope improvements would allow significant gains in imaging performance as well asin pointing and tracking, again achieving the equivalent performance to larger aperture because ofefficiency andimage concentration. NSOplans a similarcritically required program for updating telescopecontrol systems and instrument interfaces. New scientific capabilities would be realized by implementingthe multiple aperture telescope system for six simultaneous experiments at the Sac Peak Vacuum TowerTelescope anda full-disk feed for the KittPeakVacuum Telescope to detect on-disk signatures of coronalmass ejections.

The other aspect to the infrastructure is the physical plant of the Observatories. The observing sites haveinfrastructure and construction needs that are enumerated in the plan; the SAC Peak site is the oldest andis in urgent need of refurbishment to protect the investment. The Tucson headquarters complex is alsoaging, requiring substantial maintenance effort and generating large expenses for utilities. The scientific

activities that can be undertaken are limited by space restrictions, including scientific visitor space, theResearch Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) program, potential expansion for the Gemini Project,archiving, GONG visitors, andeducational outreach. NOAO mustexplore options to address the possibilityof achieving lower operating costs, accommodating modern conditions of distributed computing,ameliorating traffic flow, and providing adequate and efficient space allocation for the NOAO of the 1990sinstead of the late 1960s.

Active efforts will be undertaken to promote technology transfer and educational outreach. NOAO hasmaintained mutually beneficial relationships with industry for years, with detector development being aprime example. With the current emphasis on international competitiveness, a technology transfer officewithin NOAO willencourage andassistemployees in defining agreements thatcouldlead to commerciallyuseful products on the basis of a flexible policy that does not divert the organization from its primarygoals. Education and outreach efforts include an active REU program and researchexperiences for talentedhigh school students. The scientific staff is involved in lending their expertise in support of the museumand visitor center programs on a volunteer basis. With the aid of local support groups, the Kitt Peakmuseum may support a newsletter on astronomy.

The current telescopes remain competitive because of new instrumentation and software being madeavailable. The last two years have seen the successful delivery of the Hydra multi-fiber positioner andbench spectrograph at KPNO and its counterpart Argus at CTIO, the four-color infrared imager (SQIID)at KPNO, as well as the Cryogenic Optical Bench (COB). NSO has produced the Near-InfraredMagnetograph (NIM) for the McMath-Pierce and the Hilltop Facility has been revitalized at Sac Peak withthe JHU-APL vector magnetograph. CTIO has made significant progress on the new imaging arraycontrollers and an IRAF user interface was successfully installed for use on Kitt Peak.

The plans for the next five years include implementing the adaptive optics system and further developingall-reflecting coronographs for Sacramento Peak, implementing near and mid-infrared cameras for theMcMath-Pierce telescopeon Kitt Peak and initiatingtechnology developments and facility improvementsthat would lead to a 4-m solar telescope to fully exploit an IR potential, rebuilding the fiber positionerandbench spectrograph to move from the Mayall to the WIYN telescope on Kitt Peak and replacing the benchspectrograph capability at the 4-m, developing the 8000 x 8000 pixel CCD mosaic system at Kitt Peak,completing the cryogenic echelle spectrometer (PHOENIX), developing a moderate resolution IRspectrometer for KPNO and CTIO, and driving the development of 1024 square indium antimonide IRarray detectors.

Key milestones for the next five years are as follows:

NOAO Milestones and Project Completions (FY 1994 - FY 1998)FY 1994

GONG: Production Prototype ReviewData Reduction and Analysis Center OperationalDeployment Readiness ReviewNetwork Deployment Begins

NSO: Mark II Correlation Tracker

Video FiltergraphCTIO: CCD Mosaic Prototype

Spectrograph CamerasHgCdTe Imager

KPNO:

FY 1995

GONG:

NSO:

CTIO:

KPNO:

FY 1996

NSO:

CTIO:

KPNO:

FY 1997

NSO:

CTIO:

KPNO:

FY 1998

GONG:

NSO:

CTIO:

KPNO:

WIYN Science Operations Begin4-m Wide-Field Corrector

Network Operations BeginFTS Polarimeter UpgradeCCD Controller Production completed4-m f/15 tip-tilt secondaryCryogenic echelle (PHOENIX)4x4 CCD Mosaic

Hydra and bench spectrograph commissioned at WIYN

Multiple Aperture TelescopeMedium-resolution IR spectrometerOptical High-Resolution Camera4-m Fiber Spectrograph1024 x 1024 InSb array development

First-generation adaptive optics program completedFull-disk light feed4-m R-C Spectrograph upgradeInSb Ir Imager1024 x 1024 InSb arrays implemented

Observations end

McMath Infrared Cameras

Large-format array cameraDiffraction-limited imaging

Although it is easily possible to predictthe accomplishments of a vital National Observatory, it is difficultto make a five-year projection of the plan of NOAO when demand from the community increases whilebudgets fluctuate on short time scales and, on the average, decline. NOAO has lost over thirty percent ofthe purchasing power of its budget relative to that of FY 1984, with ten percent coming in the budgetreductions of the last fiscal year alone. At the time of this writing, we have not yet received guidance onthe level of the budget to expect for FY 1994. In years past, we have projected an expanding level ofsupport to bring the organization up to an appropriate level by the end of the plan period. For this year'splan, a different approach has been taken; the budget is set to hold support at this year's level in constantdollars with actual figures adjusted for dollar inflation and incremental Chilean peso inflation. All of theadditional efforts proposed in the plan are listed in the budget as "initiatives." At the current base level,NOAO can complete less than one major instrument or projectper year. In other words, the typical timefrom approval to completion now exceeds three years for a new instrument. Only modest facilitiesimprovements can proceed in parallel to maintain even that pace of production.

Observatories operate as systems, with a range of apertures required to make the best use of the scarcestresource, the largest aperture telescopes. The Gemini telescopes cannotbe used efficiently without viable1-4 meter class instruments supporting the discovery program and preliminary observations required. Ifthe budget level continues to decline, it will be impossible to continue full-time operation of all of theexisting telescopes: the exciting prospects of expanded access to modern 4-m class telescopes, WIYN, and

SOAR would be accompanied by the loss of access to some smaller telescopes which would have to beclosed. The upgrades proposed for the 4-m telescopes will extend beyond the period of the plan inexecution, and upgrades to the McMath-Pierce could be deferred indefinitely.

The budget presentation delineates the areas in which incremental funding will make a significant impacton the progress of the Observatories. It is required to accomplish the Bahcall committee recommendationsfor repairing and strengthening the infrastructure. It is required for a strong instrumentation program, andit is required for reinvestment to bring about dramatic improvement in the scientific performance of theexisting telescopes. For adequate representation of the US in the Gemini project and full communicationwith the US community, more support is needed for the US Gemini Project Office. A viable solarastronomy program now rests entirely on continuing support of key initiatives. For these reasons, theinitiatives should not be considered as options, but as crucial and integral parts of a program necessaryto keep US astronomy competitive.

I. INTRODUCTION AND PLAN OVERVIEW

The purpose of the National Optical Astronomy Observatories is to advance US astronomy. Threecomponents of the program accomplish that goal: NOAO provides major telescope facilities, encouragesa strong internal research program, and develops new instrumentation and observing facilities. Astronomersrecognize that observatories function as a system, with a range of telescope apertures and observationalcapabilities required for optimum use of the most scarce resources. As long as the performance of thetelescopes remains competitive with that of newer instruments, the "beams" do not become obsolete; newproblems can be continually addressed with modern instrumentation. A scientific staff active in researchis an essential ingredient for identifying and following through on the key instrumentation needs of todayand for having the vision to understand the problems that will drive demand for future capabilities. Theexcellence of the service provided to NOAO users depends on a dedicated, top quality scientific staff.

TheNational Observatories provide community-wide access to largeandmoderate aperture telescopes withstate of the art instrumentation solely on the basis of scientific merit NOAO is unique in offeringobserving time to the best ideas, regardless of institutional affiliation of the proposers. Facilities includean unparalleled combination of telescopes with state of the art instruments in both hemispheres and anarray of unique solar telescopes.

Cost effectiveness must be judged on the quality and quantity of scientific output for the investment madein the institution. That output includes scientific publications, development of new instrumentation andtraining of students. Excellence in the observing program is maintained by a stringent peer review processand a high level of competition where fewer than one in three proposals can be granted time on the 4-mtelescopes.

This demand is high because of the quality of the instrumentation developed which keeps NOAOtelescopes at the forefront Optical imaging and spectroscopy have been advanced by the implementationof large-format CCDs with high quantum efficiency and very low readout noise. Kitt Peak NationalObservatory and CerroTololo Inter-American Observatory haveprovided users withoptical fibercouplingof the wide-field focal planes to spectrographs, with reliably working systems winning high praise fromusers. The IR groups have made the benefits of the revolution in IR array detectors available to the broadcommunity with imagers and spectrometers, as well as the simultaneous four-color imager (SQIID) and

the Cryogenic Optical Bench (COB). Solar physics is experiencing a renaissance in magnetic fielddetermination in terms of sensitivity and accuracy with near-infrared and other techniques, and in imagingquality through advances in adaptive optics.

Given the high standards of review and reliable access to competitive instrumentation, the volume of useis then directly related to theamount of first-class science produced. Theobservatories support some 1,100visits per year from over 100 different US institutions. That figures includes 780 visits by graduatestudents in US programs in the last five years. The observatories have supported in total 3,432 observingprograms in that period that have led to more than 3,500 publications.

The availability of the NOAO facilities, which represent millions of dollars of capital invested for thegeneral use of the community, provides the leverage that makes the NSF grants program effective forobservers and students. The use of pooled community resources to support the work of individualinvestigators is a very economical and effective method for the acquisition and distribution of data.

Another unique aspect of the National Observatories is the existence of a strong instrumentationinfrastructure that permitsinnovative engineering for facility-class instrumentation. NOAOsupports a largecommunity of users, who have limited access to high-demand facilities. The instruments must be producedwith a high level of reliability and versatility, so that data can be obtained with confidence for a varietyof observational programs. That mode of operation is complementary to highly experimental,support-intensive development at university observatories.

University consortia have found the operating environment of NOAO favorable for joint development ofnew telescope projects. The WIYN telescope program is making rapid progress toward first light by theend of 1993 with a new 3.5-m telescope at Kitt Peak, and the SOAR consortium continues planning fora comparable facility at CTIO. The very viability of NSO has depended on successful collaboration withthe Air Force and NASA research efforts, NOAA, HAO, and other partners in pursuing the frontiers ofsolar physics.

NOAO also cooperates withuniversity-based projects in making sites available within the land areaof theexisting observatory complexes. Utilities and services are provided on a cost-recovery basis. Currentexamples include the University of Arizona, the Michigan-Dartmough MIT and SARA consortia on KittPeak, and Yale at CTIO. Further possibilities include the 2-MASS Project, which is considering placing1.5-m class telescopes at KPNO andCTIO to perform an all-sky near-infrared survey; and WHAM, whichis a small, wide-field instrument from the University of Wisconsin to obtain high velocity resolution mapsof high-latitude Ha emission.

The forward look for the night-time program is completely coupled to the Gemini Project. The GeminiObservatory is planned on a different model from existing facilities, in that it will not be a stand-aloneoperation with its ownstaffand infrastructure. It will rely onthe national facilities of the partner countriesfor support, time allocation, and new instrument development NOAO will be the focus for USparticipation in the operations phase for both telescopes, and the southern 8-m will be operated in closecollaboration with CTIO. A vital NOAO is a key component of this strongly endorsed direction for USoptical astronomy.

The next section of this long-range plan will discuss forward-look issues in more detail, including therelationship between NOAO andGemini, major new initiatives for solarphysics, facilities improvementsfor both the scientific performance and the physical plant, and NOAO's response to the issues of

technology transfer. The following sections discuss the science, which provides the basis for the planningoutlined here, initiatives and instrumentation for night-time astronomy, then solar astronomy. The textconcludes with presentations on operations and the budget This budget discussion differs from those ofprevious years in two respects: as of this writing, guidance has not yet been given on the FY 1994 budgetrequest level, so an increase of 5% has been assumed. A growing program has been budgeted in the past;this time it is assumed that the base budget is holding even with inflation, and additional capabilitiesoutlined over today's base level are identified as "initiatives."

II. NOAO in the 1990s

The purpose of long-range planning is to define the desired future position of the organization andformulate a program to achieve that position. NOAO must build on the base of its primary mission ofservice to the community to assure that US astronomy retains its competitive position. NOAO recognizesthat its involvement with the Gemini Project is a defining factor in the nighttime program, and thatpartnership with the community in new initiatives for solar physics drives much of the effort in NSO.NOAO is the focus for US involvement in the Gemini project, and specifics of that role are presented inthe following section. At the same time, it is clear that a substantial redefinition of the relationshipbetween science and the public is being evolved through Congressional and government agency studies.Identifying a responsive approach to the concerns of technology transfer and educational outreach whilemaintaining the core mission of basic research is a priority for long-range planning as well.

A. NOAO and Gemini

NOAO initiated and submitted to the NSF the proposal for a pair of national 8-m telescopes for full-skycoverage. That proposal was approved in the context of an international collaboration, in which the partnercountries would provide half of the resources for the two-telescope project. At nearly the same time, theAstronomy and Astrophysics Survey Committee, chaired by John Bahcall, developed their recommendationthat an infrared-optimized, large aperture telescope sited on Mauna Kea was the highest priority for newconstruction of ground-based instrumentation, and that a telescope of comparable aperture in the southernhemisphere was of third priority of only three ground-based projects receiving endorsement.

NOAO, along with the US and partner scientific communities, were responsive to the guidance of theBahcallcommittee and evolvedtheir plans to reflect the more stringentdemandsof extremelyhigh-qualityimaging and low system emissivity required for IR optimization. The Gemini Project now includes theUS, UK, Canada, Chile, Argentina, and Brazil as partners. It has received significant funding for the pasttwo years, and the detailed design is well underway.

The US share in the Gemini telescopes will constitute the US National 8-m Telescopes. NOAO hasinvested its resources in developing the original designconcepts, and undertaking the effort to prepare andsubmit the proposals. Its scientific and technical staffs have been involved on a continuing basis duringthe concept and detailed design phases. The construction phase headquarters for the Gemini Project is inTucson for close interaction with the NOAO staff and other Tucson astronomers.

NOAO will serve as the primary interface for the Gemini Project with the US astronomy community.NOAO will take a leading role in providing scientific advice and promoting US instrument development.Thoseactivities will involve the US Gemini Project Office, basedat NOAO, along with the scientific staff

and the instrumentation groups. The period covered by this long-range plan should see Gemini movingfrom construction to commissioning. The NOAO staffexpects to provide commissioning assistance to theProject for specific tasks. The Tucson headquarters could then serve as the US Gemini Science Center forthe operations phase, while CTIO will work with Gemini to develop a joint management structure foroperations of the southern telescope. Inaddition, NOAO intends to compete vigorously to host the officesof the Gemini Observatory Director and staff.

The US Project Office will support US astronomers, providing scientific direction and certain technicalmanagement tasks for the international Gemini Project. A description of the role of the National ProjectOffice is contained in the implementation plan developed by Gemini Project staff, and reads as follows:

"TheGemini ProjectOffice (PO) in Tucsonhas overall responsibility for the constructionof the Gemini telescopes and associated equipment and instrumentation. It tries to addressthe interests of all of the participating countries, within its primary mandate to build thebestpossible telescopes within theavailable funding. Each party to theGemini Agreementhas set up a National Project Office (NPO) to act as a national focus for scientific andtechnical interests within their countries. The NPO's are regarded as an integral part ofthe Gemini Project. Since the interests and funding arrangements within each of threecountries differ, the NPO's differ somewhat in function and structure.

Each NPO includes a National Project Manager, a National Project Scientist, and otherscientific and engineering staff as deemed appropriate by each country. The NPO's arethe primary interface for collaboration and the sharing of information between the PO andthe partner countries. The National Project Scientists will serve on the Gemini ScienceCommittee and will be the normal channel for scientific issues.

The NPO's will work closely with the staff at the Project Office to achieve the goals ofthe Project. They will beresponsible for monitoring the technical developments at the PO,at the telescope sites and in the partner countries, and for the dissemination of currentinformation on the scientific goals, technical design, schedule and other information totheir national scientific communities, laboratories and industries. They will also beresponsible for the financial interests of their funding agencies; the NPO's, through theNational Project Scientists, will beresponsible for formulating the views oftheir scientificcommunities into a set of priorities for discussion by the GSC and for the guidance of theProject.

The NPO's will assist with identifying potential vendors and research groups who candesign and/or build telescope subsystems and instrumentation. They are expected toassume a major role in the management of national instrumentation efforts.

The NPO's are accountable to their national funding agencies and will be funded directlyby the agencies. The expenses of the NPO's will not be supported from the Geminiproject budget"

The current tasks of the US Project Office are to support the involvement of US astronomers in Geminiadvisory committees and working groups, to formulate the science requirements and prioritize theimplementation ofvarious modes ofinstrument and telescope function. As the Gemini work packages andinstrument development projects are distributed to the partner countries, the US Project Office will take

on a stronger technical management role, with the probable responsibility for running competitions forinstrument development and providing technical supervision of instrument contracts. For adequate supportof that role, it would be highly desirable to support a full-time US Gemini Project Manager and modeststaff; the funding agencies of the other partner countries are supporting such personnel directly, and wewould request NSF to do the same.

NOAO plans to become the operations center for the Gemini Observatories. It is clear that the resourcesavailable for site support will be limited. Therefore, a very efficient model is required, with existinginstitutions taking the responsibility for non-maintenance operations. These non-maintenance operationsconsist of three parts. First, there is the science center, which will deal with users of the two telescopesand the data they obtain. It would include a remote observing station, easily accessible to observers, andinstrument experts who would play roles in both identifying and diagnosing problems and also in advisingobservers and prospective observers on instrumental capabilities. It would also include data analysts, whowould develop the data reduction algorithms and support software delivered with the instruments.Additionally, the science center would include an archive with support for local and network access. Thesecond part of operations is the administrative end of the US Project Office. It would be responsible fortelescope time allocation, policy decisions affecting US observers, and disbursement of contracts forupgrades (new instruments, etc.). The third part is the international Gemini office which would handlepolicy decisions involving the project as a whole (including such items as the definition and enforcementof standards).

There are several advantages to having NOAO serve those roles at its Tucson headquarters:

1) Gemini is not planned to be a stand-alone observatory. It will rely on support from observatories in thepartner countries for facilities upgrades, new instrumentation, software development, and data management.NOAO has experience and expertise in these tasks for visitor facilities.

2) the fact that there will be two telescopes at two sites means that there is no advantage in locatingoperations at either of the sites as opposed to a separate location. Ease of access for the OBSERVERS isthe primary goal and the Tucson location is a convenient and familiar destination for ground-basedobservers.

3) the necessity of having a scientific staff associated with Gemini. The experience of all observatoriesthat serve visitors is that it is the local scientists who drive the telescope improvements and instrumentupgrades. The local astronomers also keep the facility acting at its peak efficiency because they have muchmore of a stake in it.

4) NOAO already has much experience (and the required infrastructure) in most of the areas whichoperations must include. It has significant engineering facilities with technical staff accustomed to thedesign, construction, and maintenance of complex instruments. NOAO is likely to be a significant part ofthe instrumentation effort, and will help develop and implement on its existing telescopes and instrumentsthe standards and interfaces specified for Gemini. NOAO has built up a significant software group whichis working to implement modem techniques of real-time instrument and telescope control; Geminiprotocols will be required at CTIO, and uniformity will result in their use at KPNO as well. NOAO alsohas developed (and supports) one of the most complete astronomical data reduction packages in useworldwide. It routinely supports the communications and transportation aspects of running a visitor-oriented observing facility.

10

5) KPNO provides an advantageous environment to act as a test bed for new instrumentation: theproximity to Tucson for accessibility of parts and personnel, compatible focal ratios, the workingconditions at moderate altitude for debugging, and the computing and network infrastructure all providea favorable situation for commissioning instrumentation prior to delivery to Mauna Kea or Cerro Pachon.

6) an aggressive program is underway to gain expertise in areas of innovative observing, including queuescheduling, remote observing, and archiving. These will start next summer with a pilot queue schedulingprogram on three of the smaller telescopes, and a remote observing station in the downtown office toallow staff to observe at the 2.1-m or 4-m from Tucson. Note that this remote capability is a naturaloutgrowth of the existing data acquisition and instrument control systems. In addition, the hardware is inplace to begin a rudimentary archiving program in the next six months. Phase two of this innovativeobserving program will extend to the WIYN telescope which will be scheduled in a queue mode or forremote observing for a large fraction of its time.

7) all the previous items suggest that taking on Gemini operations would require only a small quantitativechange to the system already in place on Kitt Peak and no qualitative change at all.

There is no question but that this approach can provide the most efficient, most useful center of operationsfor the Gemini telescopes.

CTIO as Operations Center for Southern Telescope

The presence of the Gemini southern 8-m telescope at CTIO will have a significant impact on CTIO.There are two distinct ways in which Gemini could be run at CTIO. At one extreme, Gemini could existas an independent entity with its own organization on the CTIO compound and on Cerro Pachon, utilizingthe present NOAO infrastructure by paying for same. At the other extreme, Gemini could be completelysubsumed into the present CTIO organization, with the CTIO Director also serving as the Gemini SiteDirector. The former guarantees independence from NOAO and accountability to Gemini and its membercountries, whereas the latter ensures efficiency and comparability with CTIO. Most people who arefamiliar with other similar operations on a common mountain, e.g., on Mauna Kea and the Canary Islands,and who have given serious thought to the matter have agreed that an intermediate situation would bepreferred in which some but not all of the CTIO and Gemini organizations would be integrated together.

CTIO currently has five divisions: (1) Scientific Staff, (2) Telescope Operations, (3) Engineering/TechnicalServices, (4) Operations, and (5) Business. The plan that maximizes efficiency of operation withoutsacrificing its own implementation of priorities is for Gemini to integrate its operations and business needswith the two CTIO Operations and Business divisions. However, its scientific staff should be separate fromthe CTIO staff and totally dedicated to the Gemini 8-m telescope, with a separate Gemini Site Director.Similarly, the telescope operations and engineering/technical services divisions for Gemini, which mightbe combined into one integrated group, should be separate from CTIO, totally dedicated to the Gemini8-m telescope. CTIO and Gemini should think of sharing certain resources such as a common machineshop; however it should be realized that CTIO might continue to have all of the telescopes it operatesconfined to Tololo, whereas the Gemini 8-m will be situated on Cerro Pachon.

With the organizational scheme suggested above, the CTIO Director would continue to have authority overall operations and business endeavors in La Serena, Santiago, and on Tololo/Pachon, working in

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cooperation with the Gemini Site Director on all matters that affect the Gemini operation. The Geminiscientists and 8-m telescope operations support personnel and ETS engineers would report to the GeminiSite Director. This plan would ensure efficiency, independence, and accountability in the operations ofboth organizations, and would confine potentially difficult managerial problems having to do with theintegration of the two organizations to two people: the CTIO Director and the Gemini Site Director.

B. Major New Initiatives for Solar Physics

In response to community demands for new solar observing capabilities, NSO has worked with thecommunity to define and carry-out GONG in the "recent" past and RISE in the "immediate" past. Inaddition, as a result of its close working relationship with the USAF, NSO is in a position to collaboratewith their operational needs (and funding) to provide exciting new observing capabilities to the generalscientific community for coronal studies (LARC) as well as the exploration of magnetic field evolutionon the appropriate timescales-10 to 100 hours (SSN). The NSO based instrumentation program has erodedto the point that more modest improvements to existing facilities or new instruments can only be addressedas initiatives. Thus the NSO effort in adaptive optics, carried out in collaboration with LPARL, is beingsupported at a perilously low level by NSO and the USAF, but it received very strong support from boththe NAS Decade study and the peer preview of it as part of the LEST proposal, so it is included here asan initiative. The NAS Decade study also supported the development of a large aperture solar infraredfacility. The actively controlled and cooled metal mirror technology that appears appropriate for thispotential major initiative needs to be demonstrated on a smaller scale and this telescope improvementactivity is also being presented as an Initiative.

1. Adaptive Optics

Solar astronomers continue to regard subarcsecond observations of solar phenomena as representing animportant cornerstone in the study of the fundamental physical processes on the Sun. The interaction ofsurface convection with magnetic fields, the buildup and release of flare energy, and the emergence anddecay of sunspots are but a few examples of phenomena that must occur on a small scale. As there appearto be few opportunities for high-resolution observations from space during the next decade, and beyond,it has become very important to enhance the resolution of our ground-based observing facilities. Timeseries of white light images recorded in July 1991, using the Lockheed (LPARL) 19-segment mirror,demonstrated that adaptive optics works, at least with a sunspot as a target. Since that success, this AOsystem has been returned to Lockheed where it has been used for other investigations unrelated to the Sun.The withdrawal of this prototype instrument underscored the need for NSO to develop its own system thatwould become a permanent part of the Vacuum Tower Telescope (VTT), available to all investigators.NSO's approach stresses four areas presently not available in the Lockheed system. The first is thedevelopment of a wavefront sensor that can derive the slope of the wavefront and hence a correction signalderived from images of the solar granulation that occurs all over the Sun, thus freeing the observing targetfrom one that must include a sunspot in the field. The second improvement is in the digital wavefrontreconstructor that adapts the techniques used in SDI programs that reconstruct the wavefront fromgradients. This approach appears to be far more flexible than the analog system as used in the LPARL19-segment mirror system. This type of reconstructor supports the third objective of the NSO approach,which is an adaptive mirror that has a "continuous faceplate", because the wavefront reconstruction isunbroken by the sharp edges and cornersof a segmented mirror.Finally the AO system must be integratedwith the focal plane instrumentation of the VTT, which includes three spectrographs, a Universal

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Birefringent Filter and a Fabry-Perot filter system, a Correlation Tracker, and field monitoring andscanning hardware.

For the wavefront sensor, NSO is using a 640 x 400 pixel "thin film transistor" LCD computer displayfrom HOFIDEN, to transmit those areas in the granulation scene that favor the measurement of slopes.It is not unlike a "knife edge" or Foucault test, where the knife edges can be placed on several stars(granules) anywhere in a scene instead ofjust on a single star. Because the display is large, thewavefrontsensor optical system is placed in one of the 1.5m diameter by 19.8m long instrument vacuum tanks inthe VTT. Beamsplitters divide the primary image of the granulation into four scenes that are imaged onthe quadrants of the LCD. The four images favor detecting slopes in a +X, -x, +y and -y coordinatesystem. The pupil corresponding to each scene is imaged onto a 32 x 32 pixel. The 32 x 32 pixels maybe binned on the chip to 16 x 16, since that resolution should be sufficient for the NSO mirror.

The intensities from the Dalsa camera are transmitted to the digital wavefront reconstructor that is beingmanufactured by Calculex. The computation of all the mirror actuator positions proceeds in parallel, andthe reconstructions are computed at a 5 kHz rate, which is 10 times the 500 Hz bandwidth of the servosfor the actuators, so that phase shift is minimized.

The continuous faceplate mirror has 61 actuators made by Queensgate Instruments. Linearity of theactuators is improved and the inherent piezo hysteresis is removed by a servo control that obtains itsdistance measurement from a capacitor mounted in the center of each actuator. Tests are now underwayon a 12-actuator mockup to test the details of the mirror construction and the effectiveness of thereconstruction algorithm.

Many parts of the new AO optical system are in daily use by investigators. The setups are made on largeoptical tables withsurfaces perforated by tabbed holes. Thisapproach has proven to be very useful in solarobservations, as the optical setups are reconfigured on a weekly basis.

Currently the program is supported at a very low level by a combination of NSF and AFSC/PL funding.At the presenttime, only a small staff is available for this project, namely an electronic engineer and twoinstrument makers, in addition to R. Dunn. Non-payroll support from PL/GPSS got the program initiatedbut is insufficient to complete it.

This proposed Initiative also includes support for the Lockheed instrument's return to Sacramento Peakinorder to provide essential solarobserving opportunities aswellas terrestrial atmosphere characterization.We have been assured that NSF support for this Initiative will make available matching support fromLockheed internal funding.

2. Radiative Inputs of the Sun to Earth (RISE)

Measuring andunderstanding the Sun's variability constitutes one of the most important problems in solarand solar-terrestrial research. Proposed in 1990,RISE is a systematic program of research to increase ourknowledge of solar irradiance variations and their effect on global change.

An important partof the overall RISE plan calls for the design, construction, deployment, and operationof precision solar photometric telescopes (PSPTs) that will work together to provide a reliable daily (andhigher cadence, as weather permits) record of solar surface-brightness variations. These telescopes will

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define state-of-the-art precision for ground-based solar differential photometry A proposal by NSO andthe RISE Scientific Advisory Committee to construct two PSPTs received initial support from the NSF(ATM) in 1992.

Each PSPT will be a small, low-scattered-light refracting telescope consisting of a 15-cm doublet, a fastguider, a 0.2 nm Ca II K filter (and several additional filters for continuum observations at otherwavelengths), and a 2048 x 2048 CCD camera. The enclosed telescope package will be equatoriallymounted and computer controlled. Each instrument should achieve photometric precision approaching0.1% per pixel across the full 2048 x 2048 pixel array in continuum wavelength bands extending fromthe green to near IR wavelengths. Image data of this quality will help pinpoint the cause of the smallirradiance variations that are seen in satellite observations of integrated sunlight The daily observationsand occasional campaigns of higher-cadence time-series data will allow new studies of the transportproperties of the upper convection zone in the presence of photospheric magnetic fields.

3. Upgrade of the McMath-Pierce Telescope to a 4-m Aperture "Big Mc"

Facility ConceptThe NSO is now investigating the feasibility of converting the present 1.6-m aperture McMath-PierceTelescope to one of 4-m aperture. The building structure would remain unchanged, and most instrumentswould require only slight modification. Only the mirrors and their support systems would be replaced.

Scientific Goals

The "Bahcall Committee" has recommended the establishment of a major, ground-based facility forfrontier investigations of the Sun in the relatively unexplored regime of the solar infrared (1-20 urn). Forsolar research of this kind, a large aperture is required to obtain flux levels and angular resolutioncomparable to those at visible wavelengths. Observing the 12 um atomic emission lines of Mg I, whichpermit highly sensitive measurements of magnetic field strength in the high photosphere, a 4-m McMath-Pierce Telescope would have a diffraction limit of 0.75 arcsec. Magnetic fields in the low photospherewould be directly measured with Zeeman sensitive lines near the opacity minimum at 1.6 um. There thediffraction size is 0.1 arcsec. Vibration-rotation bands of CO at 4.6 pm, and other molecules, would beused to probe sunspots and the poorly understood temperature minimum.

