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Chapter 9 Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Multiple Choice Questions
1. How did Johnson & Johnson hope to reposition St. Joseph's Aspirin? A) as the best source of arthritis pain relief in adults B) as the best source of pain relief in children C) as the best source for a low-dosage aspirin regime to reduce the risk of heart
attacks and strokes in adults D) as the best source of fever reduction in children E) as the best source of pain relief in adult migraine headache sufferers
Answer: C Page: 321
2. Which of the following provides learning experiences that affect the type of lifestyle people seek and the products they consume? A) culture B) family C) friends D) mass media E) all of the above
Answer: E Page: 322
3. Any change in the content or organization of long-term memory or behavior is known as _____. A) marketing B) learning C) cognition D) information processing E) repositioning
Answer: B Page: 322
4. A series of activities by which stimuli are perceived, transformed into information, and stored is called _____. A) marketing B) interpretation C) learning D) information processing E) positioning
Answer: D Page: 322
5. _____ is the total accumulation of prior learning experiences. A) Memory B) Brand image C) Brand equity D) Information processing E) Positioning
Answer: A Page: 323
6. Which of the following are the two interrelated components of memory? A) primary and secondary memory B) conditioned and unconditioned memory C) operant and classical memory D) short-term and long-term memory E) implied and explicit memory
Answer: D Page: 323
7. Which component of memory is also referred to as working memory and is that portion of total memory that is currently activated or in use? A) short-term memory B) long-term memory C) primary memory D) secondary memory E) transient memory
Answer: A Page: 323
8. Which portion of total memory is devoted to permanent information storage? A) short-term memory B) long-term memory C) primary memory D) secondary memory E) established memory
Answer: B Page: 323
9. Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding short-term memory (STM)? A) STM is short-lived. B) STM has limited capacity. C) STM is a static structure. D) Elaborative activities occur in STM E) STM is also called working memory.
Answer: C Page: 323-324
10. Which of the following refers to the continual repetition of a piece of information in order to hold it in current memory for use in problem solving or transferal to long-term memory? A) schema B) scripts C) imagery D) maintenance rehearsal E) chunking
Answer: D Page: 323
11. Nick looked up a phone number in the telephone directory, and instead of writing it down, he kept repeating it to himself over and over until he could punch the numbers and make the call. Which of the following describes what Nick was doing? A) developing a schema B) developing a script C) employing imagery D) maintenance rehearsal E) chunking information
Answer: D Page: 323
12. The capacity of STM is thought to be in the range of _____ bits of information. A) 1 to 2 B) 3 to 5 C) 5 to 9 D) 10 to 14 E) 15 to 20
Answer: C Page: 323
13. Organizing individual items into groups of related items that can be processed as a single unit is called _____. A) chunking B) maintenance rehearsal C) zipping D) minimizing E) conditioning
Answer: A Page: 323
14. Robert was studying for an exam and organized lists of things into words that he could remember. For example, he needed to know five creative advertising strategies, and used the first letter of each strategy to form the acronym, AIIEE. He knew what word each letter stood for and then only had to remember this acronym for the exam. What is Robert doing? A) chunking B) maintenance rehearsal C) zipping D) minimizing E) conditioning
Answer: A Page: 323
15. Using the toll-free number 1-800-FLOWERS to help consumers remember the phone number is an example of _____. A) chunking B) maintenance rehearsal C) zipping D) minimizing E) conditioning
Answer: A Page: 323
16. Which group of consumers are better able to chunk product information? A) younger consumers B) older consumers C) males D) females E) product experts
Answer: E Page: 324
17. _____ are(is) the use of previously stored experiences, values, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings to interpret and evaluate information in working memory as well as to add relevant previously stored information. A) Maintenance rehearsal B) Chunking C) Elaborative activities D) Conceptualization E) Conditioning
Answer: C Page: 324