The new Swedish 0.5-m solar telescope in the Canaries has demonstrated that spatial resolution dependson optical quality. Aberration-free systems are the exception, perhaps non-existent, in modem solartelescopes. Given perfected optics, the next attribute is aperture. Advances in technology also open doorsto ways to improve resolution. Recent interferometric studies on Mount Wilson have revealed that acertain fraction of the time the atmosphere departs from its normally turbulent condition to permitdiffraction limited observations in the infrared. On-line tuning of a telescope's figure (active optics),correction for atmospheric wave-front distortions (adaptive optics), and high-speed image restoration areall realizable techniques that are especially suited to the infrared. Applied to a telescope of adequateaperture, such as 4-m, the hoped for one tenth arcsec resolution from space telescopes should be realizedfrom the ground.

While the principal scientific goals for an upgraded McMath-Pierce concern observations of the Sun inthe infrared, the telescope will also serve as an invaluable and unique facility for synoptic studies in solar-stellar physics. A 4-m aperture can extend the efforts to detect stellar oscillations, analogous to the solarfive-minute oscillation, to a probable limiting magnitude of V = 6-7 for observations by Doppler

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spectroscopy. Therefore, solar-type stars characterized by ages in the range 1 to 5 billion years could beobserved. Stellar convection deduced from line asymmetry requires spectral resolutions ofAXA = 1-2 (105)and S/N ~ 103. Such spectracould be acquired in an integration time of 1.5 hours for V = 8.5, sufficientto reach solar-type stars in the Hyades and thereby extend the study of solar-like stars over significantevolutionary time scales.

The McMath-Pierce Upgrade PlanNSO has completed a technical study of the feasibility of converting the present 1.6-m McMath-PierceTelescope to a 4-m aperture at relatively low cost.The telescope superstructure would remain unchangedand most of the instruments would need only slight modification. A 6-m cell which is held by a modifiedalt-az tracking system is the replacement for the present 2-m heliostat. All mirrors would be of solidaluminum to permit cooling and rapid temperature adjustment to prevent 'mirror seeing'.

As a proof of concept, we propose a project to demonstrate the improvement for solar observationsafforded by active control of a cooled aluminum mirror, and solar adaptive optics in the mid-IR. Wewould replace the existing 1.6-m image forming mirror with a new mirror made of cast aluminum whichis forged and cryogenically cycled, with active control of the mirror figure in an isothermal environment.In conjunction with the large format infra-red arrays being procured by NOAO, this system will yield adramatically improved McMath-Pierce Facility for infrared solar physics today at the same time that itprovides the pathfinding experience that we would need before proceeding with a proposal for a full 4-mupgrade.

4. Large All-Reflecting Coronagraph (LARC)

The field of solar coronal physics has advanced to a point where many critical and fundamental questionsare posed, but observational answers are inaccessible due to inherent limitations of existinginstrumentation. Performance restrictions arise primarily from the properties of a singlet-objective as usedin a conventional Lyot coronagraph. Aberrations of the objective can be corrected in the secondary opticalsystem, but fundamental limitations remain that preclude carrying out many types of critical coronalstudies. For example, significant progress in areas such as the heating of the solar corona, flow andcondensationof coronal plasma above active regionsand aroundprominences,mechanismsfor acceleratingthe fast component of the solar wind in coronal holes, and coronal mass ejections all call for fully-achromatic coronagraphs with high angular resolution and high photon flux. A mirror-objectivecoronagraph avoids problems intrinsic to classical designs, since the primary image is achromatic with afixed location, and magnification is not a function of wavelength. Furthermore, large apertures to achievehigher angular resolution and photon flux are achievable. Recent improvements in optical polishing andreflective coatingtechniques allow the production of mirrors withscattering properties similarto, or betterthan, super-polished, singlet-objective lenses. With this more advanced technology, many outstanding andfundamental problems in coronal physics, such as those enumerated in Section III.A.2 ("Magneto-Convection"), can be addressed.

Such observations require fully achromatic coronagraphs with high angular resolution. The constructionandoperation of a small prototype instrument at NSO/SP, called Mirror-Advanced Coronagraph I (MACI), has confirmed the feasibility of using reflecting coronagraphs for ground-based studies of the solarcorona. The primary objective is super-polished silicon of 5-cm aperture. A second prototype, MAC II,that has a super-polished, 15-cm aperture zerodur objective, has also been successfully operated.Experience with these two developmental coronagraphs has provided key ideas for the development of

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larger instruments capable of acquiring high-resolution imaging and spectra of the emission corona. Tothis end, a research-quality, 55-cm aperture reflecting coronagraph (MAC III) is undergoing development.The complex optical design has now been completed, and the mechanical design commenced. Thisinstrument will be mounted on the 8-m spar of the Evans Solar Facility. The completion of MAC III willact as the springboard for the design of a much larger coronagraphic telescope (MAC IV). This large-aperture, mirror-objective coronagraph will constitute a major facility with applications in both solar andnighttime astronomy. There is considerable interest in obtaining observations of faint emission associatedwith different types of astronomical objects. Such observations demand coronagraphic-qualityinstrumentations where the faint emission is angularly close to a much brighter source. Examples are thestudy of reflectance spectra of solar system objects such as planetary rings and outer satellite, white-dwarfcompanions and binary systems, searches for protoplanetary stellar disks, and the study of other faintemissions associated with some stellar, galactic and extragalactic objects. MAC IV represents a designappropriate for such faint-emission, nighttime studies, while allowing advanced coronal studies as well ascritical, low-scattered-light observations of the solar disk.

The above program is joint between NSO and the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris (IAP).

5. Solar Synoptic Network (SSN)

ConceptThe Solar Synoptic Network (SSN) is a new-generation, small-aperture, multi-site telescope system foracquiring solar data that are universally agreed as being fundamental to studies of transient, periodic, andsecular variations in solar output, magnetism, and convection. SSN features standard, automated,programmable observing sequences producing full-disk digital images in various wavelengths, as well asspecialized routines which would be interleaved according to user needs or community demand. Thenetwork could replace or augment existing, aging patrols which are based on photographic recording andare usually spectrally limited to Ha and white light.

Scientific Goals

SSN addresses solar phenomena showingvariability on time scalesof secondsto decades. Further progressin many areas of solar research will require co-registered, co-temporal observations of magnetic, velocity,and intensity fields. In addition, digital data with capability for rapid processingand transmission to usersis a growing requirement. Some of the specific scientific goals include: (1) statistics of ephemeral activeregions (magnetic flux, contribution to the solar constant, variation with solar cycle), (2) large-scale non-axisymmetric motions (studies of meridional flows and giant cells require very long observing periods inorder to reduce noise introduced by supergranulation and oscillations; large scale solar surface conditionsin relation to production of coronal mass ejections), (3) evolution of active region magnetic and velocityfields (emphasis on region emergence, flux coalescence, plage-sunspot-facula energy balance, velocityfields leading to magnetic shear, conditions leading to flares), (4) solar rotation (variations in time,latitude, and depth are essential to understandingthe origin of the solar magnetic cycle; relation of rotationchanges to climatological variation), (5) active longitudes (relation to large-scale convective motions,(6) relation between photospheric, chromospheric, and coronal structures (thermal evolution and activeregionevolutionas a function of atmospheric height; interpretation of solar X-ray images requires contextof underlying structures; studies combining SNN and GOES-SXI images), (7) the extended solar cycle(time and high-latitude variations of magnetic and velocity fields and plages), (8) support formeasurements to be made under the RISE program, to be correlated with solar irradiance variations,(9) solar-stellar connection (acquisition of solarfull-disk indices), (10) standard patrol statistics for flares,

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prominences, sunspot groups, and plages, used extensively in solar-terrestrial and geophysical studies,(11) flare outputs (light curves in various wavelengths), which are essential for campaigns like Max '91and Flares 22, or programs like SMM and HESP.

Instrumentation and CapabilitiesSSN would be based on state-of-the-art electro-optical devices, including fully tunable filters (possibly ofthe liquid-crystal type) and low-noise CCD detectors. Magnetograms of both longitudinal and transversefields, as well as velocity fields obtained by Doppler or correlation tracking methods, would form a corecomponent of the SSN data products. These would be transmitted via computer networks to researchersworldwide. Spectral coverage of images would include Ha, Ca K-line, Baimer continuum, near IR andother lines of interest. SSN could be run with one or two U.S. sites combined with participation at sitesset up at observatories in several other countries.

C. Repair and Strengthening of the Infrastructure

The support of the existing infrastructure of the national centers was the top priority recommendation forground-based astronomy by the National Academy of Sciences astronomy decade survey committee,chaired by John Bahcall. Their report stated, "The highest priority of the survey committee for ground-based astronomy is the strengthening of the infrastructure for research, that is, increased support forindividual research grants and for the maintenance and refurbishmentof existing frontier equipment at thenational observatories...The committee recommends that the NSF increase its support for annualoperations, instrument upgrades, and maintenanceof national research facilities to an adequate and stablefraction of their capital cost. The NSF should include appropriate financial provision for the operation ofany new telescope in the plan for that facility."

The impact of the steady decline in operations support takes several forms. Telescope control systems andinstrument interfaces are aging and in many cases are constructed from 1960s technologies. The increasedfailure rate leads to reduced productivity. At the same time, more modem telescope systems and the recentunderstanding of the impact of thermal conditions created within the telescope domes themselves have ledto higher demands on the imaging, pointing and tracking performance of the systems. One thrust of theactive modernization efforts for controls and interfaces underway at all the telescope sites, both night-timeand solar leads directly to improved performance, increasing the scientific productivity and enabling newinvestigations to be pursued.

Another major area of concern is the thermal environment of the domes. CTIO has taken the lead inremoving obvious heat sources and greatly increasing the ventilation flow in their 4-m dome. Theirmonitoring program is underway to measure the level of improvement in image quality achieved byreducing local thermaldistortions. Tighter images are directly equivalent to increasing the aperture of thetelescope, both in terms of the signal to noise ratio achieved in a fixed time integration for spectroscopy,and for detectability of the faintest objects against the night sky background in imaging. With theexception of the new WIYN, all the other nighttime domes are in need of the same approach to removalof local heat sources and thorough ventilation of the telescope and environs. Without this significant effortof refurbishment of the infrastructure of telescopes and domes, the facilities themselves lose a competitiveposition relative to newer telescopes of comparable aperture and initial investment

The next area of improvement comes with improved thermal and mechanical control of the telescopeoptics themselves. CTIO has initiated a plan for cooling the primary mirror to a level slightly below the

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predicted ambient nighttime temperature. The goal is to avoid thermal disturbances immediately above themirror surface from convective cooling of a mirror that is hotter than the ambient air. They also plan touse a zonal approach to active control of the primary support system in order to compensate for figureerrors introduced by polishing and inadequate compensation of varying loads. At the same time, bothKPNO and CTIO are investigating higher bandwidth tip-tilt control of secondary mirrors for compensationof seeing-induced image motion as well as wind buffeting of the telescope mount The ultimate goal isto achieve site-limited seeing performance; achieving that result will be equivalent to purchasing a suiteof larger aperture telescopes.

Although the total costs for these upgrades may not appear substantial as an increment to the total NOAObudget, they create a significant impact on the technical resources available for development andimprovements. CTIO found that their instrumentation program was practically limited to the slowdevelopment of one project while they pursued the telescope and dome improvements for the 4-m. KPNOwould feel a similar impact, particularly since contracting costs for dome improvements are significantlyhigher than in Chile. Reinvestment in the premier scientific instruments of the observatories, the telescopesthemselves, should be a high priority response to the recommendations of the Bahcall committee.

The trends in usage will require the observatories to provide increasing support for remote observing,queue scheduling, and responsible archiving. Additional staging hardware is required for the preliminaryarchiving proposal discussed subsequently. The other hardware consideration is that a major limitation forremote operation is the current bandwidth of communication links, particularly to KPNO. As the universityremote use of WIYN becomes routine and the H alpha mapping program begins, the demand for morebandwidth will become pressing. The Tohono O'Odham utility company rates limit the practicality ofexpanding the number of Tl lines from the single current one. A microwave link is the practical answer,there is precedent from the success of the MMT datalink. The initiative item for higher bandwidth datacommunications assumes that NASA will continue to support the vital net connection to CTIO; thatservice represents a substantial additional increment to the support of NOAO operations.

The other aspect of the infrastructure is the physical plant, including the mountain site buildings as wellas the headquarters in Tucson and La Serena. In Tucson, the limitations of the buildings are nowrestricting the possibilities for scientific activities. Long-term visitors are nominally limited to the mostsenior, distinguished applicants. Astronomers at an earlier stage in their careers, who might benefit fromthe scientific environment cannot be accommodated because of the lack of space. The location of theconstruction phase headquarters for the Gemini Project was chosen to be Tucson for the benefit ofinteraction with NOAO; the Project group is housed in "prebuilt" structures on the roof of the Tucsonheadquarters. The GONG data center was forced into the old AURA Corporate Headquarters building, yetthe project still has inadequate space for the personnel, hardware and labs. Plans for data archives, Geminioperations, expanded REU programs, educational outreach, collaborations with university partners, etc.are all tempered by the realization that space limitations may be the driving factor in proceeding. At thesame time, the Tucson headquarters building requires considerable maintenance and refurbishmentinvestment NOAO is investigating options that would allow the possibility of dramatically lowermaintenance and utilities costs, adequate parking, and a use of adequate space that reflects more closelyon today's NOAO rather than the organization of 25 years ago.

The other sites have similar pressing needs for the physical plants. CTIO recently began construction ofa new building just off the Tololo summit, immediately below the 4-m telescope, to house all of theoffices, labs, and shops now residing in the 4-m and 1.5-m telescope buildings. The new building is oneof the main components of the image improvement program for the CTIO telescopes, in that it will allow

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many activities with their associated heat sources to be removed from near the telescopes. After an initialinvestment of over $100 K, the remaining $30 K necessary for completion cannot be found in the budgetat the current level, and all work has been stopped. The facilities at Sacramento peak are also in need ofa serious refurbishment effort. These include safety issues such as underground storage tank leakmonitoring, replacement of the gas main, maintenance ladder replacement, and a new ambulance. Thesidewalks and roads now must be replaced, and fourteen buildings need new roofs; ten vehicles in usewere manufactured before 1970, and are becoming difficult to maintain for adequate safety.

D. Technology Transfer

A growing emphasis for public support of science funding is that society in general andAmerican industryin particular derive benefit from the discoveries being made and technology being developed in federallyfunded centers and programs. NOAO has been working collaboratively with industry for years in areasof technology development that push the stateof the art for astronomical instrumentation andprovide newcommercial opportunities for the vendors. The recent change is in the role that the center might play inthe partnership. In the past, NOAO expected to distribute its developments freely to the commercialcommunity, on the basis that it was federally funded. Today, the expectation created by specificcongressional legislation is that AURA and NOAO are encouraged to form partnerships that could leadto profitable marketing of developed technology by individual firms.

There are many potential forms of interaction between NOAO and industry:

Distribution of NOAO technical documents and software

Provision of unique NOAO facilities for specific industrial uses

Collaborative development projects with industry

Reimbursable work for others

Technical personnel exchanges

Contracting agreements

Organizational consulting arrangements

Patent/software licensing

The following list gives specific examples of the ongoing technology transfer activities that NOAO hastraditionally engaged in. Often the technology was transferred withno directbenefit to NOAO. In othercases, such as detector characterization,NOAO received loaner items or preferred pricing in exchange forexpertise.

Technology Transfer Examples

Prior

~ Bend and polish-technology and personnel loan to ITEK~ Optical test software and hardware-Reosc (France), Phase Shift, University of Hawaii-Ball screw for use in liquid cryogen temperatures~ Liquid crystal filter-Meadowlark Optics~ Multivariant discriminant analysis flare prediction code-Air Weather Service (AWS)~ Spectrograph design for VAT~ Software - IRAF

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~ Software - Imaging techniques and telescope control to AWS~ Cryopump synchronization system-Balzer~ Light pollution studies (currently with AAS)

Current

~ Gratings coatings-Milton Roy~ STIS evaluation of detectors

~ Solid state photomultiplier-Rockwell International, Ames Research Center~ IR detector evaluations-Hughes Aircraft and others~ Telescope characterization for Vandenberg Air Force Base (Anderson Peak)~ CCD production with University of Arizona-Todd Boroson~ Fiber optics SBIR~Sam Barden~ CCD evaluation-Tektronics, Reticon, Fairchild~ GONG optics transferred fabrication technology to TORC~ University of Arizona mirror polishing

Future

~ F. Forbes' bimorph SBIR~ Supercollider space frame-carbon fiber use in telescopes~ IR high speed electronics~ Navy contract on IR detector research

During the period of this plan, NOAO intends to strengthen the activities of its Technology TransferOffice. The goals of the program are to create broader awareness of NOAO's current level of technologytransfer participation, to facilitate agreements with commercial organizations, to develop a clear, flexiblepolicy relative to the tech transfer activities, and to increasestaff awareness of the benefits and desirabilityof the program for themselves and AURA/NOAO. The AURA Corporate Office is prepared to work withNOAO to develop the technology transfer policy and to help with the legal aspects of patent applicationsand certain contractual issues. The primary purpose of technology and software development at theobservatories is unchanged: to bring state-of-the-art instrumentation and software to the telescopes for themaximum scientific productivity. It is also desirable to retain the modus operandi of sharing technologyand software with the astronomical community on a minimal cost-recoveryor no-cost basis. The intentionof NOAO's technology transfer program is to provide a minimum impact way to encourage interactionswithcommercial firms that couldlead to usefulmarketing opportunities for them and an appropriate returnto NOAO. The National Observatoriesdo produce a positive economic impact through the disseminationof new technology, and that impact can be significantly enhanced for a modest investment and focus ofeffort.

III. NIGHTTIME ASTRONOMY

A. Science at CTIO and KPNO

Thescope of the research supported by NOAO is extremely broad. Approximately 11,000 scientific paperswere published between 1961 and 1992 by NOAO staff and by visitors who made use of NOAO facilities.In this plan, we summarize key results in a few particularly active areas of research and indicate where

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we think the promise of rapid progress is the greatest. It is, of course, this assessment of the future courseof our science that has determined our priorities for new instrumentation and for major initiatives.

1. The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe

The earliestcosmologies began with the assumption that the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic. Thisassumption has persisted until the present. Current theories posithomogeneity and isotropy when averagesare taken over a large enough scale. In recentyears, however, observations taken with telescopes operatedby NOAO, as well as other institutions, have begun to pose serious challenges to these assumptions andto current cosmological models.

In 1983,R. Kirshner (Center for Astrophysics) and his collaborators used the KPNO telescopes to identifywhat appeared to be a gigantic void in the direction of the constellation Bootes. In 1986, this same groupused the KPNO facilities to confirm the existence of this void, which occupies a volume of over onemillion cubic megaparsecs and is roughly spherical in shape with a diameter of about 120 Mpc. Also in1986, V. de Lapparent, M. Geller, and J. Huchra (Center for Astrophysics) published results from theextended Center for Astrophysics redshift survey which showed galaxies residing on the surfaces ofcontiguous bubble-like structures whose diameters are typically 25 Mpc with a maximum of 50 Mpc. Asimilar picture of the distribution of galaxies in space emerged from a 21-cm survey of 2,700 galaxiespublished in 1986 by M. Haynes (Cornell U.) and R. Giovanelli (Arecibo Obs.). More recently, a startlingnew result has emerged from the work of D. Koo (Lick Obs.) and his collaborators on the large-scaledistribution of galaxies. Using pencil beam surveys of the north and south Galactic poles, theseinvestigators have sampled the distribution of galaxies over an unprecedented scale of 2000 Mpc, whichis far deeper than any previous surveys. They find well-ordered large-scale features in the galaxydistribution out to the limits of the survey. In addition, there is a tantalizing hint of periodicity in thisstructure at an interval of about 130 Mpc. Work is continuing on this project using telescopes at CTIOand KPNO. If confirmed, it will provide evidence for structure on the longest scale yet discovered.

Equally exciting has been the discovery of streaming motions of galaxies on an extremely large scale. Inthe late-1970s, M. Aaronson (Arizona U.), Huchra, and then-KPNO staff member J. Mould pioneered theInfrared Tully-Fisher technique for determining distances to spiral galaxies. In 1986, Aaronson andcollaborators employed this method on a sample of ten northern hemisphere clusters, observed mostly atKPNO and Arecibo, and obtained a positive detection of the motion of the local group toward the 3 Kdipole anisotropy. In the same study, Aaronson et al. concluded that the r.m.s. peculiar velocities ofclusters must be smaller than 500 km sec"1. This picture of a relatively quiescent local Universe was veryshort-lived when a group of seven investigators (A. Dressier, D. Lynden-Bell, S. Faber, D. Burstein, R.Davies, R. Terlevich, and G. Wegner) announced the discovery of streaming motions of galaxies on anextremely large-scale. Their analysis of spectroscopic and photometric data of 400 elliptical galaxies,obtained with telescopes at KPNO, CTIO, and othersites, revealed a net streaming motion of galaxies overa region about 100 Mpc in size, with a velocity at the Sun of roughly 570 km/s over and above theuniform Hubble flow. The source of this bulk motion was attributed by Dressier and collaborators to theexistence of a "Great Attractor" located in the direction of the constellations of Hydra and Centaurus ata distance of 20-30 Mpc and with a mass of about 5 x 1016 solar masses.

Observations of galaxies in the southern hemisphere are crucially important in assessing the all-sky natureof peculiar velocities. Unfortunately, the largest radio telescope in the southern hemisphere, the Parkes64-m, has only 1/12 the collection area of Arecibo. It does not generally provide high quality data for

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galaxies with velocities greater than 5000 km s"'. However, using an imaging Fabry-Perot interferometeron the CTIO 4-m telescope, R. Schommer (CTIO), T. Williams (Rutgers U.), G. Bothun (U. of Oregon),and Mould (California Inst, of Technology) developed an optical Tully-Fisher method which has been usedto determine distances to galaxies with velocities as great as 10,000 km s"1. This group has recentlypublished an analysis of peculiar velocities for a sample of forty-eight late-type spiral galaxies located inthe vicinity of the Great Attractor. These data confirm the existence of positive velocity residuals, withamplitude 500-2000 km s"1 in the Hydra-Centaurus region, but a symmetric infall pattern centered on theGreat Attractor is not seen. Hence, the identification of the source of the observed streaming motions isstill a mystery, and the possibility of large peculiar motions on the scale of 100 Mpc remains viable.

Studies of the large-scale distributionof galaxies have been hampered by the lack of well-defined samplescovering large fractions of the sky. The recent redshift survey of M. Strauss (California Inst, ofTechnology), M. Davis (U. of California, Berkeley), A. Yahil (State U. of New York, Stony Brook), andHuchra of galaxies detected by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) has helped to counteract thisproblem. This project consisted of the measurement of redshifts for all galaxies detected by IRAS inunconfused regions of the sky, whose 60 um flux densities exceed 1.936 Jy. Essentially all of the southernhemisphere observations were carried out from CTIO, mostly with the 1.5-m telescope. The value of thissurvey is that the sample is a uniform, all-sky sample of galaxies, which is, in addition, negligibly affectedby galactic extinction. Such a sample is invaluable for investigations of the structure of the local universe,since it can be used as a tracer of the galaxy distribution and (by inference) of the local mass distribution.One can then take the derived mass distribution and see how successfully it accounts for observations oflarge-scale deviations from uniform expansion of the local universe. To the extent that it does not, itenables one to constrain the distribution of dark matter-i.e. non-luminous material. Among other things,the IRAS galaxy sample has been used to confirm that the cosmic microwave background dipole is,indeed, produced by the gravitational motion of the local group.

All of these large-scale features in the galaxy population pose severe challenges to current cosmologicalmodels. The difficulties lie in the inability of the models to produce such large structures by purelygravitational means. The hot dark matter models use the hot particles to suppress excessive small-scalefluctuations, but in conventional cosmologies with omega = 1 they do not reproduce the galaxy-galaxycorrelation function, and they have difficulty producing the giant mass fluctuations required to explain thelarge-scale streaming motions. Cold dark matter models cannot produce the large structures, and they yieldtoo much small-scale structure unless ad hoc assumptions such as biased galaxy formation are introduced.Non-gravitational theories using shock waves to initiate galaxy formation may successfully account forthe observed structure, but they require as yet unobserved explosive eventsof enormous energy, about 1065ergs per event, which is equivalent to the energy radiated by 10,000 galaxies over the age of the Universe.

The dilemma faced by current theories has caused some consternation, particularly because thegravitationalmodels have appealing features from the standpointof high energy particle physics. It is clearthat the continuing and widespread interest in cosmology and its implications for the large-scale structureof the Universe will motivate many programs in observational astronomy during the next five years.Further work is required to determine just how empty the voids really are, as well as to search for anygaseous intergalactic matter in the voids. How common is the large-scale streaming motion? Is thesuspected periodic nature seen in the pencil beam surveys real? Additional and more distant surveys needto be carried out. An old technique which has been revitalized recently by T. Lauer (KPNO) andM. Postman (STScI) is the usage of Brightest Cluster Galaxies (BCGs) as standard candles. From imagingand spectroscopic data obtained at CTIO and KPNO of 114 BCGs in a full-sky sample of Abell clusters,Lauer and Postman have concluded that the BCG Hubble diagram is consistent with a uniform Hubble

22

flow over 0.01 < z < 0.05, in apparent contradiction to some of the studies cited above. This ratherconfusing result points out the need for further study.

A crucial element in cosmological models is the evolution of structure with time and, because galaxiesare too faint to be detected at the relevant look-back times, surveys of quasar distributions are of greatimportance. Confirmation of these large-scale structures and a determination of their evolution in time willnot only constrain cosmological models but will also lend insight into the effects of possible non-baryonicor "dark" matter components in the Universe. Moreover, detection of non-random features in the initialperturbation spectrum could indicate the presence of cosmic strings. Addressing these issues requires alarge database, which must be acquired in a systematic and self-consistent manner. The new telescopesand instruments planned for use at NOAO will be an essential component in the success of these typesof programs. The planned construction of a 3.5-m telescope on Kitt Peak, in cooperation with universitypartners, will allow long-term, dedicated programs to be carried out. One candidate program is a massiveredshift survey, which will supply detailed dynamical data over a sample large enough to address theseproblems. Further into the future, the large collecting area of 8-m telescopes, when coupled with the speedof fiber-fed multi-object spectrometers, will result in an improvement of more than two orders ofmagnitude over current facilities. This capability will allow the analysis of faint quasars and clusters ofgalaxies at redshifts between one and three, which is an essential period in the study of the evolution oflarge-scale structure.

2. The Formation and Evolution of Galaxies

The simplest view of galaxy formation assumes that there was some epoch when galaxies formed theirconstituent stars, with all subsequent evolutionary effects resulting from the relatively slow and continuousprocess of stellar aging in combination with smoothly declining rates of star formation. Until quite recentlythis view was the prevalent one. Observations taken over the past several years, particularly at KPNO andCTIO, have shown the need to modify this view. It is important to note that many of these observationssimply could not have been made without the current generation of sophisticated solid state detectors andtheir accompanying instrumentation.

One of the first indications of a more complex picture was revealed ten years ago when H. Butcher(Kapteyn Obs.) and G. Oemler (Yale U.), using the KPNO telescopes, discovered that rich clusters ofgalaxies appear bluer as their distance increases. In an observing program spanning several years, Butcherand Oemler discovered that nearby rich clusters tend to be populated with old, quiescent elliptical galaxies,yet these observations suggested that at earlier epochs such galaxies were undergoing significant amountsof star-formation. The clusters surveyed extended out to a redshift of approximately 0.4, whichcorresponds to looking back approximately one quarter of the age of the Universe. This result, which hassince been confirmed, indicates a much more rapid evolution of elliptical galaxies in clusters than hadbeen previously thought. A second set of relevant observations comes from a survey of the galaxiesassociated with strong radio sources. H. Spinrad (U. of California, Berkeley) and S. Djorgovski (Centerfor Astrophysics), using the KPNO telescopes, have obtained data on some of the most distant galaxiesobserved. Looking back to times half the age of the Universe or less, they find that these radio galaxiescontain a great deal of hot, ionized gas which is in very rapid, turbulent motion. The galaxies themselvesoften appear distorted or moderately disrupted. This work has been confirmed and expanded by P.McCarthy (Mt. Wilson), who has found this effect in a larger, more complete sample of radio galaxiesvia observations with the KPNO 4-m telescope. Recently McCarthy and his colleagues have discovereda giant (100 ~ 170 Kpc) cloud of ionized gas surrounding the radio-galaxy 3C 294. This cloud is very

23

massive (about 109 MJ and seen at a redshift of 1.79; its kinetic energy alone may be as large as1059 ergs. This cloud may be the remnant ofthe protogalactic nebula from which 3C 294 was formed. Byway of contrast, similar strong radio sources nearby (redshifts < 0.1) are found to be associated with oldelliptical galaxies which contain very little gas and are regular and undisturbed in appearance. Hence, thereis strong evidence for major changes with time for this special class of galaxy.

Further evidence for evolution was found by A. Tyson (Bell Labs.) in examining the environment ofquasars at two different epochs. The CTIO and KPNO telescopes were used to observe quasars in theredshift ranges 0.1 ~ 0.5 and 1.0 ~ 1.5. Tyson found that the more distant quasars had ten times moregalaxies around them than did the nearby sample, indicating a drastic change in luminosity for thesegalaxies with time. Another, unbiased, sample was obtained by Tyson and P. Seitzer (CTIO) with deepCCD imaging. This survey found that galaxies at half the age of the Universe are consistently bluer andthus have much more active star-formation than at the current epoch. Another striking case has been therecent discovery of a very large (100 kpc) cloud of ionized gas at a redshift of 1.82, which looks back totwo-thirds the age of the Universe. No stellar population is found, though a radio source is present. Thedata are consistent with this being a galaxy in the process of formation. A final complication emerges fromthe work of D. Hamilton (CTIO, now at California Inst, of Technology), which shows the existence ofa very old, unevolving population of red galaxies, which have basically been unchanged for about halfthe age of the Universe. In addition, S. Lilly (U. of Toronto) has shown that the rapidly evolving radiogalaxies at large redshift may also have an underlying stellar population that is very old, consistent withan epoch of formation at a redshift of about five. This picture has been made more complex by recentresults from the KPNO two-dimensional infrared array. These K-band data indicate that the old stellarpopulation in these galaxies may be elongated along the axis of the radio source. This now seems to bea general feature of these distant radio galaxies, and thus implies that models for star formation in themneed to be revised. A further complication has arisen from data obtained in recentmonths using this arraycoupled with a polarimeter. In a small number of radio galaxies, the elongated emission shows significantpolarization. This may imply that a large amount of the light is actually scattered emission coming fromthe nucleus and not from stars. Just how much of the emission can arise in this manner is not yet clear,nor is the frequency of occurrence of polarization of the light in these objects. This important area ofinvestigation will evolve rapidly in the next few years.