18. A television commercial for Senseo brand of coffee maker that can make coffee similar to what consumers purchase at coffee shops (e.g., Starbucks) encourages viewers to remember the experience of drinking their favorite coffee drinks at these types of shops. This coffee maker allows consumers to experience that sensation at home. What is this marketer trying to encourage? A) maintenance rehearsal B) chunking C) elaborative activities D) conceptualization E) conditioning
Answer: C Page: 324
19. Which of the following are abstractions of reality that capture the meaning of an item in terms of other concepts? A) imagery B) concepts C) episodes D) semantics E) schema
Answer: B Page: 325
20. Which type of processing involves the recall and mental manipulation of sensory images, including sight, smell, taste, and tactile (touch) sensations? A) imagery processing B) mental processing C) episodic processing D) transient processing E) conditioned processing
Answer: A Page: 325
21. Which type of memory is viewed as an unlimited, permanent storage that can store numerous types of information such as concepts, decision rules, processes, affective (emotional) states, and so forth? A) short-term memory B) long-term memory C) primary memory D) secondary memory E) episodic memory
Answer: B Page: 325
22. The basic knowledge and feelings an individuals has about a concept is known as _____. A) episodic memory B) primary memory C) accessible memory D) semantic memory E) conditioned memory
Answer: D Page: 325
23. When asked what the concept “New Year's” meant to Holly, she mentioned the following: party, holiday, new beginning, football, fun, resolution, and winter. Holly's basic knowledge and feelings she has about this concept comprises her _____. A) episodic memory B) primary memory C) accessible memory D) semantic memory E) conditioned memory
Answer: D Page: 325
24. The memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated is called _____. A) episodic memory B) primary memory C) accessible memory D) semantic memory E) conditioned memory
Answer: A Page: 325
25. Shirley and Bud have been married for almost 50 years, but Shirley can remember their wedding day so clearly. She remembers how happy she felt that day and how wonderful it was to celebrate their marriage with all of their family and friends. She even remembers walking down the aisle, seeing her future husband waiting for her, and her father kissing her as her placed her hand in Bud's. Which type of memory does this represent? A) episodic memory B) primary memory C) accessible memory D) semantic memory E) conditioned memory
Answer: A Page: 325
26. What are two important long-term memory structures? A) primary and secondary B) schema and scripts C) semantic and conceptual D) conceptual and imagery E) iconic and vicarious
Answer: B Page: 325
27. Which type of memory structure is a complex web of associations? A) schema B) image C) script D) iconic E) conceptual
Answer: A Page: 325
28. Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding schemas? A) A schema is also known as a knowledge structure. B) Concepts, events, and feelings are stored in nodes within memory. C) Associative links vary in terms of how strongly and how directly they are
associated with a node. D) Once an associative link is formed, it is permanent. E) Marketers expend substantial effort to influence the schema consumers have for
their brands.
Answer: D Page: 325-327
29. Brands in the schematic memory that come to mind (are recalled) for a specific problem or situation are known as the _____. A) preferred set B) evoked set C) priority set D) accessible set E) primary set
Answer: B Page: 327
30. Leslie was participating in a market research study, and she was asked to list all of the brands of computer printers that come to her mind. She listed HP, Epson, and Lexmark. These brands represent Leslie's _____. A) preferred set B) evoked set C) priority set D) accessible set E) primary set
Answer: B Page: 327
31. Memory of how an action should occur is a special type of schema known as a(n) _____. A) directive B) episode C) concept D) operant E) script
Answer: E Page: 327
32. Maria was raised as a Catholic, but she has not been attending church regularly since she moved out of her parents' home into her own apartment. However, when she does attend mass, she remembers the sequence of events and what she must do (e.g., sit, kneel, stand, which prayer to say, etc.). Her memory of how an action sequence should occur is known as a(n) _____. A) directive B) episode C) concept D) operant E) script
Answer: E Page: 327
33. The likelihood and ease with which information can be recalled from long-term memory is termed _____. A) retrieval B) elaboration C) maintenance D) accessibility E) learning
Answer: D Page: 327
34. How can accessibility of information stored in long-term memory be enhanced? A) repetition B) rehearsal C) elaboration D) a and b E) a, b, and c