Thus, recent observations suggest that galaxy formation was far from coeval, that galaxies may have beenforming throughout the age of the Universe, and that many, but not all, have undergone dramaticevolutionary changes in that time. The possible nature of these evolutionary forces is also becomingclearer through recent work at NOAO and elsewhere. In many cases, those galaxies that show strongevidence for evolution are found to be in special circumstances: in clusters of galaxies, nearquasi-stellarobjects, or associated with strong radio sources. Membership in a cluster of galaxies provides severalmechanisms that can perturb a galaxy and thus change the history of its star-formation. Near encounterswith other galaxies, strippingof gas by ram pressureof the intergalactic medium, or conversely, accretionof such gas by cooling flows onto a massive central galaxy are all possibilities. It is by no means clearwhich of these processes is relevant, and much further work needs to be done. That the proximity ofquasars to galaxies may be important was implied by the survey of Tyson. In addition, R. Green (KPNO)and H. Yee (U. de Montreal) have used the facilities at NOAO and the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescopeto show that the clusters of galaxies associated with quasars become much richer beyond a redshift ofabout 0.5. The exact nature of this interaction is again unclear, but not the reality of the effect T.Heckman (U. of Maryland) and his collaborators have used NOAO telescopes to determine that galaxiesassociated with radio sources often reside in regions of highergalaxy density than do similargalaxies thatare "radio quiet." This trend becomes more apparent with increasing redshift, as has been recently

24

discovered by S. Lilly (U. of Toronto). In addition, Heckman, Miley (STScI), van Breugel (U. ofCalifornia, Berkeley), and their collaborators have established, in a multi-year program, that many radiogalaxies have copious amounts of hot ionized gas enriched with heavy elements and spread throughoutand beyond the galaxy. Such galaxies often show a distorted morphology. Again, this body of dataindirectly suggests the presence of some form of interaction among galaxies.

It may be that encounters with other galaxies are a condition for rapid and dramatic evolution of galaxies.However, the deep CCD survey of Tyson and Seitzer implies that many isolated galaxies also haveundergone significant evolution. A particularly elusive indication of galaxy formation and evolution comesfrom the metal containing absorption line systems seen against distant quasars. These systems have beenobserved at NOAO by D. York (U. of Chicago) and by Green and J. Bechtold (U. of Arizona), but theirexact nature remains in doubt A possibility is that these systems are primordial or protogalaxies lyingalong the line of sight to the quasar. However, a better definition of their properties is needed to allowresolution of this question. Another group of galaxies that may be undergoing dramatic evolution are thoserecently detected by the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) satellite. These objects emit up to 10 timesthe luminosity of a normal spiral galaxy, with the emission mostly in the far-infrared region. The presenceof copious amounts of dust is suspected, but many more observations will be required to define theseobjects properly. An alternative candidate for a galaxy in the earliest stages of evolution is the hydrogencloud discovered by Giovanelli (Nat Astronomy and Ionosphere Center) and Haynes (Cornell U.). Thiselongated cloud seems to offer support for the idea that disks of galaxies can form slowly throughout thehistory of the Universe.

Although a wealth of data apparently exists concerning galaxy formation and evolution, much of it is verynew and rather sparse. The questions are just now emerging, and much more observational material needsto be gathered before the relevant issues can be well defined. What is the role of the environment ofgalaxies upon their evolution? What are the important aspects of galaxy interactions-near, distant, gaseous,and gravitational? If the implications from current data are true, what causes some galaxies to delay theirformation and others not to do so? Is there a single cause of galaxy formation? Why do some galaxiesbecome radio sources and others not? The answers to these and related questions will clearly involve manylarge-scale observing programs, which will require significant use of present and planned NOAO facilities.Fiber-fed spectrographs on medium and large aperture telescopes, two-dimensional infrared arrays, largeformat optical detectors, and enhanced state-of-the-art computing facilities will all be essential to theseprograms in the next five years.

3. Stellar Structure and Evolution

Pursuit of questions concerning stellar structure not only provides information about how stars evolve butalso sheds light on such diverse topics as star-formation, the chemical and dynamical evolution of thegalaxy, the calibration of the distance scale, and the age of the Universe. For example, J. Stauffer(Smithsonian Astrophysical Obs.) has obtained rotational velocities for stars in the Pleiades cluster. Hefinds that nearly half of the stars observed have rotational velocities much higher than expected. Thisindicates that a major portion of the angular momentum of the protostellar cloud is retained duringcollapse and is not shed into a circumstellar disk. Stellar spectroscopy is also raising questions about thedynamics of star-formation in the galaxy. J. Hesser (Dominion Astrophysical Obs.), W. Harris (McMasterU.), and R. Bell (U. of Maryland) have found variations in the chemical composition of main-sequencestars in the globular cluster 47 Tucanae. Such stars are thought to have formed at the same epoch; hence,these results raise questions about either the chemical homogeneity of the gas cloud that formed the cluster

25

or about mixing within the stellar interiors. Further work is needed to determine the compositions of starsin globular clusters. The chemical composition of another class of stars, M giants in the galactic bulge,has been studied at CTIO by J. Frogel (Ohio State U.) and A. Whitford (Lick Obs.), who find them to beextremely metal-rich and unlike stars near the Sun. Remarkably, these M giants are very similar to thestars in giant elliptical and SO spiral galaxies. This provides an opportunity to study a stellar populationsimilar to that of the largest galaxies in the Universe.

Spectroscopy of stars in our Galaxy is providing new and very interesting results that bear on theformation of the galaxy, and by implication,on the formation of all spiral galaxies. D. Geisler (CTIO) hasused NOAO telescopes to study star clusters in the galactic disk in the direction of the anticenter. He findsa population of metal-poor stars younger than those found in other parts of the disk, and this importantresult implies that the entire galactic disk was not formed at the same time but rather that the outerportions formed much later. A complementary result has been obtained very recently by K. Gilroy andC. Sneden(U. of Texas), C. Pilachowski (KPNO), and J. Cowan (U. of Oklahoma) in their study of r ands process elements in halo stars. By coupling their results with known nucleosynthetic processes in starsof differing mass, these investigators have been able to argue that the extreme halo population of stars inthe galaxy was formed in a very short time, about 10 million years. These two results have profoundimplications for models of galaxy formation, and they will provide motivation for additional observationaland theoretical programs in the future.

Similarly, the Magellanic Clouds serve as unique laboratories for stellar and cluster studies. From CCDphotometry obtained largely at CTIO of a total of 182 RR Lyrae variables in seven Large MagellanicCloud (LMC) clusters, and color-magnitude diagrams for the clusters themselves, A. Walker (CTIO)recently determined mean magnitudes for the variables, abundances, and reddenings. Assuming an LMCdistance modulus of 18.5 mag as derived from the Cepheid variables, the RR Lyraes are found in themean to be some 0.3 mag brighter than suggested by statistical parallax analyses of Galactic field RRLyraes and from parallaxes of subdwarfs. Revising the zero point will change both distances and ageswithinour own Galaxy. In particular, the ages of the oldest globularclusters in our galaxy decrease to -15Gyr. In a similarfashion, recent studies of giant stars in LMC clusters carried out at CTIO by N. Suntzeff(CTIO) and collaborators havealso provided new insight intothe age-metallicity relationship for the innerand outer parts of the LMC, and have probed the kinematics of this nearest neighbor to the Milky Way.

The aboveexamples illustratethe broad rangeof stellar programs being carried out with NOAO facilities.For many of these problems, spectroscopy of more stars, intrinsically fainter stars, and more distant starsis needed. Among young star clusters, more work is required to understand the relation between star-formation, stellar activity, and magnetic fields. Much remains to be done in the area of stellar evolutionthrough the study of the surface compositions of stars at different phases of evolution and to understandthe role of mixing. Scientific programs in the area of spectroscopy of stars in clusters will benefitespecially from multi-object capability, which will allowobservations of many individual stars in a clustersimultaneously. BothCTIO and KPNO have multi-object fiber-fed spectrographs in operation. KPNO hasjust commissioned a bench mounted spectrograph which can be fed by up to one hundred individuallymovable fibers. Demand for this instrument is extremely high. Thedesigns of the WIYN Telescope, whichwill be placed on Kitt Peak, and of the proposed 8-m telescopes have been optimized for fiberspectroscopy.

26

4. Star-Formation

In view of their proximity and the number of years devoted to their study, surprisingly little is knownabout how stars form. Processes involving the formation and evolution of the parent clouds, theirfragmentation and collapse, the role of angular momentum and magnetic fields, the establishment of theinitial mass function, and the evolution of protostars and very young stars are all areas of activeinvestigation. NOAO facilities have been used to observe regions of star-formation in our own and innearby galaxies, and the advent of two-dimensional detector arrays that operate in the infrared isstimulating even more observing programs relevant to this topic. Moreover, these arrays are particularlywell-suited for use in multi-wavelength, multi-observatory programs to address key questions in the areaof star-formation. In particular, they will complement observations by HST, SIRTF, SOFIA, and millimeterand sub-millimeter telescopes and arrays.

It has become well established that the collapse of a protostellar cloud to form a new star is accompaniedby an outflow of mass from the central region, and several programs have used NOAO observations toinvestigate the nature of these outflows and their implications for the star-formation process. Theseoutflows are usually anisotropic, often bipolar, and sometimes very highly collimated. An importantquestion, which has been examined by several groups, is the origin of this outflow and the mechanismfor its collimation. In some cases, the outflow is seen to be collimated to within 100 AU of the surfaceof the young stellar object, but it is still unclear if the wind is intrinsically bipolar or whether it iscollimated by material around the star. Evidence that circumstellar disks are found around virtually allyoung stellar objects has been obtained by S. Strom (U. of Massachusetts) and his collaborators, arguingfor an external collimation mechanism. However, additional data are needed. A successful understandingof this very common outflow phenomenon would provide valuable information about the role of angularmomentum in the star-formation process, about the efficiency of stellar collapse and the role ofcircumstellar material, and about the conditions at the surface of the young star itself.

Recent observations, again by the Stroms and their collaborators, suggest that the inner portions of disksaround protostars, which have masses of about one percent of the mass of the Sun, are essentially clearedaway over a period of about 107 years. What remains around main-sequence stars are disks with massesof about 10* M9, and these disks do not extend all the way to the surfaces of the central stars. Theobvious interpretation is that the disk material has aggregated to form planets. Again, detailed studies athigh spatial resolution and low-resolution infrared spectroscopy are required to explore the evolution ofstellar disks and hence to constrain models of the formation of planetary systems.

Anotherphenomenon related to the star-formation process is the Herbig-Haro objects, which are emissionline nebulae thought to originate from the interaction of matter ejected from a young star with theinterstellar medium. Observations are consistent with highly supersonic outflow, often accompanied bya larger-scale, less rapid outflow in the parent molecular cloud. It is not clear if the rapid outflow iscontinuous or intermittent, nor is the mechanism known which produces the high-degree of collimationthat is observed. Understanding of this phenomenon would shed light on the nature of both the youngstellar object and its environment

Productive areas for future investigation include both the local phenomena of protostars, mass outflow,circumstellar shells, and accretion disks, along with such global aspects as the initial mass function andthe variation of star-formation with changes in metallicity, turbulence, and magnetic fields. A majorimpetus for new and continuing programs in star-formation has come from the availability of two-

27

dimensional infrared array detectors. Already these arrays have detected circumstellar disks of moleculargas around protostellar objects, and they have also revealed rich groups of very young stars whoseexistence was heretofore only assumed. Very recently, P. Hartigan and his collaborators at the Center forAstrophysics have used a two-dimensional array to determine that molecular cooling is a principle energyloss mechanism in causing the deceleration of outflows from Herbig-Haro objects. These early andtantalizing results are stimulating the formulation of many new observing programs.

A major new initiative in this area has been undertaken by KPNO astronomers using the four-colorinfrared imager (SQIID). This program involves a carefully constructed multicolor survey of selectedregions of active star formation, with the aim of producing an extremely useful database that will bereadily available to the astronomical community. Both the scientific objectives and the observing and datareduction strategies have been developed in consultation with outside experts in the astronomicalcommunity, and data are currently being taken for this project This program is but a first step in whatis seen as an era of major advances in the field of star formation, not only in our own galaxy buteventually in other galaxies such as the Magellanic Clouds and members of the Local Group. In the galaxyitself, the problem of low mass star-formation and the definition of the initial mass function (IMF) for lowmass stars can now be addressed. Studies of the upper end of the IMF, where many of the more massivestars have been heretofore obscured by the dust associated with their birthing process, have also becomepossible. It will be feasible to identify and study stars below the critical mass for nuclear ignition and toexamine accretion disks around protostars and young stellar objects. The arrays will also make possiblethe search for particle disks around main-sequence stars, these being the presumed progenitors of planetarysystems.

B. Initiatives for CTIO and KPNO

1. WIYN

Following formal approval of the WIYN agreement by the NSF and university administrations, NOAOjoined together with the University of Wisconsin, Indiana University, and Yale University to form theWIYN Consortium, Inc., incorporated in the State of Arizona in November, 1990. The WIYN Project willmake use of a 3.5-m, spin-cast lightweight mirror produced at the Steward Observatory Mirror Lab. TheWIYN universities are prepared to contribute a total of $8.5 M over the time period 1991-1994 for theconstructionof a new telescope on Kitt Peak. If Wisconsin, Indiana, Yale, and NOAO meet the obligationsdetailed in the WIYN agreement then the observing time remaining after the allocation of maintenanceand discretionary time would be apportioned in the following way: Wisconsin 26%, Indiana 17%, Yale17%, and NOAO 40%.

During FY 1991 the Project staff grew to include three people in addition to the Project Manager. Theseinclude a Mechanical Engineer, a Systems Engineer, and a Designer. During FY 1992 the WIYNTelescope enclosure and control building were designed and general contractors were pre-qualified forconstruction. Site construction started in mid-FY 1992, and will be complete early in 1993. Fabricationof the WIYN telescope mount began early in 1992 and will continue through installation in mid-1993.Following the successful conclusion of tests of the 3.5-m mirror blank, the mirror was returned to theSteward Observatory Mirror Laboratory for final figuring and polishing. Polishing is complete, and themirror will be installed in the telescope early in FY 1994.The KPNO O/UV instrumentationprogram willcomplete modifications of the multi-object spectrograph and fiber positioner to move the instrument fromthe KPNO 4-m telescope to WIYN at the end of FY 1994.

28

NOAO anticipates that the WIYN telescope will provide the community with access to schedulingalternatives such as service observing, queued observations, targets-of-opportunity, and long range,synoptic, and survey programs. The details of these concepts are under study within KPNO and inconsultation with the user community, and will be completed during FY 1993 and early FY 1994, as thetelescope begins partial operations.

Key milestones of the WIYN project, provided cash flow can be maintained, are as follows:

WIYN Milestones

December 1991 Begin telescope fabricationFebruary 1992 Begin construction of enclosureMarch 1993 Enclosure completedApril 1993 Install telescope mountNovember 1993 Install opticsJanuary 1995 Full operation

2. SOAR

Apart from Gemini, the only other large telescope project that CTIO plans to actively participate in forthe near future is SOAR (Southern Observatory for Astrophysical Research). CTIO has joined with theUniversity of North Carolina (UNC) and Columbia University (CU) to form a partnership which plans tobuild and operate a 4-m telescope on Cerro Pachon. An interim Memorandum of Understanding has beensigned by the three partners in which UNC and CU will fund construction of the telescope and CTIO willoperate it. Observing time is to be allocated commensurate with contributions to the project, and iscurrently figured at 30:30:30:10 for UNC:CU:CTIO:U. Chile. The telescope is to be patterned after theESO NTT and will have a 4-m f/2.0 thin meniscus primary mirror made of Corning ULE glass. The twoNasmyth foci will be optimized for optical and near-IR high resolution imaging and spectroscopy. Theprimary will be supported by an active optics system, and the initial complement of instruments willinclude both optical and near-IR imagers and spectrographs. The instrumentation configuration is beingdesigned to permit low maintenance operation and to allow for the quick change of instruments. Theobserving will be done through queue scheduling, and it is hoped that a broad band satellite link fromTololo to the US will allow some form of remote observing. Cost of the telescope and initial instrumentsis currently estimated at $20 M. Fund raising efforts are now underway at both universities, and theinterim agreement stipulates that each university must have committed at least $3.5 M, representingroughly one-third of the capital costs, to the project by December 1993 or the present SOAR partnershipshall be dissolved.

During the past year, the ULE glass for the primary mirror was fabricated by Corning. The fund raisingefforts at both UNC and CU were strengthened recently when the steering committee of the UNCbicentennial campaign made a formal commitment to the project to raise $10 M. This should allow acontract to be drawn up soon with Corning to provide for the fabrication of the primary mirror blank. Forits part, CTIO has undertaken a site survey over the last three years which has shown Cerro Pachon to bean extremely promising site for modern telescopes.

The impetus for CTIO participation in SOAR was the need to provide the US astronomical communitywith more large telescope time in the southern hemisphere. Since NOAO does not have funds to devote

29

to the project, the universities are providing the capital costs for construction of the telescope and initialinstrumentation, and CTIO's contribution will consist of operating the telescope. The length of the initialagreement will be approximately 20 years, and will be determined by cost analysis such that all threepartners provide equal amounts of funds and receive equal amounts of telescope time over the life of theagreement. Without a budget increment or substantial change in operations style, CTIO will have tooperate the telescope by ceasing to operate the smaller telescopes on Tololo, i.e., the 1-m, 0.9-m, andCurtis Schmidt, and re-directing that effort to the SOAR 4-m. Our internal analyses have indicated thatthis change in operation should be both revenue and manpower neutral. This, of course, can occur onlyif NOAO continues to be supported by NSF at a level at which we can continue to operate the smallertelescopes. If budget reductions force closure of some of the smaller telescopes, some other solution willhave to be found for CTIO participation in SOAR.

3. Beyond 8-m Telescopes

Scientific progress in many forefront problems of astrophysics demands very high-angular resolutionobservations. This capability, when combined with high-spectral resolution observations and theunprecedented light-gathering power of large apertures, will permit breakthroughs in many scientificproblems. It will also complement and extend observations from the new generation of space-basedobservatories.

The scientific significance of high-angular resolution observations increases enormously with increasingbaseline. For example, the jump from 4-m to 8-m apertures allows fundamental progress in studies ofstellar and planetary formation. The further jump to interferometric baselines of 20 to 200 meters permitsthe detailed imaging of stellar surfaces and the measurement of supernovae diameters in the nearestexternal galaxies. Interferometricbaselines of about 1 km will allow detailed imaging of the inner regionsof active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and quasi-stellar objects (QSOs).

NOAO believes that two key technologies mustbe developed before a national interferometric facility canbe defined. First NOAO will provide systems for the 8-m telescopes that will permit diffraction-limitedimaging up to their aperture limit by means of both passive and active observing techniques. Second,interferometers, consisting of three to five telescopes of medium aperture (0.5-3m) on transporters, shouldbe developed for both infrared and optical wavelength regimes. These arrays would provide coverage oftelescope separations up to a few hundred meters. These arrays should be developed by universities orother groups outside NOAO.

On the basis of results from these development programs, NOAO is prepared to join with others asappropriate to propose a national interferometric facility. NOAO participated in the successful InfraRedMichelcon Array (IRMA) project at the University of Wyoming. Several members of the regular andvisiting staff are participants in the Infrared Optical Telescope Array (IOTA) project at Mt. Hopkins.

It may also prove feasible to merge the independent telescopes on the Mauna Kea site optically into anad hoc array, withverycomplete u, v coverage for separations up to 1 km. Optical fibers may be suitablefor retrofittingheterogeneousfacilities for interferometricoperation. Demonstrationof interferometricfibercoupling of independent telescopes was first achieved between the auxiliary telescopes at the NSOMcMath facility on Kitt Peak in September 1991. These experiments are continuing, with coupling ofexisting telescopes at 50-m separation expected in the summer of 1993.

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C. Instrumentation for CTIO and KPNO

1. CTIO Instrumentation

Table 1

CTIO Five-Year Instrumentation Plan Summary

FY 1994

CCD Mosaic Prototype (finish)4-m Primary Active Support SystemNew Spectrograph Cameras (finish)HgCdTe Imager (finish)2nd Generation IRS (start)CCD Controller Production (continue)Implementation of Large-Format ArraysIR Photometer Conversion

4-m f/15 SecondaryTelescope Ungrades

Total

FY 1995

2nd generation IRSCCD Mosaic (start)CCD Controller Production (finish)4-m Image Stabilization Camera (start)4-m R-C Spect Upgrade (start)InSb IR Imager (start)Telescope Upgrades

Total

FY 1996

2nd Generation IRS

CCD Mosaic

InSb IR Imager4-m Image Stabilization CameraImplementation of Large-Format Arrays4-m R-C Spect. Upgrade (continue)10-micron Camera

Total

FY 1997

4-m R-C Spect. Upgrade (finish)Remote Observing (start)Implementation of Large-Format ArraysCCD Mosaic (finish)InSb IR Imager (finish)4-m Image Stabilization Camera (finish)

Total

CTIO Project Manpower CapitalScientist(s) (months) ($K)

Walker et al. 15 22 *

Baldwin 13 26

Heathcote, Ingerson 8

Elias, Gregory, Elston 20

Elston, Elias, Gregory 15 25

Ingerson, Walker 33 45

Walker, Elias et al. 10

Elias 14 28

Elias, Gregory, Elston 7 15 *

Staff 25 20

160 181

Elston, Elias, Gregory 35 50 *

Walker et al. 25 47 *

Ingerson, Walker 20 25

Schommer 10

Heathcote, Schommer 30 25

Elias et al. 25 15

Staff 15 20

160 182

Elston, Elias, Gregory 20 40

Walker et al. 35 42 *

Elias et al. 15 45

Schommer 30 20

Walker, Elias et al. 10

Heathcote, Schommer 40 25

Elias, Elston 10 20

160 192

Heathcote, Schommer 20 25

Ingerson et al. 15 40

Walker, Elias et al. 10

Walker et al. 55 50

Elias et al. 40 50

Schommer 20 40

160 205

31

FY 1998

Remote Observing (continue)Major Instrument (finish)Implementation of Large-Format ArraysInstrument Upgrade Projects (2)Telescope Upgrades

Total

* Joint project with KPNO or duplication of KPNO instrument. Only CTIO resources are indicated.

Ingerson et al. 25 70

Staff 60 50

Walker, Elias et al. 10

Staff 55 70

Staff 10 20

160 210

During the next five years, the instrumentation development program at CTIO will concentrate on twomain areas: (1) taking advantage of continuing improvements in detector technology in both the opticaland infrared, and (2) improving telescope/instrument performance in order to realize the full potential ofCTIO as an astronomical site.

4-m telescope imaging improvementsSeeing measurements taken last year have confirmed the original site surveys which indicated that CerroTololo routinely delivers sub-arcsecond seeing. The median seeing is 0.6-0.7 arcsec (FWHM), with the25th percentile figure somewhat less than 0.5 arcsec. Work at a number of observatories around the worldhas shown that with proper attention to detail, large telescopes can be made to produce images as goodas the intrinsic site seeing. In FY 1991, a program to improve the thermal environment of the 4-mtelescope was begun by removing heat sources and facilitating air flow in the dome. During the courseof this work, which is now largely completed, it became clear that many aspects of the 4-m telescopeoptics themselves, while considered entirely acceptable by the standards of the times when the telescopewas designed and built, are in fact not adequate to meet the more rigorous imaging standards that are nowconsidered appropriate for large telescopes. Imaging at the prime focus will improve substantially whenthe new prime focus corrector enters use around the end of this calendar year. However, the f/7.8Cassegrain focus, which is currently used for slightly over half of the observations at the telescope (theremaining time being split between the f/30 Cassegrain and the prime focus), has by now beendemonstrated to have serious problems. The most efficient solution is to re-figure the existing secondary,which will be taken out of operation for this purpose beginning in June 1993.

Once the secondary is re-figured, the desired performance can be maintained only by continuousmonitoring and correction—i.e., on a weekly or nightly basis rather than once or twice per year. Hence,a Shack-Hartmann image analyzer will be built during FY 1993 to provide accurate and unbiasedevaluations of the imaging performance of the 4-m telescope in essentially real-time. Also scheduled forcompletion during FY 1993 and FY 1994 are the implementation of a cooling system for the primarymirror to reduce the effects of "mirror seeing", modifications of the f/7.8 secondary mount to provide moreefficient alignmentof the secondary, and a modification of the existing primary mirror support system toprovide for active control of the primary mirror figure.

New detector controllers

The design of a new-generation array controller was actively begun at CTIO nearly three years ago, andis now nearing completion. After successful testing of two prototype controllers on the Curtis Schmidttelescope, the first copies of the Arcon 3A controllers destined to replace the 10-yearold VEB controllersshould enter into routine service on the 0.9-m and Curtis Schmidt telescopes by the end of this calendaryear. In FY 1993, we intend to make some further improvements to the design (Arcon 3B), and to make

32

ten copies thereof, as well as retrofitting the improvements to the Revision A controllers. The newcontrollerdesign, portions of which are also being used at KPNO, offer a variety of advantages over ourexisting controllers in reliability, flexibility, and efficiency. The new controllers are necessary for theeffective implementation of large-format IR and visible arrays, which typically have multiple read-outamplifiers.

New instrumentation

When CTIO implemented its first infrared-array-based instruments, during 1987-1989, it then providedthe only capabilities of this kind in the southern hemisphere. During the period since then, advances inarray technology havemadethese first-generation instruments increasingly obsolete. While theothermajorsouthern observatories have built instruments around second-generation infrared arrays, CTIO has not hadthe resources to do so up until now, and has therefore fallen behind in an area where it was once theleader.

The principal reason why resources could not be devoted to infrared instrumentation was the decisiontaken to devote significant resources to two areas which ultimately benefit both the infrared and theoptical-developmentof new array controllers and improvements in the imaging performance of the 4-mtelescope. The availability of a modern, flexible array controller means that CTIO can easily implementnew infrared arrays; the image quality achieved on the 4-m telescope allows work at high spatialresolution, as well as higher sensitivity for detection of point sources.

It is now our intention to take advantages of these developments by devoting a significant fraction ofavailable resources over the next three years to building new infrared instruments capable of incorporatingnotonlythe presently available second generation arrays, but the larger-format devices expected to becomeavailable over the next three to five years.

Our emphasis in conceiving these instruments has beenon three key concepts: efficiency, simplicity, andhigh spatial resolution. The first two go together, in the sense that it is easier to build a high-throughput,low-background instrumentif one does not includea varietyof little-used options or excessive flexibility.As an example,our second generationimager incorporates only four opticalelements, including the dewarwindow, and can be upgraded to a larger array size by adding one more element (a field flattener). Mostother comparable instruments have six or more elements, with corresponding increases in scattered lightand thermal background. This is because it provides only a single pixel scale at a given telescope focus,and includesno elements that require a collimated beam.The range in pixel scales that astronomers mightwish is provided by the variety of telescopes andf/ratios available at CTIO. High spatial resolution is alsoemphasized; this is an area where the 4-m telescope (with the f/30 secondary) already routinely producesimages in the half-arcsecond range in the near infrared, and where improvements in seeing and in controlof the primary should lead to further improvements.

Ourfive-year plancontemplates construction of the following infrared and optical instruments in responseto these needs:

HgCdTe ImagerThis instrument should be completed and fully commissioned during FY 1994. It will be based on a256 x 256 NICMOS III (HgCdTe) array, which is a detector already widely in use elsewhere (e.g.,Hawaii, AAT, ESO, Las Campanas). The instrument is intended to be a simple, high-efficiency imager.It provides a single demagnification which can, however, be used at all thedifferent focal ratios availableon the CTIO telescopes (including the Curtis Schmidt with additional fore-optics) providing a range of

33

plate scales and field sizes. One of the primary goals of this instrument is to take advantage of theexcellent image quality of Cerro Tololo; the imager should provide diffraction-limited imaging (if theseeing permits) on both the 4-m and 1.5-m telescopes at f/30, and coarser scales at other f/ratios. Theimager has been designed to allow upgrade to a 512 x 512 array with the addition of a simple fieldflattener. We are also exploring options to add a warm, 2-um Fabry-Perot etalon through a cooperativearrangement with the University of North Carolina. The latter option would probably be implemented soonafter the basic instrument is commissioned.

Second-Generation IR SpectrometerThe existing IR Spectrometer is an instrument originally designed for use with a small array of discretedetectors. Some thought was given in the original design to subsequent upgrade to a two-dimensionalarray, and it is a fact that one of the NOAO 58 x 62 SBRC arrays was successfully installed. Nevertheless,the instrument does not use the full array size along the slit, and clearly could not be further upgraded touse the next generation of arrays without a complete rebuild. Since the KPNO IRS (CRSP) suffers fromsimilar problems, we are developing a plan to produce two identical instruments jointly. As currentlyconceived, these instruments would have the following characteristics:

Operation at f/15. This requires duplication of the KPNO 4-m telescope f/15 secondary for CTIO.

2-3 resolutions. Minimum resolution is set by the desire to fill whatever array is used with an 'TRwindow"; used in conjunction with a prism cross-disperser this would provide complete spectralcoverage from 1-2.5 um.

Modular construction. This would permit ready replacement of detector+camera combinations aslarger-format arrays become available.

1-5 um coverage. This may be provided by a single camera/detector or an alternately selectable pair.