Answer: E Page: 327
35. The accessibility effect for brands is called _____. A) episodic awareness B) conceptual awareness C) top-of-mind awareness D) operant learning E) conditioned response
Answer: C Page: 327
36. Accessibility is related to which of the following? A) strength of incoming linkages B) number of incoming linkages C) strength of links to nodes D) directness of links to nodes E) all of the above
Answer: E Page: 327
37. Which type of memory is characterized by the conscious recollection of an exposure event? A) explicit memory B) schematic memory C) implicit memory D) constructed memory E) concrete memory
Answer: A Page: 328
38. Which type of memory involves the nonconscious retrieval of previously encountered stimuli? A) explicit memory B) schematic memory C) implicit memory D) constructed memory E) concrete memory
Answer: C Page: 328
39. A market researcher asked Carl about his recollection of a specific exposure event, such as seeing an advertisement, or experience, such as driving or riding in an Acura automobile, which was the brand the researcher was interested in. While Carl could not recall a specific ad and has never traveled in an Acura, he seemed to “know” quite a bit about this brand. Carl described the brand as “reliable,” “high-performance,” “luxury,” and “expensive.” Which type of memory does this represent? A) explicit memory B) implicit memory C) scripted memory D) suppressed memory E) subliminal memory
Answer: B Page: 328
40. Which type of learning situation is one in which the consumer is motivated to process or learn the material? A) explicit learning B) implicit learning C) primary learning D) low-involvement learning E) high-involvement learning
Answer: E Page: 329
41. Pat is purchasing new tires for his car. Since he expected to spend $400 or more for these tires, he started researching on the Internet. He spent several days learning about this product and studied several consumer magazines (e.g., Consumer Reports). He decided to purchase Yokohama tires because they were rated the best tire value. Which type of learning situation does this illustrate? A) explicit learning B) implicit learning C) primary learning D) low-involvement learning E) high-involvement learning
Answer: E Page: 329
42. In which type of learning situation does the consumer have little or no motivation to process or learn the material? A) explicit learning B) implicit learning C) primary learning D) low-involvement learning E) high-involvement learning
Answer: D Page: 329
43. Kay was watching American Idol on television when a commercial for toilet tissue came on. She was not motivated at all to process the information provided in the ad. Which type of learning situation does this represent? A) explicit learning B) implicit learning C) primary learning D) low-involvement learning E) high-involvement learning
Answer: D Page: 329
44. Which of the following is the primary determinant of how material is learned? A) education level B) age C) level of involvement D) occupation E) gender
Answer: C Page: 330
45. High-involvement learning often involves _____. A) classical conditioning B) analytical reasoning C) iconic rote learning D) all of the above E) none of the above
Answer: B Page: 330
46. High-involvement learning often involves _____. A) classical conditioning B) iconic rote learning C) operant conditioning D) all of the above E) none of the above
Answer: C Page: 330
47. Low-involvement learning often involves _____. A) classical conditioning B) iconic rote learning C) modeling D) all of the above E) none of the above
Answer: D Page: 330
48. Which of the following is NOT a specific learning theory? A) schematic B) operant C) iconic rote D) vicarious/modeling E) reasoning/analogy
Answer: A Page: 330
49. Which of the following involves presenting two stimuli in close proximity so that eventually the two are perceived to be related or associated? A) pairing B) combining C) conditioning D) operating E) shaping
Answer: C Page: 330-331
50. What are the two basic forms of conditioned learning? A) classical and operant B) classical and iconic C) iconic rote and modeling D) analogy and metaphor E) positive and negative
Answer: A Page: 331
51. _____ attempts to create an association between a stimulus (e.g., brand name) and some response (e.g., behavior or feeling). A) Analogous conditioning B) Iconic rote conditioning C) Classical conditioning D) Modeled conditioning E) Vicarious conditioning
Answer: C Page: 331
52. _____ attempts to create an association between a response (e.g., buying a brand) and some outcome (e.g., satisfaction) that serves to reinforce the response. A) Operant conditioning B) Iconic rote conditioning C) Classical conditioning D) Modeled conditioning E) Vicarious conditioning