The idea is that this would be a joint project by the two sites. Because of the different levels of resourcesavailable to the two IR programs, the required resources would not be divided 50:50 between them-butCTIO would expect to be an active participant, both in terms of specifying and designing the instrument,and in terms of contributing resources to the project. Because this project involves close collaborationbetween two NOAO divisions, the initial instrument concept needs to be prepared with greater care anddetail than is customary, and the work schedules, once laid out need to be met with less slippage thanis also customary. It is our belief that an instrument can be defined, built and commissioned by the endof FY 1994.

CCD Mosaic

This is a joint project with KPNO. The current phase is to produce two mosaic imagers based on 2 x 2mosaics of 2048 x 2048, 15 um pixel Loral (ex-Ford) chips, as a probable preliminary to a single, 4x4mosaic imager to be shared by the two observatories. The 2x2 mosaic will require the new CTIO arraycontrollers since a total of 16 read-out amplifiers are involved.

Spectrograph CamerasCTIO expects to receive enough of the long-awaited NOAO/Steward 3096 x 1024 CCD detectors to beable to dedicate one or more of them to spectroscopy on the smaller telescopes. However, the existingcameras are not suitable for such large detectors. New cameras are therefore needed for both the 1.5-mand 1.0-m spectrographs. While our resources do not permit us to handle construction of these cameras

34

internally, we have reached an agreement with STScI to provide mechanical design and construction, withCTIO providing the optics.

Image Stabilization CameraThe improvements being carried out to the optics and thermal environment of the 4-m telescope shouldallow sub-arcsecond imaging to be attained routinely. Once this goal has been achieved, we envision theconstruction and implementation of a fast-guiding (tip-tilt), image stabilization camera designed to giveimages as good as 0.3 arcsec FWHM. Since other observatories have already produced such cameras, wesee no need to "re-invent the wheel". Rather, the intention is to copy or adapt an existing camera designto the 4-m telescope, or perhaps even build the camera in direct collaboration with one of the groups thathas already successfully produced one.

Imaging Multi-Object SpectrographLow-resolution CCD spectroscopy on the 4-m telescope is currently handled by the RC spectrograph. Inspite of its more than 15 years of service, this classical, big-beam, slit spectrograph still provides excellentperformance. However, over the past few years the CTIO user community has requested that we considerthe possibility of constructing an imaging spectrograph with a multi-object (aperture plate) capability. Overthe next three years, we expect to investigate possible designs of such a new spectrograph. It is theconviction of the scientific staff that an important component of any future spectrograph(s) built for the4-m telescope should be the inclusion of an image stabilization (or, perhaps, even an adaptive optics)capability to provide for high spatial-resolution spectroscopy.

2. Kitt Peak National Observatory

Table 2

KPNO Infrared Five-Year Instrumentation Plan Summary

KPNO Project Manpower CapitalScientist(s) (months) ($K)

f 1994

Continue PHOENIX Hinkle 56 60

Design Medium Res Spectrometer Joyce/Hinkle 2 -

Fast Two-Axis Secondary (FTAS) Ridgway 5 5

Upgrade CRSP Detector Merrill 10 2

COB Improvements Merrill 30 20

Closed Cycle Cooler Upgrades Fowler 5 5

Operations and Maintenance Fowler 27 40

Detector R&D Gatley 30 35

*165 *167

(♦Reduced relative to previous five-year plans to actual levels of support for FY 1993)

35

FY 1995

Complete PHOENIX HinkleContinue Medium Res Spectrometer Joyce/HinkleDiffraction Limited Imaging RidgwayUpgrade SQIID Detector MerrillUpgrade COB Electronics + Detector ProbstOperations and Maintenance FowlerDetector R&D Gatley

20 5

50 20

3 5

25 47

10 15

27 40

30 35

'165 '167

(♦Reduced relative to previous five-year plans to actual levels of support for FY 1993)

FY 1996

Continue Medium Res Spectrometer Joyce/HinkleDesign 1024 x 1024 InSb Camera GatleyDiffraction Limited Imaging RidgwayOperations and Maintenance FowlerDetector R&D Gatley

55 60

38 20

15 12

27 40

30 35

'165 '167

(♦Reduced relative to previous five-year plans to actual levels of support for FY 1993)

FY 1997

Complete Medium Res Spectrometer Joyce/HinkleDiffraction Limited Imaging RidgwayContinue 1024 x 1024 InSb Camera GatleyOperations and Maintenance FowlerDetector R&D Gatley

38 17

15 5

55 70

27 40

30 35

'165 ♦167

(♦Reduced relative to previous five-year plans to actual levels of support for FY 1993)

FY 1998

Continue 1024 x 1024 InSb Camera GatleyDiffraction Limited Imaging RidgwayDesign Multi-Object Spectrograph GatleyOperations and Maintenance FowlerDetector R&D Gatley

30 65

35 27

43

27 40

30 35

165 167

a. KPNO Infrared Program

We have just completed our first five years of experience with IR arrays at KPNO. This enterprise hasbeenhighly successful. Wehave staged the implementation of this technology in such a way as to provideimmediate scientific results, have made the paradigmatic shifts required to "think infrared," have investedin the hardware needed for efficient operation of the new instrumentation, and have planned for upgradesbased both on improvements in technology and on improvements in our understanding.

36

The program is now approaching maturity. The next five years will see continued rapid growth, including:

Upgrade of existing array-based instrumentation to a detector format size of 256 x 256, with furtherupgrades to larger format to follow;

Installation of fast electronics and related upgrades in computer hardware and software required for3 to 5 pm operation and for the use of larger format arrays;

Development of 1024 x 1024 InSb detectors in collaboration with USNO;

Deployment of a high resolution (R = 100,000) spectrograph;

Sharply improved image quality through wavefront correction;

Design and construction of a medium resolution spectrometer with CTIO.

Program Highlights in FY 1992

The facility camera SQIID is now operational at the 4-m telescope, employing a new f/14 secondarymirror and closed-cycle refrigeration,

The detector research and development effort has successfully deployed state of the art high quantumefficiency HgCdTe and InSb detector arrays,

In a collaborative arrangement with Tony Tyson (Bell Labs.), the facility camera IRIM was upgradedto a 256 x 256 HgCdTe Nicmos III array,

The detector removed from IRIM, being of superior cosmetic quality, was installed in the gratingspectrometer CRSP, providing a very substantial improvement for that instrument,

The Cryogenic Optical Bench was commissioned using a 256 x 256 InSb detector array,

The optical and mechanical design for the high resolution (R = 100,000) long-slit spectrometer wascompleted,

The Fast Two-axis Secondary (FTAS) project at the 2.1-m telescope used tip-tilt wavefront correctionto demonstrate a factor of two improvement in image size.

Future Plans

Detector upgrades for all existing array-based instrumentationThe facility camera IRIM was recently upgraded to a 256 x 256 HgCdTe Nicmos III array, while theCryogenic Optical Bench employs a 256 x 256 InSb detector array. Now that such high quantumefficiency, large format detectors are available it is also appropriate to upgrade the detector in CRSP asa short term measure (preceding the construction of a next generation medium resolution spectrograph,

37

scheduled to occur towards the end of the forward look period, as described below). The optics in CRSPcan take full advantage of the larger format in the dispersion direction, but not in the spatial direction; weare extremely fortunate to have in hand an engineering grade 256 x 256 InSb whose functional area fillsthis illumination pattern of CRSP, allowing a very cost-effective upgrade path. A further necessary stepin such an upgrade program is in the fast electronics and computer capabilities required to support the veryhigh resultant data rate.

Fast electronics and related computer upgradesDevelopment of fast electronics was begun in FY 1990, and the prototype was available and working inthe L channel of SQIID by the end of FY 1991. The latest generation of high quantum efficiency arraysstrains the older KPNO IR data system intolerably. For example, the old data system requires 60 secondsto archive a single frame, yet the longest integration time possible at broadband K is now only 3 seconds.Fast processing electronics are a major component essential for operation in the thermal infrared, for rapiddata acquisition, for fast guiding, and for more sophisticated adaptive optics. Faster electronics will alsobe needed for full exploitation of the multiple-read noise reduction algorithm, essential for efficientspectroscopy. Continued development work and upgrade in this crucial area will proceed as rapidly asresources allow, so that all IR instruments at all KPNO telescopes can be operated efficiently.

Deployment of a high resolution (R = 100,000) spectrograph, PHOENIXThe experience gained at KPNO with CRSP, a low- and medium-resolution array spectrometer employingan SBRC 58 x 62 InSb array, amply demonstrates the power of IR arrays for spectroscopy. The HighResolution Spectrometer, PHOENIX, uses a compact collimator/camera system based on a modificationof the Ebert-Fastie concept In keeping with our commitment to modular design, the PHOENIX foreopticsare modelled on the Cryogenic Optical Bench, and will accept an f/15 beam, in common with the otherIR instruments. The optical and mechanical design for the high resolution (R = 100,000) long-slitspectrometer Phoenix is now complete, and construction will begin in the second half of FY 1993. Thisinstrument will continue the strong tradition of high resolution IR spectroscopy begun at KPNO with the4-m FTS, and because of the improvements in detector technology, will provide much greater sensitivities.

Sharply improved image quality through wavefront correctionInfrared astronomers are becoming increasingly aware of the potential of adaptive optics for imageimprovement. The recent demonstration of diffraction limited imaging at 2-5 um at Haute Provence, amediocre site, has shown that this potential will be realized within the near future. The 2 um window isa particularly good place to work, because the background from both atmospheric airglow and thermalemission is relatively low.

The KPNO infrared program entered this field with a development program that began with relativelysimple modifications to existing facilities and instruments. The first step was adaptive correction to imagemotion through simple tilt correction, which reduces the 2 um image diameter by a factor of 2 undertypical Kitt Peak seeing. The experiment is proceeding at the 2.1-m telescope. A CCD camera is used toprovide a continuous position readout for the reference star, which may be any star in the field. Therequired brightness of the reference source depends on atmospheric conditions, but is sufficiently faint thatthe image stabilization option will be of wide applicability. The error signal is used to close a fast guidingloop with the existing 2.1-m two-axis IR secondary. A new camera module for the Cryogenic OpticalBench will allow its use with FTAS in FY 1994.

It is too early to predict accurately how the generalization to higher order wavefront correction willproceed at KPNO. One possibility is through the addition of a segmented secondary and with improved

38

wavefront measurement. Implementation of the fast guiding would require installationof suitable mirrors,first at the 2.1-m and later at the 4-m. A focal ratio in the range f/60 to f/120 would be appropriate forthis small secondary. An upgradeof the fast processing electronics wouldbe required for rapid centroidingand generation of the error signal to drive the mirror tilt in two axes. The longer term developmentsshould also include deployment at the 4-m of the tilt correction system, and incorporation of higher ordercorrections through active control of a segmented mirror. Following the model of other successful IRdevelopment programs, development of a mirror with 10-20 actuators might be undertaken jointly witha commercial vendor, especially one with experience in adaptive optics for Defense programs. Real-timecorrection of several higher order (Zemike) terms would then be possible, and the goal of diffractionlimited imaging could be more closely approached.

Design and construction of a medium resolution spectrometer with CTTOMajor savings in non-recurring engineering costs and infrastructure can be realized if the same instrumentcan be operated at multiple sites. At KPNO the work needed to allow IR operation at a common focalratio of f/14 at the 1.3-m, 2.1-m and 4-m telescopes is now complete, and identical closed-cyclerefrigeration will soon be available at all three telescopes. A scheme is now under consideration to makesimilar modifications at CTIO. This will allow us to use copies of the same instrument at KPNO andCTIO. Discussions of a suitable choice for an identical pair of IR instruments have identified among theuser communities a common desire for a new medium resolution spectrometer. Work on the optical designwill proceedat CTIO simultaneous with the necessary telescope modifications. The mechanical packagingand construction will take place in Tucson.

Detector development with USNOA series of meetings between representatives of USNO and NOAO during 1992 identified areas ofcommon interest in the development and deployment of IR focal plane detectors for astronomical use inastrometry. USNO brings to this discussion vast experience in astrometry, while NOAO has expertise inthe development characterization, and utilization of various IR detector technologies in astronomy.

InSb was identified as the detector material appropriate to satisfy our mutual goals, because of its highquantum efficiency, excellent cosmetic quality, low dark current, low read noise, and absence of afterimages of the kind seen in HgCdTe array detectors (the other readily available high QE material). Thepresentmaximum array format size of 256 x 256 was understood to be too small for typical applicationsin astrometry. Formats of 1024 x 1024 will be required.

The usefulness of a pilot program based on existing 256 x 256 detectors was agreed, and observationswere made at both the 4-m and 1.3-m telescopes at KPNO. These observations demonstrated that thepresent generation of JJR cameras at KPNO provide stable, reproducible, sensitive infrared observationssuitable for astrometry.

We have now entered into a collaboration between USNO and NOAO for a detector development programwith Santa Barbara Research Co. to produce 1024 x 1024 InSb arrays within two years; to be jointlyfunded by USNO and NOAO. Santa Barbara Research Co. is the leader in the field of InSb detector arraydevelopment for astronomy. NOAO has a long and mutually advantageous relationship with SBRC in thespecification, deployment and optimization of these detectors. The first generation 58 x 62 array waspioneered at NOAO just a few years ago. Very recently, the newly developed 256 x 256 InSb array wasput into service at KPNO with great success. Extrapolating along the technology baseline provided bythese earlier efforts, SBRC and NOAO are now convinced of the feasibility of a development programfor 1024 x 1024 InSb array detectors.This is the format size identified by USNO as that required for a

39

mature astrometry program. The detector development effort will be modelled after that conducted byNOAO in the successful development of the science grade PtSi array. The costs for this program falloutside the current baseline budget and are listed under Initiatives: $500 K for initial development and$200 K per array purchase.

Advanced Mirror CoatingsThe performance of all the IRinstrumentation is affected bythe reflectivity and emissivity of the telescopeoptics. The optical design of the telescope system, the intrinsic properties of the mirror coating, thecontamination of the mirror surfaces by dust and other residues, and the deterioration of the mirrorsurfaces are all important factors in determining the system emissivity, and thus the ultimate performanceof the IR instrumentation. In the thermal IR, notably around 4 pm and 11 pm (and perhaps even in theK band), the thermal emission of the telescope system is the dominant source of background at thedetector.

The long term plan is to pursue a program to evaluate the performance of telescope mirror coatings. InFY 1991 we initiated the effort by applying an advanced coating to the optics of the existing 13-inch f/15low-background configuration telescope~a telescope currently stored in the IR lab-and adapted thetelescope tube so that it can be attached to the top-surface of the IRIM and CRSP, storing the telescopein the 1.3-m dome, and making measurements of the 13-inch telescope emissivity, zenith sky emissivity,and 1.3-m telescope emissivity at 4 um each time the IRIM or the CRSP is mounted on, or removed from,the 1.3-munder clear weather conditions. Use of the 13-inch telescope for these tests allows us to isolatesources of background emission in the telescope, recoat the mirrors, change coatings, and make mirrorcleaning and scattering tests (all of which would be rather impractical with the 1.3-m telescope itself)while at the same time providing a realistic approximation to a real telescope environment andconfiguration, and a comparison baseline with the aluminum coatings on the 1.3-m.

The initial coating is thorium fluoride/silver/chromium, which the NOAO coating lab is able to produce.The prescription has been in use at the 4-m FTS for several years. If the testing indicates substantiallyimproved durability and performance of advanced coatings, it will be important to develop the capabilityto laydown silverundercoated with copper and overcoated with sapphire and tantalum oxide, thepreferredprescription in the NOAO-supported study at the Optical Sciences Center to develop an IR optimized,broad wavelength, improved durability mirror coating.

Gemini

The KPNO Infrared Program is well positioned to meet the requirements of the NOAO 8-m telescopes.The fast guiding and coatings endeavors are directly applicable to the design of an "infrared optimized"telescope. By virtue of the Cryogenic Optical Bench approach to instrument construction, the presentgeneration of KPNO instruments can be regarded as prototypes for the 8-m telescopes. In imaging atKPNO, thelong term effort will be in the area of diffraction-limited observations, with associated adaptiveoptics, fast electronics, and rapid guiding. High resolution spectroscopy can benefit significantly from asuccessful adaptive optics program because of the small angular slits required to achieve high spectralpurity. A plan including development of sharply improved image quality and spectroscopy is thereforeoperationally justified andwill be aggressively pursued. Given oursturdy programmatic expertise, it wouldbe a wise investment for Gemini to underwrite a substantial effortin IR astronomy at KPNO, and we willcontinue attempts to foster a close relationship.

40

Table 3

KPNO Optical/Ultra-Violet Five Year Instrumentation Plan Summary

FY 1994

Start high resolution cameraContinue 4x4 CCD mosaic

Complete 4-m wide-field corrector4-m Fiber spectrographCCD development programFiber R&D programInstrument improvement projects

Total

FY 1995

Continue high resolution cameraComplete 4x4 CCD mosaic4-m Fiber spectrographCCD development programFiber R&D programInstrument improvement projects

(GoldCam2)Total

FY 1996

Complete high resolution camera4-m Fiber spectrographCCD development programFiber R&D programInstrument improvement projects

(GoldCam2)Total

FY 1997

CCD development programFiber R&D programNew instrument projectsInstrument improvement projects

Total

FY 1998

CCD development programFiber R&D programNew instrument projectsInstrument improvement projects

Total

KPNO ProjectScientist(s)

Manpower(months)

Capital($K)

Staff 15 5

Boroson et al. 40 20

JacobyPilachowski

5

15

5

25

Boroson 25 35

Barden 2 5

Staff 10 5

112 100

Staff 20 10

Boroson et al. 25 20

Pilachowski 30 50

Boroson 25 15

Barden 2 5

Staff 10 20

112 120

Staff 20 10

Pilachowski 30 50

Boroson 25 35

Barden 2 5

Staff 20 20

97 120

Boroson 25 35

Barden 2 5

Staff 40 40

Staff 25 20

92 100

Boroson 25 35

Barden 2 5

Staff 40 40

Staff 25

92

20

100

41

b. KPNO Optical-Ultraviolet (O/UV) Instrumentation

The Kitt Peak O/UV instrumentation program is currently concentrating on advances in imaging capability,especially at the 4-m telescope. We have acquired a selection of CCD detectors which includes threeTektronix 2048 x 2048 imagers. These are the largest commercially-available CCDs and are in routineuse at the 4-m, 0.9-m, and Burrell Schmidt telescopes. We are fabricating a new wide-field corrector/fieldflattener for the 0.9-m telescope and have begun a design study for a new corrector for the 4-m primefocus.

In order to extend our capabilities past that afforded by single CCD devices, we have begun a project todevelop a wide-field mosaic imager in collaboration with CTIO. We have already completed a 2 x 2 arrayof CCDs, each having 2048 x 2048 pixels. We are refining the techniques used in that project in orderto produce a mosaic four times as large, approximately 5 inches on an edge. The development of thisimager will require most of the O/UV resources over the next several years. The acquisition of the detectorarrays is required to be an "initiative" at the current budget level.

We will continue our program to upgrade detectors used with Kitt Peak instruments to make new, largerformat lower noise, higher sensitivity detectors available for visitor use. We are also replacing our CCDcontrollers with more modem architecture, following the new controllers under development at CTIO, witha Sun-based user interface.

In addition, we will consider a number of smaller projects aimed at enhancing existing capabilities at the4-m and at our smaller telescopes. These might include, but are not limited to the following:

• New cameras for the R-C and Gold spectrographs to increase throughput and make better use of thelarge CCD detectors now in use.

• A germanium array detector to bridge the gap between optical and near-IR.

• A reconfiguration of the R-C spectrograph to allow observations with a cross dispersed echellette.

• Upgrade of imaging capability at the Schmidt telescope to take advantage of the 1 degree fieldachievable with the new 2048 x 2048 CCDs.

• Modification of the 4-m prime focus corrector to improve the images over the wide field sampled bythe CCD mosaics

• Modification of the 2.1-m and 0.9-m guiders to allow wider field.

Also, we will continue a program of R&D with optical fibers leading to better use of fibers on Kitt Peakand to the development of instrumentation for the WIYN telescope and the Gemini 8-m telescopes.

CCD Mosaic ImagerFinally, during the period including FY 1994-FY 1998, we will design and build a spectrograph to replacethe bench spectrograph which, as part of Hydra, the multi-object spectrograph, is moving to the WIYNtelescope. The design of this new bench-mounted spectrograph will be aimed towards high dispersion andstability, so as to complement the older system at the WIYN telescope.

42

The scientific motivation for a wide-field CCD mosaic is strong, especially for galaxy photometry, studyof nearby galaxies, and deep sky survey programs. When 8-m telescopes come on line, the 4-m will beused more heavily for imaging; this would be a valuable instrument to "find" objects to observespectroscopically with the 8-m telescopes. The proposed device would consist of a 4 x 4 array of Fordchips (2048 x 2048 with 15 pm pixels) covering 0.41 square degrees with a pixel size of 0.28 arcsec,sufficiently small to sample the best seeing. A small 2x2 array of such chips has already been made asa preliminary demonstration of the technology. Thismini-mosaic has allowed us to learnhow to interfacemultiple chips both mechanically and electrically. At the sametime, it fits into a standard universal dewarand is usable in all the places that our current Tektronix 2048 is used. After we acquire sufficientexperience with the mini-mosaic, a full-size mosaic will be built, with the added complications of a largemechanical interface and the necessity for a very fast data system.

The large size of the mosaic will require a new prime focus corrector for the 4-m telescope. Constraintson such a corrector include image quality over a considerable wavelength range, back focal distance, andfield size. We are currently working with an outside contractor to provide a design. The array design willalso allow the mosaic to be used at CTIO with their new corrector. Either one, or if funds permit, twoidentical large mosaic imagers will be built thus making this project a NOAO cooperative effort. Themosaic developed for the 4-m prime focus could also be used at the R-C focus to provide a 13-15 arcminfield with higher spatial resolution.

The data rate and data storage requirements are challenging and represent a significant advance over ourcurrent capabilities. Currently, our CCDsare read out at a 20 Kp/sec rate. This translates into 210 secondsto read a 2048 x 2048 CCD. For the mosaic made of sixteen 2048 x 2048 Ford chips, sequential readoutwould require almost an hour! If we were to up the pixel rate to 50 Kp/sec and multiplex all sixteenreadouts, we could read out the entire mosaic in 84 seconds. A bandwidth all through the system of1.6 Mb/sec would be required. We have already achieved some of this gain with our prototype 2x2mosaic which can be read out in 150 seconds.

The storage of data represents another area where image sizes and pixel rates will tax the conventionalapproach in an unacceptable way. Each readoutof the full mosaic yields 128Mb of data. A singleExabytedrivewill require almost 11 minutes to write the data from a single image to tape. Seventeen such mosaicimages will fit on a single 120 minutes (2.2 Gb) video cassette.

Because such a major project will monopolize the available resources for a number of years, the projectwill run in two phases. During FY 1993, we are constructing two "mini-mosaics." These will permit anassessment of the technology and its extension to a larger imager. At the completion of the mini-mosaics,an impartial review will be held to assure that the technical issues have been properly addressed. Apositive review from the panel and IPAC will mark the starting point for the project which is anticipatedto take some two additional years at the current level of support.

The CCD Development ProgramThe acquisition, characterization, evaluation, andimplementation of new CCDdetectors will remain a highpriority, since all other aspects of our instrumentation program depend on our detectors. Two programsare being actively pursued to produce a substantial supply of large-format CCDs. One is a collaborativeeffort with Steward Observatory to use the CCD foundry at Ford Aerospace to produce custom devices,especially small-pixel rectangular formats forspectroscopic use. Thepackaging and thinning will bedoneat Steward, with devices to be distributed to CTIO, KPNO, NSO, and Steward. The other route is throughinvolvement by KPNO in the NASA-funded Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) development.

43

A test and characterization program is being carried out on Tektronix 2048 x 2048 CCDs. Loanagreements with the STIS program allow visitor use of good devices at both CTIO and KPNO.

The long-term development effort will focus on detectors for the imaging mosaic. The goal is to createan imaging surface with 98% filling factor, requiring a front rather than side orientation for the leadbonding. The mounting surface would then be tapped with holes that are plated, so that the connectionscan be made underneath or at the side of the entire mosaic. This new architecture will require developmentand testing of new masks and characterization of the performance of closely packed devices; theintermediate step will be a 4096 x 4096 mini-mosaic of 2 x 2 Ford CCDs with a similar buttablearchitecture.

Data Acquisition and CCD ControlThe associated CCD hardware (controllers, displays, etc.) must be upgraded to handle the new, largeformat low noise detectors with four quadrant readout In FY 1993, we completed a prototype newgeneration controller based on the CTIO desiga We are in the process of constructing 10 new controllerswhich will be put in place at all focal stations by the start of FY 1994.

The telescope and computer environment for data acquisition and reductions is a third area to which weneed to devote effort. We need to streamline the flow of information to the observer through improvedand more interactive acquisition and quick look software (e.g. standard star magnitudes, transformationcoefficients, automatic chip formatting for standard star observations, etc.). In FY 1991, we adopted ICE,an IRAF based data acquisition program, to replace our Forth based LSI-11 systems. More work needsto be done now on optimizing this package and the associated routines for observing procedures at KittPeak. For the longer term, an effort has begun to define the requirements for the system which willeventually replace ICE. It is hoped that a system can be designed which will run both optical and IRdetectors.

A New Bench-mounted Spectrograph for the 4-m TelescopeAt the end of FY 1994, the Hydra fiber positioner and bench spectrograph will move over to the WIYNtelescope. We are currently undertaking a design study for a fiber fed spectrograph to replace Hydra, butone which would have complementary capabilities. Rather than Hydra's emphasis on low to mediumdispersion spectroscopy of many objects, we intend to build a system for obtaining medium to highdispersion spectra of a small number of objects. In the focal plane, this would consist of a small fixedarray of fibers (10-12). These fibers would port the light from a single object and a number of skypositions to a bench mounted spectrograph with cross dispersion capability and extreme stability.

The scientific justification for this system is twofold. First, the stability andhighdispersion capability willallow studies of stellar seismology, detections of planetary systems, and work related to other stellarphysics problems where very accurate line strengths and velocity measurements are required. Second, inits medium resolution cross-dispersed mode, the system will allow high signal-to-noise spectroscopy overa very large wavelength range of moderately faint objects. This sort of observation is required in suchareas as quasar emission line studies and work on stellar populations in distant galaxies. At present thesecapabilities do not exist in any of the spectrographs at Kitt Peak.

Fiber Optics R&D ProgramFiber optic spectroscopyoffers a substantial increase in observingefficiency. In FY 1994, we will continueexamination of end treatments and connectors with respect to focal ratio degradation, scrambling, andoverall throughput We will also investigate techniques for guiding with fibers for use with the WIYN

44

telescope. For the 8-m program, we will develop a tiltable gripper and learn to deal with the very largearea of the focal surface of the 8-m telescopes. We plan to maintain the same level of effort in fiber opticsdevelopment during the five year period of this plan.

c. 3.5-m Mirror Project

The 3.5-m mirror project is drawing to a successful completion, and will be phased out with thecommissioning of the primary mirror system for the WIYN telescope early in calendar year 1994. Thepolishing of the mirror has been completed at the Steward Observatory Mirror Laboratory, and the originalWIYN performance specifications of 0.090 arcsec FWHM and 3% scattering loss were achieved. Thismirror nominally has the best surface figure achieved on a borosilicate blank at the Mirror Lab.Pressurizing the mirror cells minimized the print-through effects produced by polishing pressure on thethin face plate.

The mirror group will spend the summer assembling and integrating the support and thermal controlsystem for the primary cell. Delivery to the telescope is planned for October 1993, with a period ofintegration to follow. The remaining personnel in the group will return to the Engineering and TechnicalServices group (out of which the mirror group was formed) to act as resources for collaborativeinstrumentation projects within NOAO. This mirror project therefore does not appear as a further line itemin the program budget, since the resources will have returned to the general technical pool.

IV. SOLAR ASTRONOMY

A. Science at NSO

Study of the nearest star continues to yield important results about its structure and evolution, withsignificance for astrophysics and solar-terrestrial physics, but most observed phenomena remain poorlyunderstood. Over the next ten years or so, the NSO Strategic Plan calls for two principal scientific foci:studies of the solar interior and studies of the interaction between solar magnetic fields and plasmas. Thus,proposed research programs cover the internal structure and dynamics of the Sun, the origin and evolutionof its magnetic field, its influence on the structure of the atmosphere, and related topics.

1. Internal Dynamics

One of the most active areas of solar research is that of helioseismology, which uses acoustic waves toinfer the interior structure of the Sun. The objectives and program of the Global Oscillation NetworkGroup (GONG) are described elsewhere in this plan, but while the GONG project is the primary path bywhich NSO is probing the solar interior, there are several other programs whose aims include the use ofthe oscillations to probe the subsurface structure of magnetically active regions, the mapping of flows inthe upper convection zone, and the study of solar cycle as seen by changes in the properties of theoscillations.

Observations obtained at the Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope have shown that sunspots absorb a significantfraction (up to 50 percent) of incident p-mode acoustic wave energy. In addition, small sunspots (pores)and areas of enhanced magnetic activity (plage) also exhibit appreciable absorption. Observations obtainedwith the Vacuum Tower Telescope at Sacramento Peak suggest that the absorption of the oscillation

45

energy by a sunspot may disappear while a flare is occurring. The absorption of acoustic waves bysunspots and the possible emission of waves by flares hold out the hope of studying the subsurfacestructure of sunspots and active regions by a form of acoustic holography. Indeed, analysis carried out atNSO on data from Hawaii may have already detected the presence of subsurface magnetic fields beforetheir appearance at the surface. Currently, a number of theoretical groups are working to uncover themechanism causing the absorption effect. Once this and the emission problem are solved, we will be ableto study the evolution of solar active regions from a three-dimensional point of view. The recentdevelopment of time-distance helioseismology at NSO will also provide a new way to search forsubsurfacemagnetic structures. Using this arsenal of innovative analysis techniques, NSO plans to observeoscillations over the next five years during the declining, minimum, and ascending phases of the magneticactivity cycle. During this time, the effect of solar flares on the oscillations will be studied and morestatistics on the interaction of the p-modes with sunspots will be obtained. These phenomena will beobserved through the use of the spectromagnetograph and High-/ Helioseismograph at the VacuumTelescope on Kitt Peak.

In addition to the absorption and emission of p-mode oscillations by active regions, the oscillations maybe used to probe the horizontal velocity fields below active regions. A three-dimensional analysis ofoscillation data has been developed in which the signature of the oscillations is a set of trumpet-shapedsurfaces in the k^ - k, - v volume. When the surfaces are sliced at a constant temporal frequency (v), a setof rings appears. The central positions of these rings are proportional to an average over depth of thehorizontal components of the velocity of the solar plasma. By analyzing rings from data obtained atdifferent heliocentric positions, the horizontal flows can be determined inside and outside active regions.Observations from the Vacuum Tower Telescope at Sac Peak show that the presence of an active regionproduces a 20 m/s difference in both meridional and rotational velocities. With the aid of inverse theory,we can determine maps of the horizontal velocities as a function of depth beneath active regions. Thesemaps should be of great value in the study of the evolution of active regions. Coupled with a holographicdeterminationof the subsurface magnetic field structure, a three-dimensional picture of active regions willemerge.

The ring diagrams can also be used to map the global pattern of convection in the Sun. A mosaic of ringdiagrams covering the solar disk will help to determine whether the largest scales of cells in theconvection zone are zonal, sectoral, or tesseral. Synoptic observations obtained with the High-/Helioseismograph over the course of a solar cycle will be essential to build up the statistics that are neededto answer this question and to determine if the cell shapes evolve with the solar cycle. Studies of flowsassociated with active longitudes can alsobe made, and the possibility that the formation of active regionsis presaged by a certain flow patternin the convection zone holds out the hope that a long-range forecastfor specific solar activity may be within reach.

While we have known of the existence of the solar cycle for a century, we still do not understand itsorigin. The most developed explanation is dynamo theory which, until recently, was observationallyconstrained mainly by the solar cycle period and the structure of the butterfly diagram. The results ofhelioseismology have shown that the interior rotation rate is not constant on cylinders as numericalconvection zone models had predicted. As a consequence, some theorists have hypothesized that the seatof the solar cycle is at the base of the convection zone. However, the precision of current determinationsof the solar oscillation spectrum is still too poor to distinguish between some very different patterns ofthe interior rotation rate. The observational programs that NSO will undertake in the next five years willprovide informationthat will be of great importance to dynamo models. New observations to be obtainedat the South Pole will be compared with previous South Pole data to analyze solarcycle changes in the

46

frequencies and line widths of the modes, as well as the internal rotation rate. GONG will provide themost accurate determination of the internal rotation rate ever obtained. The High-/ Helioseismograph willyield maps of the horizontal flows as a function of both depth and heliographic position in the convectionzone. This instrument will also monitor the high-degree modes throughout the cycle, providing additionalinformation about changes immediately below the photosphere. Solar interior holography will allow thesubsurface evolution of active regions to be followed. These prospective observations are exciting, as theywill provide unprecedented constraints on dynamo theory. Such observational advances must beaccompanied by corresponding theoretical progress in order to increase our understanding of the solarcycle.

2. Magneto-Convection

Overview

In a cool star like the Sun, energy is transported by convection in a thick shell that lies just below thevisible surface, the photosphere. Convective motions also generate and amplify solar magnetic fields,which rise buoyantly to the photosphere and expand into the outer solar atmosphere. The interaction ofthese motions and fields is responsible for all of the detailed structure that we observe (sunspots, coronalstreamers, active regions) as well as the great variety of non-thermal phenomena that comprise solaractivity. Convective motions also generate sound waves, gravity waves and MHD waves, which canpropagate outward and heat the solar atmosphere.

The interaction ofmagnetic fields and convective motions ("magneto-convection") occurs on a broad rangeof temporal scales (seconds to months) and spatial scales (arcseconds to the solar radius). Such phenomenaas solar flares, the solar wind, and the solar cycle are products of the interaction. This broad subject,supplemented by the study of large-scale motions, such as rotation, forms one of the major research areasin solar physics and is a central concern in NSO's Long Range Plan.

Convection

Two convective eddy sizes have been recognized for decades: the granulation, with typical sizes of 1500km (2 arcsec), and the supergranulation, with sizes around 30000 km and lifetimes of around a day. Onlyrecently, advanced observing and analysis techniques (developed at NSO and at Lockheed Palo AltoResearch Labs) have confirmed the existence of a third scale - the mesogranulation, with typical sizes of7000 km which was discovered at Sac Peak. Theorists in the US and Denmark are engaged in modelingthe dynamic behavior of the turbulent compressible,radiating flows that are involved in stellar convection,and they use observations obtained at NSO and La Palma to guide their models. The models haveadvanced to the point where they give realistic representations of the time-evolution of solar granulation.

Moreover, the models suggest new observations that require very high spatial resolution. The modelspredict the existence of high-speed vortices that lie between emerging granules, and that have diametersof 100 km at most. These vortices may play a crucial role in twisting coronal magnetic fields and thusheating the solar corona.

Recent observations at NSO have revealed a previously undetected feature of stellar convective motions:the existence of rising and falling "plumes" of gas, distributed randomly over the photosphere andoccupying a small fraction of the surface. These plumes are well-known in terrestrial hydrodynamicsystems (e.g. the ocean, and the atmosphere), and have recently appeared in some solar simulations. New

47

techniques for analyzing full-disk velocity movies are being developed at NSO to reveal this complexcirculation.

Convection in the Sun has two important side effects. First, the turbulent motions produce sonic noise,which propagates into the overlying atmosphere, produces shock waves, and heats the low chromosphere.Gravity waves are also predicted above the convection zone, but their wavelengths are too short to bedetected directly, except for their role in broadening photospheric line profiles. Recent work at NSO isdirected at estimating the energy flux in such gravity waves from high spatial resolution observations ofgranulation. Secondly, convective motions transport magnetic fields that emerge from the solar interior.In the photosphere, these fields have kilogauss strength, and occupy only a tiny fraction (10"4) of thesurface area, mainly between granules.

The horizontal convective motions in the photosphere twist and braid the magnetic field loops that extendinto the corona. According to a plausible theory, the complex coronal field develops current sheets, inwhich free magnetic energy is released to heat the corona. One of the prime objectives for observationalsolar astronomers in the coming five years is to test this idea. Vector magnetic field measurements in thephotosphere, at subarcsec spatial resolution, and fast imaging spectroscopy of the solar corona will berequired. NSO is developing the equipment needed to pursue these crucial investigations.

An adaptive optics system for the Vacuum Tower at Sunspot is being developed in partnership with theU.S. Air Force. Algorithms for image restoration and speckle are being applied and improved. Two-dimensional spectroscopy at video rates is now available, to freeze the solar image in moments of goodseeing.

To follow a small convective or magnetic feature on the Sun during its evolution also requires specialequipment NSO has developed a correlation tracker, in partnership with the Kiepenheuer Institute andJohns Hopkins University, which is now available at the VTT at Sunspot. These tools will provide newresearch opportunities during the next five years.

Small-Scale Magnetic FieldsSolar active regions are constructed of loops of low-lying magnetic arcades in the vicinity of sunspots.These fields have their roots in the photosphere and are distorted by a variety of convective motions andhorizontal shearing flows. The free energy stored in the field by these motions can ultimately dischargein a violent solar flare, with major terrestrial effects.

One of the majorgoalsof solar physics is to understand, in detail, how this processof energystorage andrelease occurs. The problem has many facets, ranging from the study of subarcsec field footpoints to thestudy of persistent large-scale horizontal flows. NSO is bringing online new tools for this major effort.

A vector magnetograph, built at the APL of Johns Hopkins, in collaboration with resident USAF scientists,is now in operation at Sunspot An Advanced Stokes Polarimeter (ASP) built by the High AltitudeObservatory, in collaboration with NSO scientists, is now installed the VTT at Sunspot, to provide high-precision measurements of small-scale magnetic fields. It will be used for studies of the structure ofsunspots, the dynamicsof spicules,MHD wave phenomena and many other researchprograms. The infrared portion of the solar spectrum offers advantages for magnetic field measures. To exploit theseadvantages, NSO has built a Near Infrared Magnetograph, now installed at the McMath-Pierce telescope.In combination with the spectroscopic and imaging instruments available at NSO telescopes, these newmagnetometers can make important advances in the study of solar magnetism.

48

In the quiet Sun, magnetic fields cluster at the borders of supergranule cells. Small bipoles constantlyemerge inside the cells and drift to the borders, where they merge and reconnect with opposite polarities.This continuous, dynamic process is basic to the dispersion of magnetic flux from active regions to highlatitudes, and ultimately controls the evolution of the large-scale fields which impose structure on thecorona. This process is a focus of current studies by NSO scientists and visitors.

The USAF scientists resident at NSO/SP, in collaboration with visitors, are engaged in a multi-yearprogram to understand the processes involved in the buildup and release of flare energy in active regions.This program uses many of the focal plane instruments at the VTT, as well as the Johns Hopkins (APL)vector magnetograph at the Hilltop Dome. A number of theorists in the university community arecooperating in this effort. They are attempting to model the magnetic fields in the chromosphere andcorona, by using photospheric magnetic and velocity measurements as boundary and initial conditions.This program is funded by the USAF and is expected to continue for several years.

Infrared MagnetometryInfrared observations offer unique advantages for probing the magnetic and thermal structure of the solaratmosphere. For example, because the ratio of the Zeeman splitting of a spectral line to its Dopplerlinewidth increases linearly with wavelength, it is possible in the infrared to measure the intrinsic strengthand orientation of solar magnetic fields with a sensitivity that is difficult or impossible to achieve in thevisible region. The discovery at NSO of atomic emission lines near 12 pm and a sensitive Fe I line near1.56 pm has made this possibility a reality. Unfortunately, infrared observations have suffered acompensating disadvantage imposed by the lack of array detectors: they usually sampled only one or afew spatial locations, often with coarse angular resolution.

Early results from NIM have demonstrated the existence of spatially coherent and correlated variationsof field strength and areafilling factor in plage regions. Thecauses of these correlated variations areunderinvestigation. It should also be possible to study the three-dimensional variation of field strength withinindividual magnetic structures by making simultaneous and cospatial measurements at 1.56 pm (base ofthe photosphere) and 12 pm (top of the photosphere). A secondary goal of NIM is to study sunspotmagnetic fields. It has been difficult to measure the variation of field strength across a sunspot becausethe umbra is so dark compared to the photosphere (which creates problems with stray light and dynamicrange). At 1.56 um, however, the intensity contrast between the umbra and the quiet photosphere is onlyabout a factor of two; moreover, the continuum opacity is simple and well understood, so it isstraightforward toestimate the temperature atthe level ofcontinuum formation. NIM observations ofabouta dozen spots haveso far revealed a characteristic nonlinear relation between field strength and brightnesstemperature that should place new constraints on magnetohydrostatic sunspot models.

Other major diagnostic resources of the infrared spectrum include molecular band systems and the infraredcontinuum. For example, the vibration-rotation bands of carbon monoxide (CO) at 2.3 and 4.6 pm are asensitive thermometer that can be used to probe temperature inhomogeneities in the upper photosphereand to test the validity of widely-used atmospheric models. Also, the CO lines show prominent intensityoscillations that can be used to study the penetrationof solarp-modes into the upper atmosphere. The 1.6pm continuum arises deeper in the solar atmosphere than any other observable wavelength and providesa unique window on magnetic fields and convection below the photosphere. Because the infraredcontinuum approximates the Rayleigh-Jeans portion of a blackbody curve (with intensity directlyproportional to temperature), it is straightforward to study temperature variations both vertically andlaterally.

49

The McMath-Pierce Telescope is particularly well-suited to solar infrared observations. Its all-reflectingoptics provide high transmission, low scattering, and low instrumental polarization at all infraredwavelengths accessible to ground-based observation. Its large aperture is a major advantage both forangular resolution (0.25 arcsec at 1.6 um, less than 2 arcsec at 10 pm) and for light-gathering power (thenumberof solar photons per Doppler linewidth is some 20 times smaller at 10 pm than at 0.5 pm). Thescientific potential and emerging technical capabilities have stimulated broad interest in an enhanced solarinfrared facility. A preliminary engineering study has shown that it is feasible to upgrade the McMath-Pierce to a 4-m aperture using actively controlled, cooled aluminum mirrors. Experiments are nowunderway to substantiate key technical elements of this upgrade.

Large Scale FieldsA new observational tool formapping large-scale horizontal flows in thephotosphere has been developedat NSO: local correlation tracking of granules, for many hours a day. The granules (which live for 10-15minutes) serve as tracersof persistentflows that interactwith active regionmagnetic fields. In combinationwith other tools, this techniques allows close study of the forces that build flare energy.

The detailed mechanics of the solar cycle remain a central puzzle in solar physics. According to currentideas, remnant magnetic fields are amplified near the base of the convection zone by a combination ofdifferential rotation (which varies in depth and latitude) and convective motions. These fields graduallyrise and emerge at the photosphere as sunspots and active regions. Surface fields then apparently migratein a random walk to high latitudes, but also submerge, reconnect or decay in place. A variety of physicalprocesses are at work to produce the well-known regularities (e.g.,Hale's laws of sunspotpolarity) of the11-year cycle, but the detailed mechanisms are still unknown. Helioseismology is helping to map theinternal flow fields thatare central to this cycle, but the interaction of these flows with (asyetundetected)strong magnetic flux tubes remains obscure. An intensive attack on this problem will be made at NSO,by staff and visitors.

The newly constructed spectromagnetograph at the Kitt Peak Vacuum Tower will provide vital data forthe study of the solar cycle. Full-disk digital magnetograms, dopplergrams and intensity maps in theX10830 line of helium are now being produced daily and distributed to the working community.

Sunspots are perhaps the most obvious manifestation of solar activity. Along-term program is underwayat NSO/T to measure the daily positions, sizes and contrast of sunspots. An archive of photographicrecords (film and plates), taken at Mt. Wilson Observatory and at the Kodaikanal Observatory, stretchesback to the early 1900*s, and is currently being analyzed for detailed regularities in sunspot motions.These results will bear on the problem of the solar cycle over longer timescales.

Coronal Studies

The solar corona is coupled tothephotosphere byitsmagnetic field. According tocurrent ideas, the powernecessary to balance coronal radiative losses (and losses in the solar wind) originates in convectivemotions in and below the photosphere. A major goal in solar research is to understand how convectionheats and shapes the corona, via the magnetic field.

The earlier idea ofacoustic heating by waves propagating from the photosphere has now been substantiallydiscarded since propagation of these waves is inefficient and observed upperlimits are insufficient to heatthe corona. Processes related to the electric current dissipation or MHD wave generation and damping arenow receiving more attention, but observations ofsmall-scale dynamical phenomena are needed to supportand offer more development of these ideas.

50

The most plausible models for coronal heating involve convective motions that twist and braid the coronalmagnetic field, and that generate electrical currents. If these models are correct we might expect to observetransient, high-temperature fluctuations in the active region corona, accompanied by turbulent high-speedflows. The initial volumes of these transient "nanoflares", may be very small, however, and difficult todetect.

High speed solar wind streams originate in coronal "holes" (regions of depleted density). The mechanismsthat accelerate coronal plasma to speeds as high as 800 km/s are still uncertain. Some form of MHD wave,generated low in the corona by convective motions in the photosphere, may be responsible. To date, littleconvincing evidence for such waves has been found.

Flow and condensation of the coronal plasma are known to exist above active regions and aroundprominences. Flows are particularly impressive in the case of post-flare loops, where rapid evolution ispresent. Condensation of the corona plasma is often assumed to explain the formation of prominences buthas never been directly observed, perhaps because either very small-scale processes or very faint emissionis involved.

Small-scale explosive or impulsive events are believed to produce fast ejections that propagate along theopen magnetic field lines of a corona hole, producing the fast solar wind. However, no detailedobservations exist of the ejection process.

Coronal mass ejections are observed propagating through the outer white-light corona. Relatively little isknown about the basic physics. For this problem, high-resolution images, spectra, and magnetic fieldmeasurements of the inner corona are required.

It is clear that better coronal observations are needed to attack these major problems. Most of the physicsseems to reside in small volumes. To carry out detailed spectroscopic studies at high temporal and spatialresolution, observers will certainly need more photon flux. Conventional coronagraphs have been limitedin aperture by the difficulty of making near-perfect lenses. A new era in coronal studies has been openedby the advent of super-polished mirrors, developed at first for the Hubble telescope. Now coronagraphsof meter-class are feasible, providing more photons in fully achromatic images: the means to investigatethe fundamental physical processes. NSO, in collaboration with the Institute of Astrophysics in Paris, isengaged in building such mirror coronagraphs, with USAF funding. Two prototypes have been completedsuccessfully, and larger instruments are planned that will provide observers with fast series ofmonochromatic images in the principle optical spectrumlines of the corona. The spatial resolution of the55-cm aperture instrument will be limited only by the seeing and should be sufficient to permit studiesof coronal fine structure at 2 arcsec scales. This program is discussed below in section III.B.3. ("LargeAll-Reflecting Coronagraph").

Measurements and understanding of the Sun's variable outputs poses one of the most important problemsin solar research. Not only is this problem linked to fundamental questions concerning the structure of theinterior of the Sun and to the unknown mechanisms of the activity cycle, but also it has an impact onclimate and atmospheric chemistry. In recent years much has been learned about variations in the solarradiative output, but much is still lacking in our knowledge of this important field.

High precision measurements of continuum images yield important data on the diminution of the totalirradiance by sunspots as well as the enhancement of this irradiance by faculae. Similar measurements inthe core of the Ca II K line yield equally important data on the distribution and strength of plages and

51

network in the chromosphere. These bright plages and weaker network contribute directly to the Sun'soutput in the UV and EUV regions of the spectrum. In large part these measurements describe the effectsof emergence and evolution of magnetic flux in the solar photosphere on the Sun's irradiance. NSO, incollaboration with a consortium of scientists, has begun a program (Radiative Inputs from the Sun to theEarth, RISE) to increase our knowledge in this important area which is described in the Initiatives Section.

B. Instrumentation for NSO

Table 4

NSO Five-Year Instrumentation Plan Summary

FY 1994

Sacramento Peak

Adaptive Optics1Mark II Correlation Tracker

Multiple Aperture TelescopeReflecting Coronagraph1CCD implementation

Total

Tucson/Kitt Peak

McMath Infrared3Video Filtergraph2Solar-stellar Cross Disperser4-m McMath UpgradeSouth Pole HelioseismologyKPVT TCP UpgradeVideo Flare Buffer2

Total

FY 1995

Sacramento Peak

Adaptive Optics1Multiple Aperture TelescopeReflecting CoronagraphCCD implementation

Total

Tucson/Kitt Peak

McMath Infrared3Solar-stellar Cross Disperser4-m McMath UpgradeFTS Polarimeter UpgradeKPVT Optics Upgrade2KPVT TCP Upgrade

Total

52

ProjectScientist

NSF SupportLabor

(Months)Non-Payroll

($K)

Dunn 30 20

Moore 5 5

Dunn 5 5

Smartt 15

Moore 15

70

7

37

Rabin 19

Jones 4

GiampapaLivingstonHarveyHarveyJones

1

4

34

4

66

37

37

Dunn 28 20

Dunn 15 12

Smartt 17

Moore 10

70

7

39

Rabin 20 19

GiampapaLivingstonHarveyJones

15

10

5

10

15

5

Harvey 6

66 39

FY 1996

Sacramento Peak

Adaptive Optics1Multiple Aperture TelescopeLarge Reflecting Coronagraph Study1CCD implementation

Total

Tucson/Kitt Peak

McMath Infrared

4-m McMath UpgradeFull-disk Light Feed2Cryogenic EchelleImaging FTS Design4

Total

FY 1997

Sacramento Peak

Adaptive Optics1Large Reflecting Coronagraph Design1CCD implementationSecond Hilltop spar

Total

Tucson/Kitt Peak

McMath Infrared

4-m McMath UpgradeFull-disk Light Feed2Cryogenic EchelleImaging FTS Design4

Total

FY 1988

Sacramento Peak

Adaptive Optics II1Large Reflecting Coronagraph1CCD implementationSecond Hilltop spar

Total

Tucson/Kitt Peak

McMath Infrared

4-m McMath UpgradeKPVT Synoptic IR Magnetograph2Cryogenic EchelleImaging FTS Design4Total

53

Dunn 27 20

Dunn 18 10

Smartt 15

Moore 10 11

70 41

Rabin 25 20

Livingston 15

Jones 10

Giampapa 8 21

Brault 8

66 41

Dunn 30 20

Smartt 15

Moore 10 10

Dunn 15 1170 43

Rabin 25 20

Livingston 15

Jones 10

Giampapa 8 23

Brault 8

66 43

Dunn 15 20

Smartt 35

Moore 15 15

Dunn _5 1070 45

Rabin 25 20

Livingston 15

Jones 10

Giampapa 8 25

Brault 8

66 45

1Carried out jointly with USAF/PL2Carried out jointly with NASA/GSFC3Carried out jointly with NASA/SR&T4Carried out jointly with NASA Atmospheric

Infrared Imaging, Spectroscopy, and MagnetometryNSO plans to take advantage of the large-aperture, all-reflecting optics of the McMath-Pierce Telescopeon Kitt Peak to develop new instrumentation that exploits the unique scientific potential of solar infraredobservations. This effort includes engineeringstudies and laboratoryexperiments to examine the feasibilityof increasing the McMath-Pierce aperture to 4 meters.

To realize the full potential of the McMath-Pierce Telescope for infrared astronomy, it must be mated tomodem infrared detector packages and data systems. What follows is a schematic list of needed auxiliaryinstrumentation -present and projected-and some of the scientific capabilities it will provide.

1. Near-infrared camera (1-5 um). Equipped with a 256 x 256 indium antimonide array, this instrumentprovides three new capabilities: 1) spectropolarimetry of Fe I 1.565 pm for maps of magnetic fieldstrength in the photosphere; 2) direct imaging in the 1.63 um and 3.70 pm continuum windows,reaching from 40 km below to 40 km above the base of the photosphere; 3) area spectroscopy of theCO fundamental vibration-rotation bands near 4.67 um to infer the lateral temperature structure of thetemperature minimum region. NSO will participate in an NOAO-wide initiative to incorporate 512 x512 or larger indium antimonide arrays in astronomical instruments. Such arrays would permittrue-field magnetometry of the full solar disk.

2. Mid-infrared camera (5 - 25 um). This instrument would incorporate a 128 x 128 or larger array. Itwould enable 1) area spectroscopy and spectropolarimetry of the 12 pm lines for analysis of magneticflux tubes; 2) direct imaging of the 11 um continuum window, probing 130 km above the base of thephotosphere; and 3) discoveries in the poorly-explored spectrum beyond 5 pm.

3. Cold spectral isolators beyond 2.5 pm. For high-resolution spectroscopy it is important that only arather narrow bandpass reach the detector so that undispensed background light does not overwhelmthe dispersed solar signal; similar considerationsapply to Fourier transform spectrometry.The spectralisolator itself will be cryogenically cooled. Depending on the application, a grating postdisperser,tunable Fabry-Perot filter, or sets of narrow band interference filters, might be preferred. The onlypresent capability is to incorporate filters in the dewar of the near-infrared camera.

4. Data systems with real time processing. In typical solar applications, low-noise infrared arrays willbe saturated in a fraction of a second. To build up the signal-to-noise ratios that will often be required,it will be necessary to average tens or hundreds of frames of data at each spectral/spatial location.There is a similar requirement in nighttime work, so the effort is be NOAO-wide. A current effort,based on technologyfor the GONG project, will enable video-rate processing for a 256 x 256 array.

Coronal PhotometryExtended (full-day) observations with the existing coronal photometer on the Evans Solar Facility sparhave detected subtle transients in the emission-line corona. This discovery indicates the existence of apreviously unknown regime of frequent, low-level coronal activity. To investigate these transient events

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systematically, we need a dedicated coronagraph feed. Therefore, NSO will be recommissioning the sparcoronagraph as a dedicated feed for the Coronal Photometer.

McMath-Pierce FTS Polarimeter UpgradeThe NSO Fourier Transform Spectrometer located at the McMath-Pierce Telescope is a unique and verypowerful instrument for studies of the solar spectrum. It was installed in 1975 and a few years later apolarimeter was built as an accessory to obtain solar spectra in circular and one state of linear polarization.This polarimeter has been very successful and much of what we know about solar magnetic fields can beattributed to this instrument. More could be learned with some modest upgrades. First is a mechanicalchange to permit calibration optics to be reproduciblyplaced in the beam. Some electronic changes wouldproduce a significantly higher signal-to-noise ratio. A change to the modulator assembly would improvebeam pointing stability. Adding a movable half-wave plate would allow all states of polarization to bemeasured efficiently. A final, fairly major upgrade would be to add a zinc selenide modulator and suitabledetectors to allow polarizations to be measured longward of the current 2.5 pm limit

KPVT Video FiltergraphThis project will provide a unique facility for observing solar chromospheric activity using the helium10830 A absorption line. This line provides information on the state of the corona that is not revealed bythe other chromospheric lines observable from the ground. The instrument consists of a narrowband filterthat isolates the spectrum line and feeds an image to a television camera of the sort used in theSpectromagnetograph. Images are collected 60 times a second and accumulated and processed byvideo-rate hardware. The filtering has been designed so that intensity images will be obtained as thedifference between the spectrum line and the nearby continuum to obtain very high photometric sensitivity.Additionally, it is possible to make Doppler shift and Zeeman shift images. These capabilities add up toa powerful facility for studying energetic activity in the chromosphere. Using an optical design byJ. Harvey, design engineers at NASA/GSFC, Laboratory for Astronomyand Solar Physics, are completingcomplete technical drawings for the instrument which should be fabricated at NOAO in FY 1993. The datasystem has been purchased, and the plan is to acquire initial test data late in calendar year 1993. Thisproject is part of the joint NSO/NASA development plan for the NSO/Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope andhas received NASA funding.

KPVT TCP UpgradeThe telescope control electronics for the NSO/Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope were designed and built in1973. Guiding operates by limb-sensing a small auxiliary image formed by much of the main opticalsystem. In the early 1980s, a major improvement was made by locking the main and guiding beamstogethervia a laser driven servo loop. The presentguider and control system containsobsoleteelectronics,does not operate well in some light level and temperature conditions and does not operate under certainconfigurations of scanning speed and angle. These conditions mandate that an upgrade be made in orderto avoid a sudden cessation of synoptic data and to enable the telescope to be used under a wider rangeof observing conditions than at present.

KPVT Optics Upgrade/Full-disk LightfeedThe NSO Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope is one of the largest solar telescopes in the world. It has a windowof 86-cm aperture and an image forming mirror of 70-cm aperture. The telescope was built in 1973 toprovide seeing-limited synoptic observations of the Sun's magnetic field and chromosphere. The focalplane instrumentation was built with one arc-sec sampling. Seventeenyears of experiencehas shown thatthe image quality is often limited by this coarse sampling rather than intrinsic seeing on Kitt Peak. Newinstrumentation either built recently or planned will permit finer sampling. Experience has also shown that

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the optics of the telescope are frequently a limiting factor in getting high angular resolution. Measurementsindicate that several of the optical components are not figured to contemporary quality standards.Additionally, the image forming mirror is mounted in such a way that it vibrates at about 30 Hz with anamplitude that may reach nearly one arc second. Remounting this mirror and refiguring the worst opticalelements will allow the Vacuum Telescope to do research projects that are now not possible.

The KPVT was originally designed to be able to feed unimaged sunlight to auxiliary optics or directly tothe focal plane instrumentation. This capability was not implemented at construction time because oflimited time and budget. Completing the telescope by adding this light feed would open a wide range ofnew observations and improve the quality of the existing observations by permitting better calibrations.

KPVT Flare Buffer

Summing several video frames in the instruments for the KPVT improves signal to noise ratios and slowsthe data rates sufficiently for on-line reduction. However, strong evidence indicates that for brief periods,many transient solar events exhibit time variations over milliseconds which provide important cluesconcerning the processes which accelerate and transport high-energy particles. On these occasions, it wouldbe desirable to retain raw data at the highest possible frame rate. The flare buffer will make use ofoff-the-shelf hardware to record at least a portion of the raw video frames in a first-in, first-out buffermode which can run continuously until frozen by a software- or observer-activated signal. The hardwarefor this instrument will be purchased in calendar year 1994.

KPVT Synoptic Infrared MagnetographNASA and NSO scientists are considering the possibility of proposing for NASA funds to build upon thesuccessful science and technology of the Near Infrared Magnetograph to add the capability of makingsynoptic, full-disk measurements of true field using the 1.6 um lines. It is likely that important newscience concerning the long-term variations of magnetic structures on the sun and their relation to the solarcycle could be derived from this instrument. The scientific and technological merits of such a project willbe studied more thoroughly in preparation for the FY 94-97 proposal period.

McMath-Pierce Imaging FTSThe Fourier Transform Spectrometerlocated at the McMath-PierceTelescope has proven to be a powerfulinstrument for the study of solar and laboratory spectra. It is one of NOAO's instrumental crown jewels.At the moment it uses only one detector. In the late 1970s it was used in an imaging mode to study thespectra of planets with several hundred simultaneous spatial points. Advances in CCD detectors andreal-time data processing electronics now make it feasible to add an imaging capability for solar andlaboratory spectroscopy. This enhancement would be comparable to the advance of infrared astronomyexperienced when detector arrays replaced single detectors. For solar research it would be possible toproduce maps of solar features showing the run of physical parameters versus height from the base of thephotosphere through the upper chromosphere. For laboratory sources, different excitation conditions andresponses could be studied in lamps that employ localized geometries. The instrument would be at theforefront of modem detector and data handling technologies in order to cope with the vast amounts ofinformation provided by the Sun but now lost to existing instruments.

Second Hilltop SparThe need of additional spar space for new instrumentation is apparent. The current Hilltop spar isoverloaded to the point of tracking errors. Another spar would allow some of the heavier instruments tobe moved and the existing spar rebalanced. We also anticipate requests from the community to develop

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and bring to Sacramento Peak small synoptic instruments. To support the communityin this way, we willneed additional spar space to mount such instrumentation.

Small Spar IntegrationThis project is seen as a cost effective, short-term solution to the overload stress currently existing on theHilltop Spar. The 8-foot spar in the Grain Bin Dome has been refurbished and will be reinstalled toprovide instrumentation mounts for smaller less critical instruments, including short-term tests of externallydeveloped instrumentation.

Correlation Tracker (MARK II)This project is intended to capitalize on the parallel research efforts now underway concerning newcorrelation tracker designs. Various institutions are working currently on hardware implementations, PCversions, and VME-based versions for balloon flights. After several of these programs have reached areasonable state of completion, and based on their comparative performance, a consensual plan would bedeveloped to produce an advanced by technically simpler version of correlation tracker.

Image DigitizationThe Image Digitization project is to provide a comprehensive facility for film digitization. It will consistof the existing Fast Microphotometer in an upgraded form, a linear CCD array for digitizing film strips,a video camera and frame grabber, and perhaps other large-area arrays for high resolution work.

CCD IntegrationThis is seen as an ongoing effort by the Observatory to continue to provide state-of-the-art detectors tothe community. For example, the NSO will, in collaboration with the NOAO OUV group, install a largeformat (1024 x 3072) CCD array in the solar-stellar spectrograph as a necessary step toward achievinga greatly increased spectral range at this facility. Many existing instruments that are only film-based willneed to have CCD capabilities added. New instruments using CCD technology will have to be integratedinto the existing system architecture. The general advance of this technology also requires that we lookcontinuously at new detector designs and implement them when appropriate.

The Multi-Aperture Telescope SystemThis projectwouldcreatesix independentlight pathsof reduced aperturefor the Vacuum TowerTelescope(VTT) on Sacramento Peak. Many experiments do not require the full aperture size of the VTT, andseveral experiments could be carried out simultaneously with such an arrangement. Further, underconditions of less-than-optimum seeing for the full aperture of the VTT, resolution would be superior inthe sub-aperture channels.

1 x 3 K chipsThe McMath-Pierce Solar-Stellar Program anticipates the availability of a Ford-Loral 1 x 3 K chip in FY1993. The upgrade from the current 800 x 800 CCD is the first part of a staged plan to enhance theprogram's instrumentation. The KPNO O/UV labor required for modification of the current dewar andinstallation of the larger-format array is estimated at 1 work year.

In addition, we need more extensive support for the integration of two 1 x 3 K chips for solar applicationsat the ESF.

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Image DigitizationImage digitization would be a new project proposal to provide a comprehensive facility to digitize film.It will probablyconsist of the existing fast microphotometer with its new 10 mw laser, a linear CCD arrayfor digitizing film strips, some kind of video camera and frame grabber combination, and perhaps otherlarge area arrays for high-resolution work. This would be a one-shot project activity.

C. Infrastructural Initiatives

1. Upgrades to Telescopes

Vacuum Tower Telescope

Adaptive OpticsThe Adaptive Optics program at Sac Peak offers the opportunity to capitalize fully on the high resolutionpotential of the VTT, fundamental to major advancements in many areas of current observational solarphysics. This program has operated with only moderate support, the group consisting of one scientist,engineer, and senior instrument maker. An enhanced level of funding is appropriate for this high-visibilityand important program, especially in the upcoming control and integration phase. This would be an ongoing activity for several years.

We anticipate that this will be funded as a result of the very positive feedback that we have received forthe AO in the LEST proposal, but it should not "fall between the cracks".

Multiple Aperture Telescope SystemThis is an optical modification to the VTT to provide independent light feeds, allowing six simultaneousexperiments under conditions where the full high-angular-resolution capability of the VTT is not crucial.Considerable experimental flexibility can be gained from this approach. This would be a one-shot, projectactivity.

Evans Solar Facility

CAMAC ReplacementThis project is intended to switch the control functions in the ESF that currently reside in CAMAChardware to VME I/O cards. This would eliminate an extra layer of complexity in the hardware, offergreater speed, provide increased flexibility, and phase out equipment that is aging. More precise andsophisticated control algorithms are also made possible by the advent of intelligent VME hardware. Thiswould be a one-shot, project activity.

Instrument Enhancement

The synoptic observing programs would be greatly improved with the addition of linear detectors on theLittrow spectrograph and spectroheliograph. In addition, components to upgrade the coelostat guider wouldgreatly enhance its operation. This would be a one-shot, project activity.

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Hilltop

Hilltop AutomationThis program is designed to integrate the existing instruments presently on the spar under a coherentcontrol system. Each of the seven instruments has individual, rather primitive control systems of limitedcapacity. The new system would provide the basic intelligence at the dome for programmable observingsequences and automated data acquisition. The architecture would also be consistent with what has beendeveloped for the Tower and Evans facilities. This would be a one-shot, project activity.

Second Hilltop SparThe eventual need is seen for additional spar space for new instrumentation. The current Hilltop spar isoverloaded to the point of tracking errors. Another spar would allow some of the heavier instruments tobe moved while greatly improving the performance of the existing spar. We also expect the usercommunity to develop and bring to Sunspot many small instruments in the future. For better support forthe community, we need more mounting space to accommodate new instrumentation. This would be a one-shot, project activity.

McMath-Pierce Facility

Telescope Control System UpgradeThe McMath-Pierce Solar Facility is overdue for a major upgrade to its telescope control systems. Theproposed upgrade is modeled after the recent upgrade to the KPNO 2.1-m telescope. The labor requiredfor the upgrade is estimated at 9.5 work years. This would be a one-shot, project activity. The costestimate is for the non-payroll component.

High Resolution Interferometric ImagingThe McMath-Pierce Facility provides an ideal facility to develop a capability for using modeminterferometric techniques with modem detectors, filters and computers to enable studies of sub arcsecsolar processes.

The McMath-Pierce facility was used nearly a generation ago to do much of the pioneering work on solarinterferometry as a method to investigate important small scale features of the Sun. The work was notvigorously pursued because of limitations of detectors, filters and computers in the early 1970s. Inaddition, there was a good prospect of doing high resolution work from space. This prospect has vanishedfor at least another decade while the technology of detectors, filters and computers has expandedenormously. Thus it is attractive to consider using the world's largest unobstructed telescope for a renewedpush on the frontier of high resolution solar research.

Recent work with 50-70 cm class solar telescopes has revealed much about the sub arcsec processes thatoccur on the Sua As was expected, these apertures have proven to be too small to resolve many crucialsolar processes even using interferometric techniques at the diffraction limit of the apertures. A largeraperture is required. The prospects are: a 90 cm polarimetric telescope under construction (THEMIS), an80 cm balloon borne telescope for flare studies (Flare Genesis project) currently in design phase, a 2.4 msolar telescope in design phase (LEST), and the 150 cm McMath-Pierce facility. Only the latter offers thebenefits of certain existence and a substantial aperture size gain over current telescopes. To use theMcMath-Pierce facility for high resolution work requires overcoming the effects of the atmosphere. Workof 20 years ago demonstrated that 0.1 arcsec features could be detected using the McMath-Pierce andcrude interferometric techniques. Interferometric techniques have become much more sophisticated and

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offer the prospect of good imaging to near the diffraction limit of the 150 cm aperture. Adaptive opticsappears to be a very attractive method for use on apertures of about half that size and this technique willcertainly lead to great advances in solar physics. However, greater resolution is needed for a subset ofsolar research problems that appears to be too limited to justify the expense of current adaptive opticstechniques.

A limited interferometric program at the McMath-Pierce facility would incorporate a number of elements:Improvements to the thermal environment of the optical system to increase internal seeing quality. Animage stabilizationsystem to remove low order image motion and defects. A reimaging system that wouldallow non-redundant array apertures to be efficiently installed. A modem narrow-band filter system (e.g.Fabry-Perot or volume holographic filters). A modem, efficient CCD detector camera capable of rapidreadout with high signal-to-noise ratio. Computer equipment capable of recording and processing largeamounts of data. It is attractive to consider using the near infrared for much of the work but it is counterproductive to move too far to the infrared since the resolution will decrease even as seeing qualityincreases.

Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope

Telescope Control System UpgradeIn order to ensure that the KPVT remains both operational and competitive it is proposed that a majorupgrade to its telescope control systems be undertaken. The proposed upgrade would take advantage ofthe engineering required to upgrade the McMath-Pierce facility. The labor required for the upgrade isestimated at 3.5 work years. This would be a one-shot project activity. The cost estimate is for the non-payroll component

Full disk capabilityAfull disk feed capability for the vacuum telescope would allow it tofeed the 10830 Afiltergraph so thaton-disk signatures of coronal mass ejections could be detected.

It is now known that high speed solar wind streams and coronal mass ejections dominate the variabilityof the heliosphere that affects Earth and near-Earth space. The high speed solar wind streams aresufficiently stable that observations of full disk magnetic fields such as those obtained at the VacuumTelescope may be put into models that successfully predict the streams in considerable detail. Thesemodels are also verified by comparing them with Vacuum Telescope observations of the locations ofcoronal holes made using the 1083 nm helium line. On the other hand, coronal mass ejections are transientin nature (minutes to hours) and cannot yet be predicted. These events dominate the heliosphere duringthe active part of the solar cycle. They are observed above the limb with coronagraphs but are verydifficult to detect against the disk. These disk events are just the ones that later impactEarth and are theones whose origins can be observed well enough to get clues about how they arise.

Recently, the SXT instrumenton Yohkohhas provided good disk observations of coronal mass ejectionsby means of time series of X-ray images. A lower resolution X-ray imager is expected to be installed ona future GOES satellite. Prior to the SXT observations, a clear signature of at least some coronal massejection events was found on 1083 nm observations with the vacuum telescope. This manifestation is atwo-ribbon structure that is probably heating at the base of a coronal loop system. Some of the eventsrecorded are the largest scale rapid transients seen on the disk of the Sun. Systematic ground-basedobservations could continue the SXTobservations after that mission is completed and fill the gap in such

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data until the GOES satellite is launched. The origins and causes of coronal mass ejection events couldbe better researched by combining the 1083 nm data with magnetograph and other data.

To implement this detection scheme at the Vacuum Telescope involves adding a full disk image capabilityat the primary focus of the telescope (currently the 14 inch diameter image is too big to pass through thevacuum tank exit window or into focal plane instruments). The next step is to arrange for the 1083 nmfiltergraph to acquire full disk images for a long period of time. The images would be mapped in real timeto a coordinate system that rotates with the Sun and differenced in time to allow easy detection of timevariations. This latter capability would also be useful for research on other transient features of thechromosphere.

2. Facilities Maintenance Initiative

These are primarily at Sac Peak and would be turn-key purchases or contracts, the only exception beingthe last one for the McMath-Pierce which would be a small, one-shot, project activity.

Fire Alarm System UpgradeThe existing, antiquated system is in the process of being upgraded. A new central station has already beeninstalled. New control panels and detectors remain to be installed to complete the system.

Underground Storage Tank (UST) Leak MonitoringTwo underground fuel storage tanks require automatic leak monitoring systems (vapor detection) whichwill fulfill the final EPA requirement for upgrading UST's.

LPG Gas Main ReplacementThe 35-40 year old LPG main and service lines to the oldest facilities need replacing. Sections of theuncoated steel pipe have extensively corroded and developed leaks; a recent leak required replacement ofa 1 1/2" main branch that supplies the C.E. shops buildings. Existing lines would be replaced with highdensity, polyethylene gas pipe.

Rollover Protection Structures (ROPS) for Construction EquipmentOne caterpillar bulldozer and two front-end loaders require ROPS for protection of the operators.

Fall Arrest System for Water Tower and Evans FacilityMaintenance access ladders to the top of the water storage tank (100 ft) and the Evans Facility do notmeet OSHA requirements. To become compliant fall arrest systems need to be installed on the existingladders. These systems consist of a track or cable with sliding fall arrest device that the climber attachesthemself to via lanyard and harness.

Ambulance ReplacementThe existing 1977 4x4 ambulance needs to be replaced.

Anodizing Operation UpgradeThe anodizing operation requires upgrading to current safety standards. The exhaust system for the diptanks needs to be improved and spill containment needs to be added.

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Replacement/Repair of SidewalksExisting sidewalks are in poor condition and hazardous for employees and the public to use. The surfacesare rough, cracked, spalled, uplifted and tilted.

McMath-Pierce #3

A safer way of removing and installing the mirror for realuminizing needs to be developed for personnelsafety reasons.

The following are all at Sac Peak, and they would be turn-key purchases,

Road

Resurface roads, driveways and parking lots. The roads, driveways and parking lots have not receivedpreventive maintenance in past years and are now falling apart.

Paint and Re-roof BuildingsThere are fourteen buildings which have roofs so old that records do not exist to show when they werelast re-roofed. The sixteen redwood housing units were last re-roofed in 1977 and painted in 1978.

Replace Vehicles/EquipmentTen of the thirty-one vehicles at NSO/SP were manufactured in the 1950's and 1960's. The frequentfailures of brakes, steering and hydraulics is a serious safety hazard and maintenance is becoming evermore expensive.

3. Service Observing Initiative

Sac Peak "Floating" ObserverBecause of the increasing load on observingoperations resulting from new instrumentation and programs,an additional "floating" observer ( who would be available to assist in any of the three observing facilitiesas appropriate ) is needed to assure high quality in the diverse observing activities. This would be anon-going activity.

Automated Photometric TelescopeWe would like to install a photometric capability in the form of an Automated Photometric Telescope(APT) to support the stellar spectroscopic programs at the McMath-Pierce. The APTs are small aperturerobotic telescopes that operate with minimal support. The addition of photometry would be invaluable toprograms involving the Dopplerimaging of starspots and coordinated campaigns to studytransientactivityin stars. A 0.8-meter APT can be installed for approximately $100K. Operating expenses would be quitelow. This would be basically a one-shot contract activity.

Solar-Stellar Observer

Theaddition of a second synoptic observer to the NSO nighttime program at the McMath-Pierce telescopewould permit the scheduling of more synoptic time, which is in heavy demand, and reduce the significantdata gaps that many programs now suffer. The cost of the second observer is relatively modest while theoperational and scientific gains are enormous. This would be an on-going activity.

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FTS Observer

The only way that this very important facility can be kept open at the present time is through the supportprovided by a NASA Upper Atmosphere contract. The addition of another Instrument/Observing Associatewould ensure that the facility would remain available to the solar, and laboratory astrophysicscommunities. This would be an on-going activity.

4. Education Initiative

NSO has conducted an extremely fruitful Summer Student Program for many years. In particular, manygraduate students have carried out summer research projects that formed the basis of Ph.D. theses. Hence,many of these summer students are now active in the field of solar physics or closely related areas ofastrophysics. Following Congressional directives and corresponding changing emphases within the NSF,funding over the last several years has been available primarily only via the NSF Research Experience forUndergraduates (REU) Program. While such students obviously benefit highly from the student program,the field of solar physics is not as well served, with very few graduate students having the opportunityto participate in the summer program.

Therefore, with concern for the health of the discipline of solar physics, we should seek the funds tosupport 10-12 graduate students per year, as well as continued support of a few outstanding summerstudents in a pre-doc program to carry out their thesis research at NSO.

D. Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) Project

The Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) is an international project to study the internal structureand dynamics of the closest star by measuring resonating waves that penetrate throughout the solarinterior-a technique known as helioseismology. To overcome the limitations of current observationsimposed by the day-night cycle at a single observatory, GONG is developing a six-station network ofsensitive and stable solar velocity mappers located around the Earth to obtain nearly continuousobservations of the "five-minute" oscillations, as well as direct measurements of the "steady" motions ofthe solar surface itself. To accomplish its objectives, GONG is also establishing a distributed datareduction and analysis system to facilitate a coordinated analysis of these data. The primary analysis willbe carried out by half a dozen or so teams, each focusing on a specific category or problem. Membershipin these teams is open to all qualified researchers; there are currently 126 members, representing 52different institutions. NSO is carrying out the GONG project in close collaboration with the community.

Milestones for the project are as follows:

GONG Milestones

April 1984 First Community WorkshopSeptember 1984 Project Proposal Submitted to NSFOctober 1985 Interim Technology DevelopmentOctober 1986 Project StartNovember 1986 Site Survey Network OperationalJanuary 1987 Begin Integrated Light Tests - Doppler Imager BreadboardSeptember 1988 First Doppler Images - Doppler Imager BreadboardMay 1989 Begin Field Station Capital Acquisitions

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February 1990 Prototype Design ReviewMarch 1990 First Light Full Prototype SystemApril 1991 Site Selection CompletedApril 1992 Data Management Design ReviewOctober 1992 Data Reduction and Analysis Hardware OrderedFebruary 1993 Production/Deployment ReviewMarch 1993 Field Station Integration BeginsDecember 1993 Production Prototype ReviewApril 1994 Data Reduction and Analysis Center OperationalApril 1994 Deployment Readiness ReviewJuly 1994 Network Deployment BeginsDecember 1994 Network Operations BeginDecember 1997 End Observations

December 1998 End Data Reduction

Historical PerspectiveIn the early 1980s, a flow of exciting new results demonstrated the growing number of crucial questionsthat helioseismology could address: stellar internal rotation and oblateness, the neutrino deficit, and theefficiency of convection. At the same time, the limitations of observations from a single site, or from therelatively brief campaigns at the South Pole, were becoming more and more apparent, and pressure toachieve long, continuous observations was mounting. In April 1984, NSO sponsored a workshop toexplore the scientific questions and to investigate the technical issues. As a result of the interest andsupport manifested at the workshop, NSO staff, in collaboration with the scientific community, establishedGONG to coordinate efforts towards the design, construction, and utilization of a network of stations,distributed in longitude and dedicated to obtaining a uniform set of data. A proposal was generated andsubmitted to NSF in late 1984, by NSO on behalf of the entire scientific community.In FY 1985, an examination of worldwide climatic data was undertaken to identify potential sites.Simulations that allowed for equipment failures and weather history from suitably located observatoriesindicated that a minimum of six sites, spaced roughly equally in longitude, would be required to achievethe design objective - a minimum of three years of nearly unbroken data. A robust automated, digitalsunshine monitor for a survey of candidate sites was developed. Alternative technologies for making thesolar velocity measurements of the requisite precision were investigated, and the nature of the overallinvestigation began to take shape.

In FY 1986 an interim technology development program led to the design of a variable path lengthMichelson interferometer, with a narrow prefilter isolating a single solar line, to provide a stable, andsensitive velocity measurement. Early in the year, the site survey started operation. It grew to include 14locations: Arizona Western College (Yuma), Big Bear Solar Observatory of the California Institute ofTechnology, Mt. Wilson Observatory, the Institute for Astronomy of the University of Hawaii sites atHaleakala and Mauna Kea, the High Altitude Observatory site on Mauna Loa, the Australian IonosphericPrediction Service's Learmonth Solar Observatory, the Udaipur Solar Observatory (India), the Observatoriodel Tiede (Canary Islands), the Las Campanas and the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (Chile),the Urumqi Astronomical Station (China), the King Abdul Aziz City of Science and Technology (SaudiArabia), and the Centre Nationale de Recherche (Morocco).

The project obtained a go-ahead from the NSF in FY 1987 and produced first light on a full-scaleprototypeinstrument in March 1990. Major peer reviewsof the GONG instrument reductionand analysis

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software system, and the overall project were conducted during the winter of 1990. Subsequent peerreviews of the Data Management and Analysis Center (DMAC) plan and the network production anddeployment plan were conducted in 1992 and 1993. The DMAC moved into its new quarters in the old"AURA building" across the street in late 1992.

Meanwhile, results from the site survey indicate that we may anticipate observing duty cycles well inexcess of 90 percent. The final sites will be Big Bear Solar Observatory, Mauna Loa Solar Observatory,Learmonth Solar Observatory, Udaipur Solar Observatory, Observatorio del Tiede, and Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory. Memoranda of Understanding were signed with the host agencies of five of thesites in 1991 and 1992. The negotiations for the sixth site (Mauna Loa) are expected to be satisfactorilyconcluded in mid 1993.

The Instrument

The five-minute oscillation is a subtle effect. Individual modes exhibit velocities of less than 20 cm/s,

while the sum of all the modes is only a few hundred m/s. The ultimate intention is to have themeasurements be limited by the Sun's "random" surface motions. This means developing six stableinstruments capable of making imaged velocity measurements with a precision of significantly better than1 m/s.

The basic idea is to isolate a single solar absorption line and determine its precise (Doppler-shifted)wavelength. The instrument chosen for this task is called a Fourier Tachometer, similar to the onedeveloped in collaboration with the High Altitude Observatory. Based on a Michelson interferometer, itprocesses the light from all parts of the solar disk simultaneously to produce a velocity sensitive imageof the Sun. This is picked up by a 256 x 243 pixel solid-state detector and stored in a data acquisitioncomputer's memory.

At the conclusion of each 60-second acquisition cycle, three intensity images, differing in modulationphase by 120°, are summed, differenced, and divided to produce a single velocity image, as well as anintensity and a line strength image. The resulting velocity image is then stored on a magnetic-tapecartridge, along with an intensity image and other information, for subsequent reduction at the central datareduction and analysis facility.

The entire field instrument will reside in an environmentally controlled shelter building, which houses anexternal light feed, Fourier Tachometer, control and acquisition computers, and data recording equipment.

The light feed itself will be a fully automatic system, which will turn itself on each day, locate and trackthe Sun, continue to track using an ephemeris during cloudy periods, and supervise and report itsenvironment and operational status. Adaptive software is being developed which will create a real worldephemeris for the actual site and conditions as deviations from the "pre-canned" ephemeris are noted.

Data Management and AnalysisEven at first glance it is clear that the real challenge in the areas of GONG data reduction and analysisare presented by two factors: (1) a monumental volume of data; and (2) a long sequence of complexcomputing tasks. Each station in the network will produce at least 200 megabytes of data every day. Thewhole network will generate a gigabyte a day, seven days a week, for three years. Over this time the totalaccumulation of field data will exceed one terabyte. The reduction process itself is not trivial. Eachindividual 64 K pixel frame of each station must be adjusted, pixel by pixel, for a variety of instrumental,photometric, and geometric effects. Furthermore, the Doppler effect of the known motions of the Earth

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and the Sun also must be removed. As many as three adjacent GONG stations may observe simultaneouslyfor periods of several hours. These data must be merged into a single stream of the best frames attainableat each moment.

Once these preliminary tasks are complete, several more computationally intensive reductions will beperformed. For example, the decomposition of the image data into time series of spherical harmoniccoefficients and their subsequent reduction to frequency spectra will be standard processes. Finally, theraw field data, the ultimate reduced data sets, and several intermediate stages must all be placed inlong-term storage in computer-based archives using a combination of optical disks and rotary head tapes.Scientific analysis of the data will generally proceed from these archived data sets.

While researchers may choose to write their own specific analysis programs, the GONG project and itsscientific teams are establishing a central users' library of contributed analysis software, which will beavailable for general use. This library will include the data access and display system as well as basicanalysis tools, which will be fully supported and highly transportable, so researchers can pursue work fromtheir home institutions if they wish.

The central GONG computing facility will feature a powerful network of computers and mass-storagedevices. This system will both reduce the data and provide for its distribution to the community. Inaddition to performing routine data reduction tasks, this system will also be available for research by bothon-site visitors and by remote access.

Current Status and Future Directions

The prototype instrument is now completely operational. Some additional improvements remain to becompleted to bring the prototype up to the "production prototype" level, which will make it identical tothe field units currently under construction. The field stations themselves have been moved to a new siteat the University of Arizona's Campbell Farm facility where integration is under way. The first site willbe deployed in July 1994 and full network operations are scheduled to begin in December 1994.

The data reduction and analysis system is a major component of the program and is being developedconcurrently. Even before the installation of the network, data acquired during the validation of theprototype has provided the basis for important research. The design and construction of the neededsoftware tools requires the efforts of both the project staff and many other members of the solar physicscommunity. Some of the principal hardware for this system has already been procured and installed in theData Management and Analysis Center which will have full operational capability by April 1994.Coordination with the scientific community continues to be assured by regular consultation with afive-member Scientific Advisory Committee, a six-member DMAC users committee, a quarterlynewsletter, and an annual GONG scientific meeting.

The project is slated to gather data for a minimum of three years. Full-scale data analysis activities willcontinue for at least one year beyond the end of the data gathering phase. If the results of these studiesindicate a need, the continuation of data gathering for a longer fraction of the solar cycle remains apossibility. In any case, beginning in the mid-1990s we can look forward to some truly excitingdevelopments in our understanding of our nearest star.

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V. OBSERVATORY OPERATIONS

A. Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory

CTIO operates a total of six telescopes ranging in aperture from 0.6 to 4.0 meters and maintains an activeinstrumentation development program to insure that these telescopes remain at the leading edge ofastronomical research. During the last three years, a large part of the CTIO instrumentation effort has goneinto improving the performance of the existing telescopes and instruments rather than building completelynew facilities. Much of this improvement has been attained through the implementation of two-dimensionalinfrared arrays and large-format CCDs. At the same time, a major effort has been undertaken to obtainmaximal performance from these new detectors through the development of a next-generation arraycontroller. Significant improvements and modernizations have also been made in basic facilities such asTV acquisition cameras and the control systems of the 4-m and 1.5-m telescopes. Beginning in 1991, anambitious program was initiated to significantly improve the imaging performance of the 4-m telescope.In the coming three years, we expect the emphasis to slowly return to the implementation of newinstrumentation, especially at infrared wavelengths. In the following section, we summarize the currentstate of telescope operations at CTIO, and provide an overview of the instrumentation development plansfor the next few years.

Current Telescope OperationsAs the only optical and infrared observational facility in the southern hemisphere available to most USastronomers, it is important that CTIO provide a large variety of basic instrumentation. This meanssupporting digital imaging, low- and high-resolution spectroscopy, photoelectric photometry, andphotography at a range of telescope apertures. Table 5 shows the current list of telescope/instrumentcombinations offered at CTIO. Our strategy for a number of years has been to operate the smallertelescopes with dedicated instruments. Hence, the 0.9-m is used exclusively for direct imaging with large-format (2048 x 2048 and 1024 x 1024) CCDs, the 1.0-m Yale telescope is dedicated to photoelectricphotometry and low-resolution spectroscopy with a "2D-Frutti" two-dimensional photon counter, and the0.6-m Lowell telescope is reserved for photoelectric photometry. Wide-field imaging is supported on theCurtis Schmidt telescope with photographic plates and, for an increasingly larger number of nights eachsemester, a Thomson 1024 x 1024CCD. By dedicating instrumentation in this fashion, we have been ableto achieve excellent reliability with a minimum of support staff. A much wider assortment ofinstrumentation is offered on CTIO's two largest telescopes, the 1.5-m and 4-m. At the 1.5-m telescope,CCD imaging and spectroscopy account for more than 75% of the scheduled nights, with the remainingtime being used for IR observations (imaging, spectroscopy, and photometry), optical photoelectricphotometry, andimaging Fabry-Perot spectroscopy. Onthe4-mtelescope, CCD imaging is offered at boththe prime and Cassegrain foci and amounts to approximately 15% of the total telescope usage. OpticalCCD spectroscopy accounts for -60% of the scheduled nights on this telescope, withthe timebeingnearlyequally split between the RC spectrograph (which handles low-resolution slit spectroscopy), the echellespectrograph, and the Argus multi-object, fiber-fed spectrograph. Infrared imaging, spectroscopy, andphotometry accounts for another 15% of the 4-m telescope time, and imaging Fabry-Perot spectroscopyfor -5% or so. Prime-focus photography and photoelectric photometry are also supported, but tend to bescheduled infrequently.

CTIOhas traditionally placed high priority on the support and operationof its telescopes and instruments.The small number of hours lost to bad weather at CTIO testifies to the superb quality of Tololo as anastronomical site. Similarly, the excellence of the Tololo support staff is reflected in the remarkably low

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figures for down time due to instrument or telescope failure. Taking into account the losses due toweather, technical failures, and engineering, the CTIO 4-m telescope averages about 2787 hours of scienceper year compared with an average of 2399 hours per year for the KPNO 4-m, or 86% of the CTIO value.Much of the credit for this excellent record goes to the Observer Support group on the mountain, whichhas developed a well-deserved reputation among US astronomers for efficiency and dedication. Not sowell appreciated, perhaps, is the important role played by the ETS section in La Serena in maintaining thereliability of the existing telescopes and instrumentation. A recent study has shown that during the periodfrom FY 1986-FY 1991, approximately 60% (17.5 FTE) of the total available ETS resources went intogeneral support activities such as maintenance of telescopes, instruments, and detectors.

Instrumentation Development ProgramThe instrumentation program at CTIO has long been a source of pride to the observatory staff. The ETSsection in La Serena is small in comparison to the Tucson ETS group, and devotes more than half of itsavailable resources to support and maintenance activities (see above). Indeed, the need for a residentinstrumentation program at CTIO is unquestionable on the basis of this support role alone. However, webelieve that the contributions of the instrumentation program to the development of new instrumentation,both locally and in cooperation with NOAO Tucson, are just as important Although several years ago itwas the case that the CTIO and KPNO instrumentation programs were completely independent, the twoobservatories have slowly learned to coordinate their efforts so as to avoid duplication of effort Giventhe largedistance between the two sites, and the inevitable independence that is associated withcreativity,this coordination has been achieved only through constant effort We believe that the two sites, Tucsonand La Serena, have steadily improved communication and coordination of projects, such that the currentCTIO instrumentation plan is a good compromise allowing local innovation and cooperation with Tucson.In the future, we would hope to tighten the links with the Tucson instrumentationdevelopment group evenfurther, particularly in the area of infrared instrumentation. Frankly, we feel that the infraredinstrumentation development group in Tucson, which is nearly as large as the entire ETS section at CTIO,shouldbe producingnew instruments for both KPNO and CTIO, and we are willing to work together withour Tucson colleagues over the next few years to achieve this goal.

CTIO instrumentationpriorities are set by an important committee called ACTR (Advisory CommitteeonTechnical Resources) which meets monthly and is essentially a committee of the whole. Since we believein arriving at decisions by consensus, few official votes are ever taken, and by thorough discussions andoccasional Director intervention the innovations we wish to see brought to the telescopes are determined.In anticipation of the arrival of the OVC, we have held meetings of the scientific staff to set out a three-year program for our instrumentation. We have tried to be realistic in fashioning a program that can beaccommodated by our limited resources and one which will keep CTIO at the forefront of observationalastronomy. Thisprogram, whichis ambitious butcertainly feasible, involves considerable inter-dependenceupon and cooperation with the NOAO/Tucson ETS.

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Table 5

CTIO Telescope/Instrument Combinations*4-m Telescope:

ARGUS fiber-fed Spectrograph + Blue Air Schmidt Camera + Reticon CCD [33]tt

+ Red Air Schmidt Camera + GEC CCD [25,26]R-C Spectrograph + Blue Air Schmidt Camera + Reticon CCD [33]

it

+ Red Air Schmidt Camera + GEC CCD [25,26]" + Folded Schmidt Camera + Tek* CCD [25,26]

Echelle Spectrograph + Blue Air Schmidt Camera + Reticon CCD [33]it

+ Red Air Schmidt Camera + GEC CCD [22,25,26]it

+ Folded Schmidt + Tek* CCD [22,23,25,26]+ Pt:Si [27,31]

tt + Long Cameras + TI or Tek* CCD [23,25,26]+ PtSi [27,31]

Prime Focus Camera + TI or Tek* CCD

+ Photographic Plates [23]+ TI or Tek* CCD

+ PtSi IR Imager (f/30 or f/7.5) [23,27]+ TI or Tek* CCD [25,26]

Cass Direct

Rutgers Imaging Fabry-PerotASCAP Photometer [24,25,28]IR Photometer (InSb and/or bolometer)IR Spectrometer + SBRC array [21,22,28]IR SBRC Array Imager [21,28]

1.5-m Telescope:Cass SpectrographBench-Mounted Echelle Spectrograph

Cass Direct

0.9-m Telescope:Cass Direct

+ GEC CCD (with UV-Fluorescent Coating)+ Blue Air Schmidt Camera + Reticon CCD [22,23,26]+ Red Air Schmidt Camera + GEC CCD [22,23]+ 700 mm Camera + TI or Tek* CCD [22,23]

+ TI or Tek* CCD

+ Photographic Plates [23]+ PuSi IR Imager [23]

Rutgers Imaging Fabry-Perot + TI or Tek* CCD [25]ASCAP Photometer [24,25,28]IR Photometer (InSb and/or bolometer)IR Spectrometer + SBRC array [21,22,28]IR SBRC Array Imager [21,28]Filar Micrometer*

1-m Telescope:Cass Spectrograph + 2D-FruttiASCAP Photometer [24,25,28]Filar Micrometerb

+ Tek* CCD [30]+ PuSi IR Imager [23]

Filar Micrometer1'

0.6-m Telescope:ASCAP Photometer [24,25,28]Filar Micrometer1'

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Curtis Schmidt:

Photographic Plates (Direct or Prism)Pt:Si IR Imager [23,27]Thomson CCD (Direct or Prism)c [21,22,28,30,31]

Numbers in boldface following an instrument indicate the most recent Newsletters containing relevant articles. Ifthere is no number, the 1990 edition of theFacilities Manual is fully up to date.The mostrecentgeneral summaryof CCD characteristics is in 33; see also issues 26 and 28. Information on telescope control and guiders is in 21,22, 24, 32.

* Tek CCDs available second semester 1993:

VEB-run (1.5-m and 4-m only): 1 512 x 512, 27 um pixels; 1 1024 x 1024, 24 um pixels.Arcon-run (0.9-m, 1.5-m, 4-m) 1 1024 x 1024, 24 um pixels, 1 2048 x 2048, 24 pm pixels.

(See 33 for details on conversion to Arcon controller.)

b Filar micrometer limited to long-term programs.

c CCD on Curtis Schmidt limited to 30 nights (approximately) observing per semester. See 32.

B. Kitt Peak National Observatory

Overview of the Facilities

The first of the AURA managed observatories was established at Kitt Peak, and telescopes at that site havebeen continuously in operation since 1959. KPNO now operates six nighttime telescopes. The 4-mtelescope is a general purpose telescope that is used in the optical and infrared for spectroscopy andimaging. The 2.1-m telescope is used for infrared imaging and spectroscopy, for low-resolution opticalspectrophotometry, CCD imaging, and Coude" spectroscopy. The 1.3-m telescope is used for photometryduring dark time and, with its chopping secondary, is particularly well- suited to measurements ofextended objects with low surface brightness. In bright time it is used for infrared astronomy. The BurrellSchmidt is the only nationally accessible Schmidt in the northern hemisphere that is equipped with prismsand CCDs for imaging and spectroscopic surveys; this telescope is operated jointly by KPNO and CaseWestern Reserve University. The Coude" Feed Telescope was designed to send light to the Coude"spectrograph at the 2.1-m telescope, thereby allowing use of the spectrograph when the 2.1-m is beingscheduled for other programs. To help reduce costs and to make way for the new WIYN telescope, the#1 0.9-m was closed in the summer of 1990. This telescope has now been acquired by a consortium, theSoutheastern Association for Research in Astronomy, which plans to operate the telescope in a semi-automated manner at a site located on Kitt Peak. The remaining 0.9-m now has two instruments: a directCCD imaging system and an intensified Reticon scanner for spectrophotometry.

Approximately 600 astronomers use KPNO telescopes each year. About twenty percent of the users arefrom institutions that have major telescopes of their own but wish to make use of unique instrumentationat KPNO. Each semester there are about twenty students carrying out observations for PhD dissertations.

There areseveral othertelescopes on KittPeakin addition to the KPNO nighttime facilities. NSO operatesthe Vacuum Telescope, which provides much of the basic monitoring data for the Sun including dailymagnetograms, and the McMath, which is used for both solar observations and monitoring of stellaractivity. Other telescopes are operated by the NationalRadio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), includingone of the antennas for the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) on the southwest ridge; by StewardObservatory of the University of Arizona; and by the MDM Observatory, which serves the University ofMichigan, Dartmouth College, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

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New TelescopesAs described elsewhere in this plan, a consortium comprised of the University of Wisconsin, IndianaUniversity, Yale University, and NOAO (WIYN) is now constructing and will operate a 3.5-m telescopeon Kitt Peak, which NOAO will use primarily for multiple-object spectroscopy.

Stimulated by theoretical calculations by R. Garstang (U. of Colorado) that show Kitt Peak should stillbe a good dark sky site, KPNO staff have undertaken a series of measurements of sky brightness. In theV magnitude, measurements demonstrate that Kitt Peak is only about 0.10 mag brighter than the valueexpected for a completely dark sky. Calculations by Garstang, based on predictions of population growthby the State of Arizona, suggest that by the year 2035 Kitt Peak will be only 0.26 mag brighter than thenatural sky background at the zenith. These calculations do not take into account the effect of the lightingordinances.

Because of the continued viability of Kitt Peak as an observing site, KPNO is undertaking a large numberof improvement projects to ensure that the telescopes on the mountain can take full advantage of theseeing and dark skies that are available.

Queue Scheduling at KPNOIt is becoming clear that innovative methods of observing such as queue scheduling will be employed inthe future in order to improve observing efficiency, especially on new facilities such as the WIYN andGemini telescopes. Queue scheduled observations are those in which the data is collected for a numberof different programs-in which the sequence of observations is dictated by constraints. These constraintsfold together environmental conditions, efficiencies of pointing the telescope and configuring theinstruments, and scientific priority. While such an approach has not traditionally been used at groundbased observatories, there are reasons to consider adopting it for some programs. The most valuable aspectof queue scheduling is the removal of risk due to bad weather or instrument malfunction for the highestranked programs. Rather than being allotted a run of three specific nights, regardless of the weather, thehighest ranked proposal is executed in the first three nights during which conditions are suitable. Inaddition, queue scheduling improves the overall efficiency of telescope operations. This is done bycombining programs with similar types of observations so that calibration data and setup time can beshared and by fitting in observations for programs which do not need superb conditions when the weatheris less than perfect. Finally, it allows the execution of observations which are unsuitable for conventionallyscheduled telescopes, such as monitoring projects, observations of targets of opportunity, or programswhich cannot efficiently fill the night with targets.

In order to gain some initial experience in this area, a small pilot program will be run during summershutdown in 1993. During this time, we will undertake two weeks of queue scheduled observations oneach of the 2.1-m, 0.9-m, and Coude" feed telescopes. This opportunity will also be used to investigatesome other changes to operations, including proposal submission by e-mail and the archiving of data.Then, starting in the fall 1993 semester, some time will be scheduled each semester for queuedobservations. This will begin with just the 2.1-m and 0.9-m telescopes, and will grow to include all thetelescopes for which the demand exists for queue scheduled observations. It is expected that the experiencegained through this plan will allow us to undertake a majority of the programs scheduled on the WIYNtelescope in the queue mode.

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Table 6

KPNO Telescope/Instrument Combinations

4-m Telescope:R-C Spectrograph + CCD (T2KB)CryoCam (with new 800 x 1200 Ford chip)Hydra fiber feed (blue or red cable) + Bench Spectrograph + CCD (T2KB)Echelle + (UVFast, Red Long, or Blue Long camera) + CCD (T2KB)PF Camera + direct CCD (T2KB)IR Cryogenic Spectrometer (CRSP)Simultaneous Quad Infrared Imaging Device (SQIID)IR Imager (IRIM)Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS)3

2.1-m Telescope:GoldCam (CCD Spectrometer)CCD Direct Imaging (T1KA)Fiber Optic Echelle (FOE) + CCDIR Imager (IRIM)IR Cryogenic Spectrometer (CRSP)

Coude Feed (C/F):Coud6 Spectrograph + (camera 5 or 6) + CCD (see article page 32)

1.3-m Telescope:Simultaneous Quad Infrared Imaging Device (SQIID)IR Cryogenic Spectrometer (CRSP)IR Imager (IRIM)

0.9-m Telescope:CCD Direct Imaging (T2KA)CCD Photometer (CCDPHOT)

Burrell Schmidt:

Direct or objective-prism + CCD (S2KA)Direct or Objective-Prism + photographic plates2

Reduced-Availability Instruments:

All Telescopes: Visitor Instruments4-m: Cassegrain CCD Imaging4-m: PF Camera + photographic plates1,22.1-m: White Spectrograph + photographic plates21.3-m: Mark III (optical) Photometer + GaAs coldbox3

1Limited to programs that have already been started.2Visitors must provide theirown photographic plates.3No long-term proposals.

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C. National Solar Observatory

The National Solar Observatory operates facilities on two sites-Sacramento Peak and Kitt Peak-for bothsolar and stellar astronomy. In addition, has taken the lead in formulating and implementing the GONGproject, which is designed to probe the interiorstructure of the Sun by analyzing solar oscillations. (TheGONG project is described elsewhere in this Long Range Plan.)

The facilities operated by play a unique role in solar astronomy in this country and indeed the world. TheUS solar community is largely dependent on facilities for observational solar physics, and they remain thelargestandbest instrumented anywhere in the world. In accepting this significant responsibility, has forgedimportant partnerships with major US solar research interests, such as the US Air Force SystemsCommandPhillips Lab., NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, NOAA's Space EnvironmentLaboratory,and UCAR's High Altitude Observatory, to support various aspects of these activities.

In concert with its several partners, has developed a decadal scale Strategic Plan to guide the evolutionof its program and facilities. Scientifically, this plan places its major focus on two areas of study: the solarinterior, and the interaction between solar magnetic fields and plasmas. Operationally, the plan emphasizesthe fullest utilization of existing facilities through enhancements to their focal plane instrumentation andimprovements to their basic capabilities. Enhanced funding would allow the realization of major newfacilities, such as the expansion of the McMath-Pierce Telescope to a 4-m aperture to provide agreatly-enhanced IR capability, and a large-aperture reflecting coronagraph for advanced coronalandotherlow-scattered-light studies.

Overview of the Facilities

The VacuumTower Telescope (VTT) at Sac Peak consists of an evacuated reflecting telescope with a 1.6diameter primary mirror(76-cm entrance window). It is designed to provide high spatial-resolution imagesand spectroscopy of the Sun. Primary analyzing instruments consist currently of a 12-m EchelleSpectrograph, a Universal Spectrograph, a Horizontal Spectrograph, a Universal Birefringent Filter plusa narrow-band Fabry-PerotInterferometer filter system,other specialized birefringentfilters, an AdvancedStokes Polarimeter (with HAO), CCD cameras, and some small, specialized instruments. Horizontal andvertical optical benches are available at two exit ports for mounting temporary experiments.

The high-spatial resolution possible with the VTT enables important studies of fine details of the solaratmospheric structure, including prominences. Most experiments seek high spatial/spectral resolutionspectra, and/or high spatial resolution, narrow-spectral-band images. Quiet Sun studies are concernedmostly with energy transport and atmospheric heating as produced by small and large-scale convectionand wave motions in the photosphere, and chromosphere. Small-scale, intense magnetic fields andassociated velocity flows in the quiet Sun are an important area of research. The complex plasmaprocesses that characterize active regions remain poorly understood. In evolutionary terms they arecharacterized by flux emergence, adjustment of active region structure to rearrangement of thesub-photospheric field, and decay. The formation of sunspots and pores in active regions and theirmorphological characteristics continue to pose many fundamental questions in solar physics. Flareprocesses are even more complex, because of the rapid, localized release of large amounts of energy. Inthis area of research also, the magnetohydrodynamic complexities are such that considerable interpretiveuncertainties remain, and more research needs to be done.

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The John W. Evans Solar Facility at SacramentoPeak has two 40-cm apertureemission-tine coronagraphs,a 40-cm aperture telescope and other smaller telescopes mounted on an 8.2-m, photoelectrically-guidedspar, and a 30-cm coelostat. The main coronagraph and the coelostat are each designed to feed light toa variety of analyzing instruments including a 13-m Littrow Spectrograph, a Spectroheliograph, aUniversal Spectrograph, and a Coronal Photometer. Array detectors are available for spectrographs andimaging.

As with the Vacuum Tower Telescope, experiments carried out at the Evans Solar Facility cover a broadrange of solar phenomena, with emphasis on observations of the emission corona, prominences, and diskfeatures where the low scattered light of a coronagraph is essential. Certain observations are routinelyrecorded on a daily basis and provide a record of changes on the Sun-measurements important both forshort-term and long-term studies.

Coronal studies cover the full regime of visible coronal emission phenomena. Examples are the physicsof loops (heating mechanisms, electric fields, flow velocities, stability, evolution, reconnection,polarization), coronal holes (morphological characteristics, flows, temperature, sector boundaries),transients, streamers, and general morphology. Measurements of the emission of three coronal linesrepresenting different coronal temperature regimes are transmitted daily to national solar forecastingcenters. The low-polarization and low-scattered-light instrumental characteristics of the maincoronagraphpermit studies of the polarization of prominence emission and deduction of vector magnetic fields. Thesame techniques can be applied to the study of sunspots.

The Hilltop Facility at Sac Peak has several small telescopes dedicated to synoptic programs as well assome new-technology telescopes, all mounted on a common spar. The instrumentation includes awhite-light-flare telescope and a 20-cm aperture, two-emission-line coronagraph, a Fabry-Perotetalon-based vector magnetograph and two prototype reflecting coronagraphs. The set of Hilltop patrolinstruments automatically monitor flares, sunspots, coronal, and other solar phenomena throughout eachday.

The McMath-Pierce Telescope complex at Kitt Peak contains three telescopes in one inclined enclosure(the 1.6-m main and two .76-m auxiliaries) permitting three conjoined or independent research projectsto be run at one time. The Vacuum Telescope on Kitt Peak and the small Razdow patrol instrumentcomprise the second solar complex on Kitt Peak.

At the McMath-Pierce Telescope, the available solar instrumentation includes a long-focal-length,high-dispersion spectrograph providingboth IR and visiblespectrumcapabilities and the Fourier transformspectrometer (FTS). The FTS has a unique combination of spectral resolving power (typically 0.3 - 1.0x 1(f), total spectral range (0.25-18 um), simultaneous spectral coverage (up to a factor of four inwavelength), wavelength accuracy (vacuum wavenumbers to betterthanonepart in 109 if enough photonsare available) and freedom from scattered light. In addition, a large and active program of laboratoryspectroscopy is carriedout at the FTS. Additional instrumentation can be broughtto any of the telescopes.The work at the McMath-Pierce facility centers around its capability for high spectral resolution and forinfrared work. Freedom from scattered lightmakes theMcMath-Pierce Telescope particularly valuable forsolar and planetary research. Because of its large aperture and all-reflecting design, the McMath-PierceTelescope is ideal for infrared work in the wavelength region 1-15 um. Infrared observations have beenre-emphasized at the McMath-Pierce facility during recent years, yielding exciting new results onphotospheric magnetic fields and the thermal structure of the solar atmosphere. The solar-stellar

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community makes use of a dedicated spectrograph and a high signal-to-noise CCD detector for the studyof solar type phenomena that appear in stars like the Sun.

The Vacuum Telescope on Kitt Peak, supported in part by NASA/GSFC and NOAA/SEL, is used for dailymagnetic observations ofthe solar surface and the acquisition ofHelium 10830 Aspectroheliograms, andit is being upgraded soon by the addition of the Spectromagnetograph, which provides an improvementin the quality of the magnetic data and also allow for the accurate measurement of velocity fields.Oscillation observations are also carried out at the Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope employing the High-/Helioseismometer.

Table 7Telescope/Instrument Combinations

Vacuum Tower Telescope (SP):Echelle SpectrographUniversal SpectrographHorizontal SpectrographUniversal Birefringent FilterFabry-Perot Interferometer Filter SystemAdvanced Stokes Polarimeter

Slit-Jaw Camera SystemsCorrelation Tracker

Branch Feed Optical SystemHorizontal and Vertical Optical Benches for visitor equipmentOptical Test Room

Evans Solar Facility (SP):40-cm Coronagraphs (2)30-cm Coelostat

40-cm TelescopeLittrow SpectrographUniversal SpectrographSpectroheliographCoronal Photometer

Dual Camera System

Hilltop Dome Facility (SP):Ha-Flare Telescope MonitorWhite-Light Telescope20-cm Full-Limb CoronagraphWhite-Light Flare-Patrol Telescope (Mk II)Sunspot TelescopeFabry-Perot Etalon Vector MagnetographMirror-Objective Coronagraph (5 cm)Mirror-Objective Coronagraph (15 cm)

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McMath-Pierce Telescope Complex (KP):160-cm Main Unobstructed Telescope76-cm East Auxiliary Telescope76-cm West Auxiliary TelescopeVertical SpectrographInfrared ImagerImage Stabilizers1-m Fourier Transform SpectrometerStellar Spectrograph System3 Semi-Permanent Observing Stations for visitor equipment

Vacuum Telescope (KP):SpectromagnetographHigh /-Helioseismograph

Razdow (KP):Ha patrol instrument

VI. NOAO OPERATIONS

A. Scientific Staff

The purpose of NOAO is to enable excellence in astrophysical research for the community. NOAO istherefore charged with the responsibility of building and operating cutting edge facilities. It is the scientificstaff that must work with the community to identify major directions and opportunities in research andon that basis define the suite of telescopes and instruments required to maintain a competitive position forthe US community. In order to carry out this task, NOAO must necessarily have a research staff offirst-rank stature.

The scientific staff provides the link between NOAO and the users of its observatories; the quality of thestaff determines the quality of service provided and the level to which the performance and adequacy ofthe facilities can be evaluated. The staff prepares proposals for major new telescopes, oversees the designand construction of new instruments, and acts as an important repository of technical expertise andinformation necessary to design and build new telescopes.

The staff size is defined to be constant over the period of the long-range plan. Several retirements maybe expected during this time period; these vacancies will be filled with people who can play key roles inthe development of new facilities and instrumentation planned by all three divisions and who have ahistory or potential for outstanding independent research. A retirement incentive program is beingdeveloped by NOAO and AURA in consultation with the more senior staff members for future discussionwith NSF. The attractivenessof that program also depends on the possibilities for continuing research andscientific interaction in the context of the established emeritus program.

A serious process of annual performance reviews for the tenured staff is carried out by the directors.Progress was being made on achieving salary parity with university astronomy programs until the salaryfreeze imposed to cope with the reductions in the FY 1993 budget. Qearer definition of a more attractivecareer track for those members of the scientific staff who make their strong contribution in the

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development of innovative instrumentation was achieved for NOAO through an adopted AURA policychange. The scientific vitality of the observatories is greatly enhanced by the presence of postdocs; thatprogram remains a high priority, although it is vulnerable to further reductions in support.

B. Computer Support

Cerro Tololo Computer SupportAt present, Cerro Tololo Computer Services consist primarily of approximately thirty-five interconnectedSun workstations of differing types, running the Unix operating system. These computers have disks andperipherals of varied sizes and capabilities. They are connected by fully integrated, distributed computernetworks in La Serena and on Cerro Tololo. The two networks are themselves connected via a dedicated

microwave system. Computer resources at both locations are transparently accessible from any computeron either network, limited only by the bandwidth available. The result is a standard TCP/IP network withdistributed resources; no single element is essential to the operation of the system.

Over the next five years, CTIO will need to continuously upgrade the computers used for data acquisition,data reduction, and engineering. On the mountain, the 16-bit data acquisition computers (Data General andDEC) currently in use should be replaced by 32-bit machines (presently Sun Microsystems) and PCs. Thisprocess should be largely complete by early FY 1995-by which time some of the machines being replacedwill be fifteen years old.

The increased demands on data acquisition and storage imposed by the growth in array size and increasedefficiency of operation imply a steady upgrade of the speed and data storage capacity of the computersavailable at the telescopes. Since astronomers typically do preliminary data reductions while observing,this need for increased computer power must follow the growth in array sizes if reductions are to continueto be done in near real-time. Several of the projects in the five-year plan involve large arrays-mostnotably the Second Generation IR Spectrometer and the CCD Mosaic projects~and thus the upgrading ofthe mountain computers is expected to take place as needed during the five years. Equivalent capabilitymust also be provided in the La Serena instrument laboratories for instrument development andmaintenance.

On Cerro Tololo and in La Serena, local computers and peripherals are connected by means of two10 Mb/sec Ethernets. Between the two sites, a 1.5 Mb/sec TI microwave channel is available. Both ofthese systems are approaching saturation and will have to be upgraded within the near future. Plans callfor installing Fiber Distributed Data Interconnection (FDDI) systems on Cerro Tololo and in La Serenaduring FY 1994 and FY 1995.

The present microwave system connecting La Serena and Cerro Tololo is the most vulnerable single pointof the system. A backup 9.6 Kb/sec channel is available for the maintenanceof essential communicationsin the event of microwave failure, but the speed of this channel is so low that data transfer and remoteobserving are all but impossible when the microwave system is nonfunctional. It has been quite reliable,but significant failures have occurred. CTIO plans to install a second microwave channel of comparablebandwidth during FY 1994. This will increase the capacity of the La Serena-Cerro Tololo connection andprovide a full backup channel which will significantly increase the reliability of communication betweenthe two sites.

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A direct satellite fink with a bandwidth of 56 Kb/sec between CTIO and the Internet has been funded byNASA since June 1989. There are two fully redundant transmitters and receivers which provide extremelyhigh reliability. Since installation, availability of the CTIO portion of the system has been above 99.9%.Channel reliability has been about 99.5% due to failures in the US. More than half of the down time wasdue to Hurricane Andrew.

The satellite link has proven invaluable in connecting Cerro Tololo with observers and has becomeessential to efficient operation of CTIO. It is used extensively for data transfer and coordinated observingbetween CTIO and other institutions. Because the CTIO network fully obeys TCP/IP protocols, remoteobserving can be done as easily and naturally from anywhere on the Internet as it can be done from anypoint on the CTIO local area networks, bandwidth and satellite delays being the primary limitations. Someremote observation has been done using the satellite link, though the channel capacity is presently barelyadequate for this use. The current satellite link hardware is capable of supporting data rates of up to256 Kb/sec without modification. CTIO is seeking funding to purchase increased satellite bandwidth totake advantage of this ability. When this increased speed is available, true remote observing shouldbecome a reality.

CTIO intends to begin archiving astronomical data as soon as well-recognized archiving standards exist.The observatory presently archives data temporarily when observers request the service. The capabilityof archiving all data exists, but until a standard method exists for cataloging and making this data availablein a useful form to potential users, no general archiving is being done. No purpose would be served byrandomly storing all data taken at the observatory. CTIO is working with KPNO to select appropriatestandards. As soon as feasible, long term data storage and cataloging of all data taken at CTIO will begin.We expect that the archiving method used will probably be similar to the one employed by the SpaceTelescope Science Institute.

Table 8

CTIO Schedule for Major Capital Expenditures

Fiscal Year

Item 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Distributed Computing 30K 35K 30K 25K 30K 40K

Equipment Upgrades 71K 70K 75K 75K 86K 90K

Satellite Link upgrades 10K 10K 30K 30K 20K

Network capacity upgrades 18K 10K 25K 30K 20K 23K

Microwave Spares/Backu 12K 30K 5K

Remote Observing Facilities 15K 5K 20K 10K 10K 18K

Archiving - Capital 12K 5K 9K 12K 15K 10K

Total 158K 165K 174k 182K 191K 201K

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Downtown Tucson Computer SupportThe computer facilities run by CCS in the Tucson office complex serve three general needs forNOAO-Tucson: data reduction and analysis for the scientific staff and visitors, general computing for allstaff members, and IRAF development and support. Our distributed computing strategy for Tucsonimplements a combination of central, shared facilities, and a variety of desktop facilities includingworkstations and modem, smart terminals. Computing systems are linked with set of Ethernets transmittedby wire in Tucson, optical fiber on Kitt Peak, and leased-line between Tucson and Kitt Peak.

In FY 1993 we will continue an extensive improvement program to our central computing facilities,replacing older high-maintenance systems with modem low maintenance ones, achieving concurrently amajor upgrade of capabilities. In subsequent years, we will continueour program of upgrades for increasedperformance with reduced maintenance and operating costs. In general, the lifetime of a computer orperipheral is four years.

Thus, in FY 1993 we plan to replace the server for the Science Workstation Network, Gemini, in FY 1994and FY 1995 we will replace our "fast" machine, Ursa and our VMS machine, Robur and in FY 1996 andFY 1997 we will replace our IRAF development machine, Tucana, our general timesharing machine,Orion, and our printer control machine, Solitaire.

A staff of approximately seven FTE maintains the downtown computer facilities (approximately 100machines including desktop workstations), supports the network and provides support to users (both staffand visitors). Hardware support is also provided to PCs used within the Tucson facility.

Table 9

NOAO/Tucson Schedule for Major Capital Expenditures

Item

Central Facilities

Fiscal Year

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

125K 131K 138K 142K 145K 160K

IRAF

IRAF (the NOAO Image Reduction and Analysis Facility) is a portable software system used forastronomical data reduction and analysis, general image processing and graphics, and astronomicalsoftware development The IRAF software, first released a decade ago, is now in heavy use within theNOAO observatories, at over a thousand sites in the world astronomical community, and within the NASAastrophysics community.

Recently, the IRAF CCD Environment (ICE) was installed at the KPNO telescopes to provide the softwareenvironment for astronomers to acquire data from CCD detectors.

Approximately seven FTE programmers work on IRAF systems software and scientific applications andon providing support to the IRAF community. Continuing effort is required to keep IRAF current withthe ever-changing world of computing (current efforts include a major X-Windows project) and to

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accommodate the again ever-changing data reduction and analysis needs of NOAO (current projectsinclude better reduction software for multi-fiber data taken with Hydra and a second generation ICEsystem).

Budget limitations have delayed or eliminated several IRAF projects that would be very useful for theObservatory and the US astronomical community. Among these is a surface photometry data analysispackage and an improved astrometry package to support multi-object and multi-fiber spectroscopy.

Mountain Programming GroupA group of eight FTE programmers provides programming services to various KPNO and projects forinstrument and telescope control.

Among the current instrument related projects, integration of new CCD controllers, being developed atCTIO, into existing Kitt Peak systems will be particularly important. On the telescope control side, thenew telescope control system, now running at the 2.1-m and the Coude" feed will be ported to the 4-m thisyear. WIYN support is also currently ramping up.

Since modem instrument and telescope projects are very dependent on software, the limited number ofMountain Programming Group programmers is often the throttle on the timely completion of projects. Anincreased budget would provide more programming resources.

Table 10

KPNO Schedule for Major Capital Expenditures

Fiscal Year

Item 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Telescope Control 30K 32K 25K 20K 21K

Instrument Control 20K 21K 22K 23K 24K 25K

Mountain IRAF data stations & upgrades 45K 47K 49K 5 IK 54K 57K

Computer spares 10K UK 12K 13K 14K 15K

Mountain Ethemet-FDDI Conversion 15K 15K 10K 10K

High Speed Comm upgrade 30K 30K 20K

Dowtown Distributed Computing 60K 63K 66K 69K 72K 76K

Archiving 85K 50K 52K 165K 65K

Total 165K 274K 244K 273K 359K 279K

3. National Solar Observatory

NSO/Tucson Computer SupportNSO/Tucson needs to address four basic areas: (1) On Kitt Peak, a major modernization of dataacquisition, data reduction, and telescope control at the McMath-Pierce facility. Initially, this effort hasaddressed data acquisition and reduction at the Fourier Transform Spectrometer and the Solar-StellarSpectrograph. The next phases will address the Vacuum Telescope and, finally, the McMath-Piercetelescope itself. (2) In Tucson, a continuing program to provide and upgrade scientific workstations or

80

X-terminals and associated peripheral devices. Better access is needed to several commercial softwarepackages, such as IDL (for which there is at present only one single-processor license in Tucson and oneon Kitt Peak). (3) Near-line archival storage for major data sets such as FTS spectra, full-disk synopticmagnetograms and spectroheliograms, and the high-degree helioseismometer. Pilot efforts now underwayinclude archiving FTS spectra on CD-ROM and making recent magnetograms available to the usercommunity by anonymous FTP. (4) Stable access to programming resources sufficient to allow theplanning and execution of major software packages.

Table 11

NSO/T and NSO/KP Schedule of Major Capital Expenditures

Fiscal Year

Item 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Distributed workstations 20K 20K

Workstation upgrades 20K 20K 20K

McMath-Pierce data acquisition 30K 30K 50K 50K

Archival data system 20K 40K

Total 50K 50K 70K 90K 60K

NSO/SP Computer SupportThe computer facilities at NSO/SP are in four areas; Main Lab (ML), Evans Solar Facility (ESF), Hilltop(HT) and the Vacuum Tower Telescope (VTT). The HT, ESF and VTT computer systems are mainly usedfor telescope control and data collection with limited data analysis. The ML facility is used for datareduction, analysis, and general computing.

Our main objectives over the next five years will be to: (1) Replace old, inefficient, and expensive systemswith new hardware. This includes not only computer hardware, but also electrical and environmentalsystems. (2) Continue to upgrade offices with a distributed workstation environment. (3) Upgrade to a"compute server" to handle the increase in data acquisition at the observing sites. With new instrumentscoming online in the near future, there will be a dramatic increase in the amount of data collected. Thiswill require a corresponding major increase in data storage requirements and computational power toanalyze the data. (4) Provide an optical disk system for data storage and data archiving. (5) NetworkNSO/SP with a high bandwidth communication system to handle the increase in data traffic between theobserving sites and the "compute server," as well as allow more flexibility. (6) Hardware/softwareupgrades.

Specific aspects of this plan include: (1) Replace the old AC systems at the ML and ESF with moreefficient cooling systems. (2) Install/upgradeworkstations in scientific staff offices. (3) Install a "computeserver" to handle the increase in data collection. This would be in the 100 MFLOPS cpu(s) range with 10Gigabytes high speed online disk space. (4) Install a 20 GB optical disk hierarchical storage system. Thesystem will allow infrequent accessed files to be off-loaded from magnetic disk to optical storage, yet beaccessible on demand. This will also allow users to begin archiving data from outdated magnetic tapesto a more reliable long-term archive storage system. (5) Upgrade the present ethemet network to aCDDI/FDDI/ATM local area network (LAN) with a high-speed backbone between facilities. This will be

81

needed to handle the increase in data traffic. The minimum link needed would be between the ML and

the VTT. (6) Install a high-speed tape system (10-15 Mb/s) at the VTT, ESF and ML for data collection.(7) Upgrade our optical disk recorder and color printer system. (8) Install a video printer system.(9) Upgrade/replace old file servers, workstations and telescope control computer systems.

Table 12

NSO/SP Schedule of Major Capital Expenditures

Fiscal Year

Item 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

ML & ESF AC replacement 20K

Distributed workstations 20K 20K

Compute Server 200K

High Speed LAN 25K

Server/Workstation Upgrade 40K 40K 40K 40K 40K

Telescope Control Computer pgrade 15K 15K 15K 15K 15K

Upgrade Optical Disk 10K 10K

High Speed Tape Recorder 90K

Optical Disk Storage System 75K

Total 85K 305K 130K 145K 80K

A Proposal to "Save the Bits" on Kitt Peak: A Bare-Bones Data Archive

The arguments for archiving ground-based astronomical data are compelling, and the call for the nationalobservatories, in particular, to archive their data is becoming more insistent. The recent Astronomy andAstrophysics Survey Committee report for the coming decade strongly recommends the estabhshment ofground-based data archives available to the community over computer networks. The reasons cited are1) archival material is of value to understand astronomical processes that occur on long time scales, 2) adefinitive understanding of astrophysics often results from extensive archival studies rather than from theinitial interpretations of data, and 3) ground-based array detectors provide a rich dataset for serendipitousand exploratory programs.

The barriers to ground-based data archiving are also formidable. The varied funding sources of ground-basedobservatories, the widevariety andrapidevolution of ground-based instrumentation, the historicallyproprietary nature of ground-based data, the high cost (relative to the acquisition of new data or theconstructionof new facilities)of establishing and maintainingdata archives, and the difficulty of providingadequate documentation for the data to allow other astronomers to make intelligent use of it are all citedas reasons not to commit the resources necessary to develop ground-based data archives.

The reasons listed above for not archiving data are daunting, but they are not insurmountable. Thisproposal outlines a specificplan for archiving data on Kitt Peak both, solar and nighttime, and for makingthese data, as well as catalogs of the data, available to the community on a limited basis without thecommitment of substantial observatory resources in the process. If the approach proves successful, it canbe extended to other NOAO sites.

82

The scheme described here takes advantage of the new IRAF Control Environment (ICE), now in use onKitt Peak for CCD control and data acquisition, to collect the raw data and send it to a central archivecomputer on the mountain. The archive computer stores the raw data on a low-cost mass storage medium,such as exabyte tape or digital audio tape, and sends the data header to a downtown "server" computerfor further processing. The downtown computer receives and stores the data headers and creates andmaintains two layers of data "catalogs" available over Internet. These catalogs are comprised of simpleone-line (i.e. 132 character ASCII strings) summaries of key information describing the data, includingsuch information as object observed, telescope, instrument, observer, date, and time. As simple ASCIIfiles, these data catalogs can be accessed directly by astronomers interested in locating data suitable fortheir research needs. These catalogs will also contain general comments (if available) from the observersdescribing the conditions of the observations (weather, instrument status, seeing, special problems, etc.).

Astronomers wishing to acquire archive data will first examine the top layer of the data catalog. This isa file (or files, for each telescope) containing the one-line descriptions of each "object" image obtainedat a telescope. This file will not include descriptions of all the calibration frames, but just the actualobservational frames. If observations of interest are found, the astronomer can then access the next layerof the archive, which is comprised of files containing all one-line summaries of all data frames (includingcalibrations) taken at that telescope on the night in question. From these files, the astronomer can compilea list of actual images that might be needed to achieve specific research goals.

The next step is to examine the data headers appropriate for these images in order to confirm the need foreach image, as well as reduce, if possible, the list of images actually needed from the archive. Once a listof images is prepared, the astronomer can obtain permission from the Kitt Peak or NSO Directors toaccess the image archive. The Directors will ensure that the proprietary rights of the observer are respectedand that the need for access to the image archive is scientifically justified. Access to the image archiveshould be controlled to limit the impact on the CCS staff. If appropriate, a tape of the required images canbe prepared for the astronomer requesting the data.

The mountain network has now been configured to support the proposed system and awaits completionof the software for catalog compilation. An initiative item is identified in the budget for support of thisactivity.

C. Facilities Maintenance

Table 13 summarizes the funding requirements for each of the NOAO sites in support of their facilitiesmaintenance. The increasing total for all sites is indicative of the lack of funds available to carry out themaintenance programs. The text which follows, identifies the major maintenance projects we expect toundertake during the next five year period. If increased funding is not provided, further deferredmaintenance will occur.

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Table 13

Maintenance Requirements

Maintenance and Safety SummaryCTIO

KPNO

NSO/Kitt Peak

Tucson

NSO/Sacramento Peak

Total

Maintenance and Safety, CTIOTololo observer support/shop building200 kVA emergency back-up generator for La SerenaReplace metal warehouse and shop buildings on TololoReplace exterior PCB transformersPaint 4-m and 1.5-m domes

Renovation of vehicle fleet

Installation of guard rails on Tololo roadReplacement of water pipes on TololoInstall water filtration system in La SerenaUpgrade Tololo power switching and control hardware

Total

Maintenance and Safety, KPNOGeneral building repairs and improvementsSeal water catchment basins

Crane, elevator, fire alarm inspection and upgradeSeptic system replacementReplacement of water and sewer linesRoad repairsCompletion of central fire alarm systemReplacement of underground telephone linesUpgrade of telephone systemDevelopment of inventoried materials storage

Total

Maintenance and Safety, NSO/Kitt PeakSurvey and overhaul of McMath- Pierce electrical systemModify #3 mirror mount to allow safe handlingGuard to prevent fall from Vacuum Telescope elevatorGeneral upgrade of McMath-Pierce TelescopeGeneral upgrade of Vacuum Telescope

Total

84

$ 895K

1.131K

312K

603K

2,091

$5,032K

$140K

55K

220K

50K

20K

100K

250K

25K

10K

25K

$895K

$450K

60K

140K

45K

55K

60K

80K

65K

51K

125K

$1,131K

$100K

7K

10K

145K

50K

$312K

Maintenance and Safety, NOAO TucsonComplete remaining roof repairs $10KImprovements to interior of headquarters building 60KCorrect building power distribution problems 80kUpgrade/replace building telecommunications 5IKCorrect headquarters building (HVAC) problems 100KComplete on-going interior/exterior painting program 20KUpgrade of fire/security alarm system 82KUpdate of facilities electrical/mechanical drawings 50KAsphalt lot re-surfacing 15KInstall building energy management systems 135K

Total $603K

Maintenance and Safety, Sacramento PeakExterior refurbishment of buildings $346KRepair walkways 40Fire alarm system 25Buildings program, refurb/additions 355KUtilities program, water/sewer/gas 115KMaintenance vehicles program 204KVisitor vehicle replacement 60KLab/shop equipment and machinery 335KUnderground storage tanks, leak detection 15KHousing renovation 100KRoads resurfacing 186KCrafts persons-electrical 160KCrafts persons-general 150K

Total $2,091

Facilities Maintenance, Cerro TololoRoutine maintenance of the existing infrastructure at CTIO receives high priority, and occurs continually.A number of rather large maintenance projects which require special funds not normally allocated in thebudget need to be done in the near future. One of the most pressing needs is to provide cleaner and morereliable power to the telescopes and computers on Tololo and in La Serena. The emergencygeneratoronTololo does not immediately kick in when there is a power outage, and thus new switching and controlhardware must be implemented in order to provide a smooth transition in power sources when there is anoutage. The La Serena compound still does not have an adequate emergency back-up generator to coverthe frequent power glitches that are experienced in the city, so a 200 kVA generatorpurchase is requested.

Long needed guard rails have been installed in the most dangerous sections of the Tololo road during thepast three years, and this work needs to be continued. The CTIO vehicle fleet is aging, with the averageage of cars being seven years, and of trucks being eleven years. New regulations require all vehicles inSantiago to have catalytic converters, and this requirement is expected to be extended to La Serenawithinthree years. Thus, the observatory must embark on a serious renovation of the vehicle fleet including bothcars and light trucks.

85

In La Serena several outside transformers still utilize insulating oil containing PCBs, and should bechanged. Also, the well which provides the compound with water is encountering more particulate mattereach year, so a filtration system is needed for the system. On Tololo, replacement of large sections ofcorroded pipe which has deteriorated from bacteria which attack iron, is required for the network whichbrings water from the valley below up to Tololo. And, both the 4-m and 1.5-m telescope domes willrequire repainting in the next few years in order to maintain good thermal insulation.

Facilities Construction, Cerro TololoThere are two construction projects that CTIO must consider during the next five years, apart from anypossible construction associated with the Gemini or SOAR telescope projects. One of them is a newbuilding on the summit of Tololo which can house the labs and offices now residing in the 4-m building,and the other is a building that will replace the old Tololo warehouse and electric and wood shops, nowhoused in 'temporary' corrugated metal structures.

The new building for telescope operations personnel is planned to be executed in several phases. The firstphase consists of constructing the basic infrastructure of the building, including the freight elevator andground floor offices, and electronics lab. The second phase will consist of the second floor offices, a smallreference library of 'essential' publications frequently needed at the telescopes, and a commons area wheresnacks can be prepared and eaten. The new building represents the final stage of the Tololo image andseeing improvements program, an integral part of which is the moving of all offices, shops, and labs nowhoused in the telescope buildings to a separate building so the telescopes will not be subjected to a poorthermal environment.

An equally important construction project that must be undertaken in the near future is the replacementof two temporary structures on Tololo which now house the warehouse and wood and metal shops, whichare built of corrugated metal including the roofs. These buildings do not have finished interiors, and arenot suitable for their current function. They leak water from rain and snow, and cannot be heated. Theywere originally intended to be temporary buildings during the initial construction phase on Tololo overtwenty-five years ago, but have continued to be used because of lack of funds for their replacement. Forreasons of safety and proper working conditions, the temporary buildings must be replaced soon by anappropriate structure, otherwise damage will occur to the equipment and people now occupying them.

Facilities Maintenance, Kitt PeakThe now nearly three decade age of most of the facilities on Kitt Peak and the severe environment on themountain-top have caused major maintenance problems in the past few years. Until substantial additionalfunds for facilities maintenance can be made available, maintenance is limited to the most urgentproblems. Among the critical needs are painting and sealing of the Mayall building, particularly the domeand shutter, overhaul of the dome trucks of the Mayall dome; replacement of various underground water,sewer and telephone lines; completion of the mountain-wide fire alarm system. Additional needs includerefurbishment of both aluminization facilities, construction of an inventoried materials storage facility,sealing of the two water catchment basins, updating of the mountain telephone system, and modificationof the administration and dining buildings to meet current function and need.

With available resources we have begun a program of painting domes and building exteriors on a five toseven year rotation. Repair and re-coating of the flat roofs of all of the buildings will proceed on a similarschedule.

86

The WIYNObservatory goes into operation at the beginningof FY 1995. At that time the anticipatedlevelof support is 6.5 FTE of which 1 FTE is assumed for normal building maintenance. WIYN will besupporting the mountain infrastructure through payment of a site-use fee.

For the first few years after completion of the building in April 1993, work associated with startup willrequire additional resources from the mountain staff. Although difficult to predict, it may amount to anadditional 1-2 FTE for installation of WIYN supplied equipment. Major building problems will becorrected by the contractor under warranty during the first year following completion. Product warrantieswill extend the coverage for some parts of the building including such potential problem areas as buildingpanels, roofs and seals.

The WIYN Observatory has been designed to minimize operations and maintenance requirements.Following the startup phase, the requirements are anticipated to be comparable to other facilities its sizeand consistent with the level of support described above.

Facilities Maintenance, NSO/Kitt PeakNSO has a long-range facilities maintenance plan. In keeping with previous recommendations, the list inTable 13 represents the most recent updates of these requirements.

Facilities Maintenance, NSO/Sacramento PeakFacility maintenance continues to be reactive in style due to low budgeting. This trend will continue untilprogress is made in staffing and renovating Observatory infrastructure. The majority of buildings, utilitiesand facility systems were established in the 1950s and early 1960s. These important resources have agedandnowrequire refurbishment as wellas maintenance. Budget levelsandpriorities have resulted in benignneglect of renovation and preventive maintenance programs, which is forcing higher costs upon out-yearbudgets. Moreover, facility resources associated with the quality of life at Sac Peak are at risk within thenext few years, thus potentially having a negative impact on our ability to attract world-class astronomers.Nevertheless, following persistent leaks in the water lines and potentially hazardous leaks in the gas lines,the utilities in the Redwood housing area have now been renovated (using special NOAO funds) by SacPeak staff, including: water mains; water yard lines; gas mains and gas lines. Subcontracts have been letfor re-paving a road segment at the entrance to the Observatory and for re-roofing the Redwoods.

Facilities Construction, NSO/Sacramento PeakAn addition to the Main Lab buildingcontinues to be the highest NSO/SP construction priority. Existingoffice space, operations space and datareduction/storage space areinadequate to meettheneeds of residentstaff and visitors. The lack of adequate storage and shelter for facility equipment results in highermaintenance costs and accelerated depreciation of capital equipment These needs are documented inNSO/SP plans for maintenance and building programs.

An acute NSO/SP problem has been the impact of tourist/visitors upon parking and support facilities(restrooms). The need for a modem Visitor Centerhas beendiscussed but not listed as an LRP line item.This need is being addressed by partnerships between NSO/SP and the US Forest Service and the NewMexico Department of Tourism. The State of New Mexico has appropriated $150,000 for this visitorfacility. A grant request was prepared by the partners for matching funds from the Intermodal SurfaceTransportation Enhancement Act Approval of the request should occur in the spring of 1993. In themeantime, the partners will begin preparing detailed requirements for presentation to an architect andengineering firm, (A&E). Selection of an A&E and detailed planning should be completed in FY 1993.

87

Facilities Maintenance, NOAO TucsonInadequate funding levels have made it impossible for Central Facilities Operations (CFO) to makesignificant progress on three major areas of concern. Consequently, efforts to design and correct aninefficient and unpredictable heating/cooling system, and problems with an unbalanced electrical system,will be accomplished over a longer and more costly period of time. Aging physical plant equipment willno longer be replaced when the expected lifetime is exceeded. The equipment will be monitored andmaintained under a preventive maintenance program, but periodic, costly failures, which are unbudgeted,are expected to randomly occur. All three of these items are key areas in the plan for energy managementmentioned below.

Utility costs for the NOAO Tucson Headquarters buildings are expected to exceed $330 K in FY 1993.Further sizable electric rate increases are guaranteed in the near future. The only way of controlling, andhopefully reducing, these costs is through the implementation of energy management improvements. Aplan will be prepared to identify where those savings can be secured, and what the costs will be toaccomplish the savings.

Other less expensive, but essential, maintenance items include painting of the buildings interior and partialexterior, refurbishment of restrooms; worn carpeting, tile, and wood floor repair/replacement; fire alarmand security upgrades; asphalt parking lots resurfacing; telecommunications upgrades or replacement;shuttle vehicle replacements; and re-roofing of the Central Administrative buildings, along with theCoatings Laboratory.

Facilities Construction, NOAO TucsonConstructionrelated work for this period is expected to include: Facility design and construction oversightof the new visitor telescope building on Kitt Peak; design of the Kitt Peak Dining room patio enclosureand Dormitory 3 modifications; improvement of the bicycle parking area as part of the motor vehiclereduction program; facilities support and overview of the construction of the GONG sites; and variousother program specific projects as required.

VII. BUDGET

The budget and staffing tables that follow show staffing and funding for observatory operations and forGONG. In preparing these tables, we have assumed 5% inflation over the budget level of the previousyear, starting with the approved budget of $26.6M for FY 1993. There has been no official guidance yeton the budget level for FY 1994 as of the time of this writing. The 6.7% cut mandated for FY 1993 hasbrought the loss of purchasing power of the NOAO budget to over 30% relative to that of FY 1984.Substantial restoration is required for a vital program, and several initiatives are highlighted to moveNOAO in a positive direction.

• Detector Development includes the development program with USNO and Santa Barbara ResearchCorporation to produce 1024 square InSb infrared arrays and the purchase of such arrays for CTIO,KPNO, and NSO. It also includes foundry runs at Loral to produce the CCDs for the 8K x 8K mosaicimager, andthe thinning andbonding contract, as wellas implementation of spectroscopic large-formatCCDs for NSO, and the development of a camera system for the "Yohkoh" chips received fromNASA.

88

• Telescope Performance Upgrades include pointing and tracking improvements through new controlsystems and servos, refiguring of optics as needed, thermal control of the telescopes, primaries, anddome environment. NSO requires new control systems and servos.

• NSO now depends on major initiatives to support its technical resource base and maintain its viabilityat the current base budget level. Two important initiatives are highlighted: Adaptive Optics for theSacramento Peak Vacuum Tower Telescope with the 61-element deformable mirror, the McMath-Pierce upgrade and metal mirror system project. In addition, NSO is initiating studies of a SolarSynoptic Network in collaboration with the US Air Force to study solar magnetic field evolution onscales of tens of hours.

• The US Gemini Project Office will see increasing activity as it works with the international GeminiProject staff in managing contracts for instruments and other subsystems; it will also be distributingtechnical and scientific materials to the US astronomical community on a regular basis. Since the otherpartners are providing support for their national project offices, the request is for a full-time USProject Manager and clerical support.

• User demands for increased bandwidth for remote observing and for increased hardware to supportdata archiving lead to the initiative requested.

Funds are provided in this budget to cover inflation in costs denominated in Chilean pesos relative to thedollar exchange rate at 2.5% per year in excess of the dollar inflation rate for the period of the five-yearplan.

Staffing costs at the present time constitute approximately seventy percent of the NOAO budget. Anincrease in the base budget is necessary to reduce the fraction devoted to staff costs, as is appropriategiven the need for funds for equipment and for outside contracts for facilities maintenance andrefurbishment

As GONG enters into its operations a data analysis phase, stable funding for this high visibility programis important for the viability of NSO.

Additional staff are also needed in critical areas. CTIO, KPNO and NSO face a genuine shortage ofscientific staff relative to the service commitment to the visiting observer and instrument developmentprograms. The involvement of a numberof the nighttime astronomers in the development of the GeminiProject and solar astronomers in the development of the GONG projecthas exacerbated that situation. Thesolar-stellar program is supported by a single scientist, and restoring the second scientific staff positionfor this productive programs has a high priority. A vital NOAO would have a new assistant astronomerin each division.

KPNO needs resources to implement queue, service and synoptic observing for the community at theWIYN telescope. A support scientist, observing technicians, a software engineer, and an increase in thepool of mountain support personnel would make the WIYN a true addition to the mountain capabilities.NSO/SP needs an electrical engineer, software engineer, and electronics technician for vigorous pursuitof the adaptive optics program, as well as an additional craftsperson to assist with facilities maintenance.At NSO/Tucson, the priorities are to use the McMath and the FTS full time rather than part-time byadding three observers, and to more than double the personnel devoted to instrumentation projects by

89

adding an engineer and a technician. At CTIO, the priorities are to reinstate two key positions lost inFY 1993: a scientist with expertise in optics, and a postdoctoral fellow. A serious archiving effort atKPNO and NSO would require three new support positions.

This expansion in the base budget is not projected in this five-year plan, but the US astronomicalcommunity would be well served by this timely reinvestment in the national observatories.

90

Observatory OperationsScientific Staff & SupportOperations & MaintenanceInstrumentation

Management FeeSubtotal Observatory Operations

USAF & NASA Support of NSOTotal Observatory Operations

U.S. Gemini Project Office

3.5-m Mirror Project

Global Oscillations Network Group

Total Base Budget

Initiatives

Detector Development

Telescope Performance UpgradesNSO - Adaptive OpticsNSO - McMath-Pierce UpgradesNSO - Solar Synoptic NetworkU.S. Gemini Project Office (incremental)Archive and Microwave Link

Total Requested Budget - NSF Funds

APPENDIX A

TABLE I

NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORIES

FY 1994 - FY 1998 LONG RANGE PLAN

BUDGET SUMMARY

(amounts in thousands)

FY 1993(1) FY 1994 FY 1995 FY 1996 FY 1997 FY 1998

4,719 4,856 5,316 5,623 5,950 6,296

16,550 17,090 18,464 19,519 20,630 21,819

2,668 3,511 3,688 3,810 4,016 4,225

475 499 524 550 578 607

24,412 25,956 27,992 29,502 31,174 32,947

(631) (663) (696) (731) (768) (806)

27,296 28,771 30,406 32,14123,781

450

618

2,240

27,089

$27,089

25,293

470 493 517 543 570

2,607 2,343 1,857 1,853 2,064

28,370 30,132 31,145 32,802 34,775

520 500 550 400 400

1,150 1,205 1,260 1,325 1,390

400 400 400 280 280

150 500 300 300

100 250 400 500 500

141 149 155 163 172

384 165 260 192 284

$31,215 $33,301 $34,470 $35,962 $37,801

(1) FY-1993 Program Plan Revision I (tentative) includes $26,661 k new funds, and $428k carried forward from FY-1992.

Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory

Scientific Staff & Support

Operations & MaintenanceInstrumentation

National Solar Observatory

Scientific Staff & Support

Operations & MaintenanceInstrumentation

Kitt Peak National Observatory

Scientific Staff & Support

Operations & Maintenance

Instrumentation

Central Offices

Director's Office

Scientific Staff & Support

Operations & Maintenance

Instrumentation

Central Computer Services

Scientific Staff & Support

Operations & MaintenanceInstrumentation

Central Administrative Services

Central Facilities Operations

Central Engineering & Technical ServicesOperations & MaintenanceInstrumentation

Publications & Information Resources

Total Central Offices

Management Fee

Subtotal Observatory Operations

USAF & NASA Support of NSO

Total Observatory Operations

U.S. Gemini Project Office

3.5-m Mirror Project

Global Oscillations Network Group

Total Base Budget

TABLE II

NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORIES

FY 1994 - FY 1998 LONG RANGE PLAN

BUDGET SUMMARY

APPENDIX A

(amountsinthousands)

FY 1993 FY 1994 FY 1995 FY 1996 FY 1997 FY 1998

Personnel Other Personnel Other Personnel Other Personnel Other Personnel Other Personnel Other

Costs Costs Costs Costs Costs Costs Costs Costs Costs Costs Costs Costs

1.375 134 1,475 76 1,585 81 1,703 88 1,831 95 1,968 102

2,507 1,797 2,749 1,848 2,956 1,999 3,178 2,153 3,417 2,315 3,673 2,500

363 156 410 181 441 182 475 192 511 205 550 210

4,245

6,332

2,087 4,634

6,739

2,105 4,982

7,244

2,262 5,356

7,789

2,433 5,759

8,374

2,615 6,191

9,003

2,812

1,186 93 1,232 79 1,414 83 1,485 87 1,559 91 1,637 96

1,579 612 1,597 640 1,867 672 1,960 706 2,058 741 2,161 778

404 95 424 74 445 78 467 82 490 86 515 90

3,169

3,969

800 3,253

4,046

793 3,726

4,559

833 3,912

4,787

875 4,107

5,025

918 4,313

5,277

964

1,513 251 1,588 247 1,727 259 1,813 272 1,904 286 1,999 300

3,646 1,217 3,769 1,229 3,957 1,290 4,155 1.355 4,363 1,423 4,581 1,494

1,169 298

1,766

1,228

6,585

283

1,759

1,289

6,973

297

1,846

1,353

7,321

312

1,939

1,421

7,686

328

2,037

1,492

8,072

344

6,328 2,138

61 16 64 67 70 74 78

617 238

64

318

648 96

68

164

680 101

71

172

714 106 750 111 788 117

678 712 747 784 106 824 111 866 117

90 95 100 105 110 116

715 210 752 220 890 231 935 243 982 255 1,031 268

119 125

972

131

1,121

138

1,178

145

1,237

152

1,299924 210 220 231 243 255 268

1,035 226 1,079 238 1,133 250 1,190 263 1,250 276 1,313 290

458 583 459 619 482 650 506 683 531 717 558 753

734 254 771 271 910 285 956 299 1,004 314 1,054 330

462

1,233

256

527

485

1,395

269

554

509

1,465

282

581

534

1,538

296

610

561

1,615

311

734 254 641

3,936 1,606

5,542

475

17,678 6,734

24,412

(631)

23,781

405 45

440 178

1,593 647

27,089

(8)4,568 1,760

6,328

499

19,040 6,916

(663)

JSL4,997 1,849

6,846

524

20,678 7,314

27,992

(696)

27,296

444 49

5,248 1,868

7,116

550

21,837 7,665

29,502

P31)

28,771

466 51

JSL5,511 1,961

7,472

578

23,065 8,109

31,174

(76s)30,406

489 54

J8!5,789 2,061

7,850

607

24,365 8,582

32,947

(806)

32,141

513 57

Initiatives

Detector Development

Telescope Performance Upgrades

NSO - Adaptive Optics

NSO - McMath-Pierce Upgrades

NSO - Solar Synoptic Network

U.S. Gemini Project Office (incremental)

Archive and Microwave Link

Total Initiatives

Total Requested Budget - NSF Funds

APPENDIX A

TABLE II - cont.

FY 1994 • FY 1998 LONG RANGE PLAN

(amounts in thousands)

FY 1993 FY 1994 FY 1995 FY 1996 FY 1997 FY 1998

Personnel Other Personnel Other Personnel Other Personnel Other Personnel Other Personnel Other

Costs Costs Costs Costs

520

Costs Costs

500

Costs Costs

550

Costs Costs

400

Costs Costs

400

600 550 625 580 650 610 680 645 710 680

250 150 250 150 250 150 200 80 200 80

50 100 100 400 150 150 150 150

100 200 50 250 150 250 250 250 250

91 50 96 53 100 55 105 58 111 61

130

1,221

254

1,624

113

1,384

52

1,785

95

1,495

165

1,830

127

1,512

65

1,648

104

1,375

180

1,651

$27,089 $31,215 $35,962

Wolff, SidneyGreen, Richard

Williams, Robert

Baldwin, Jack

Blanco, Victor

Eggen, OlinPhillips, MarkElias, JayHeathcote, StephenSuntzeff, Nicholas

Walker, Alistair

Schommer, Robert

Elston, Richard

Geisler, DouglasGregory, BrookeIngerson, ThomasLayden, AndrewSmith, R. Chris

Williger, Gerard

De Young, DavidOsmer, Patrick

Abt, Helmut

Belton, Michael

Crawford, DavidGatley, IanGillett, Fred

Kinman, Thomas

Lynds, RogerPilachowski, Catherine

Ridgway, StephenWallace, LloydBoroson, Todd

Jacoby, GeorgeMassey, PhillipArmandroff, Taft

Lauer, Tod

Barden, Samuel

Bohannan, Bruce

Johns, Matt

Hinkle, Kenneth

Probst, Ronald

Merrill, Michael

Joyce, Richard

APPENDIX B

NOAO SCIENTIFIC STAFF

- Director, NOAO/Acting Gemini Project Director- Acting NOAO Deputy Director/Astronomer, Tenure

Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory

- Associate Director, NOAO/Director

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Assistant Director, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Assistant Astronomer

- Assistant Astronomer

- Support Scientist- Support Scientist- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

Kitt Peak National Observatory

- Associate Director, NOAO for KPNO/Tenure

- Deputy Director, NOAO/Tenure- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Assistant Astronomer

- Assistant Astronomer

- Associate Scientist

- Scientist

- Scientist

- Associate Support Scientist- Associate Support Scientist- Associate Support Scientist- Support Scientist

*0'Neil, Earl

Ajhar, Edward*Morrison, Heather

*Muller, Beatrice

Pierce, Michael

♦Porter, Alain

*Samarasinha, Nalin

Sarajedini, AtaSilva, David

*Veilleux, SylvainWise, Michael

Leibacher, John

Smartt, RaymondBrault, James

Dunn, RichardHarvey, JackHoward, Robert

Jefferies, John

Kuhn, JeffreyLivingston, WilliamPierce, Keith

Zirker, Jack

Giampapa, MarkNovember, Laurence

Rabin, DougHill, Frank

Toner, Clifford

Kopp, GregPerm, Matthew

♦Altrock, Richard

*Balasubramaniam, Karatholuvu*Duvall, Tom

*Harvey, Karen*Jefferies, Stuart

*Jones, Harrison

*Keil, Stephen*Komm, Rudolf

*Lindsey, Charles*Neidig, Donald♦Radick, Richard

*Simon, George

Sharp, NigelValdes, Francisco

Wolff, Richard

- Senior Associate, Research

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

National Solar Observatory

- Associate Director, NOAO/Director

- Deputy Director/Astronomer, Tenure- Physicist, Tenure- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer Emeritus

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Astronomer Emeritus

- Astronomer, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Associate Astronomer

- Associate Astronomer, Tenure

- Scientist

- Assistant Scientist, GONG

- Research Associate

- Research Associate

- PL/GSS, Astrophysicist- Assistant Scientist

- NASA Astrophysicist- Visiting Astronomer, SPRC- Bartol Research Associate

- NASA Astrophysicist- PL/GSS Astrophysicist- ONR Research Associate

- Visiting Astronomer- PL/GSS Astrophysicist- PL/GSS Astrophysicist- PL/GSS Senior Scientist

Central Computer Support

- Associate Support Scientist- Associate Support Scientist- Project Scientist - CCS

CCS

CCS