Answer: A Page: 331
53. Coca-Cola does not advertise during the evening news because the marketer does not want the often negative information reported on the news to create a negative feeling toward the brand. Which type of learning creates an association between the brand and some response? A) classical conditioning B) operant conditioning C) iconic learning D) vicarious learning E) reinforced learning
Answer: A Page: 331
54. The more often a response is reinforced, the more likely it will be repeated in the future as consumers learn that the response is associated with a positive outcome is the basic premise of which type of learning? A) classical conditioning B) operant conditioning C) iconic learning D) vicarious learning E) reinforced learning
Answer: B Page: 332
55. Which type of conditioning requires that consumers first engage in a deliberate behavior (i.e., trying the product) and come to understand its power in predicting positive outcomes that serve as reinforcement? A) classical conditioning B) operant conditioning C) iconic conditioning D) vicarious conditioning E) reinforced conditioning
Answer: B Page: 332
56. The process of encouraging partial responses leading to the final desired response is known as _____. A) step learning B) staging C) stepping D) shaping E) modeling
Answer: D Page: 332
57. Procter & Gamble, the maker of Crest brand toothpaste, has modified this brand to include whiteners. To encourage consumers to adopt this brand, P&G gave away free samples along with a high value coupon on the purchase of a tube. The hope was that consumers would try the brand, purchase it at a discount, and finally buy it at full price. This is an example of _____. A) step learning B) staging C) stepping D) shaping E) modeling
Answer: D Page: 332
58. Which type of learning encompasses all the mental activities of humans as they work to solve problems or cope with situations? A) conditioning B) cognitive learning C) affective learning D) shaping E) conscious learning
Answer: B Page: 334
59. Which of the following is NOT a type of cognitive learning? A) iconic rote B) vicarious C) reasoning/analogy D) operant E) all of the above are types of cognitive learning
Answer: D Page: 334-335
60. Learning a concept or the association between two or more concepts in the absence of conditioning is known as _____. A) operant learning B) iconic rote learning C) vicarious learning D) modeling E) analytical reasoning
Answer: B Page: 334
61. Thomas is studying for vocabulary exam by merely repeating the words and their definitions over and over. Which type of cognitive learning is this? A) operant learning B) vicarious learning C) modeling D) analytical reasoning E) iconic rote learning
Answer: E Page: 334
62. When consumers do not directly experience a reward or punishment to learn but instead observe the outcomes of others' behaviors and adjust their own accordingly, which type of learning has occurred? A) operant learning B) vicarious learning C) shaping D) analytical reasoning E) iconic rote learning
Answer: B Page: 334
63. The most complex form of cognitive learning is _____. A) operant learning B) vicarious learning C) iconic rote learning D) analytical reasoning E) modeling
Answer: D Page: 335
64. Which type of reasoning allows consumers to use an existing knowledge base to understand a new situation or object? A) operant reasoning B) analogical reasoning C) cognitive reasoning D) affective reasoning E) conscious reasoning
Answer: B Page: 335
65. _____ refers to the process of learning to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli. A) Stimulus generalization B) Stimulus reasoning C) Stimulus discrimination D) Stimulus contrasting E) Stimulus identification
Answer: C Page: 336
66. _____ occurs when a response to one stimulus is elicited by a similar but distinct stimulus. A) Stimulus generalization B) Stimulus reasoning C) Stimulus discrimination D) Stimulus contrasting E) Stimulus identification
Answer: A Page: 336
67. Many store brands use packaging and labeling that is similar to the more expensive national brand. The hope is that the look-alike package will elicit a similar response in consumers that encourages them to purchase the cheaper store brand. This is an example of _____. A) stimulus discrimination B) stimulus generalization C) stimulus confusion D) stimulus similarity E) stimulus deception
Answer: B Page: 336
68. In conditioned learning, forgetting is often referred to as _____. A) decay B) deconditioning C) extinction D) failure E) retrieval failure
Answer: C Page: 337
69. Which of the following enhances the strength of learning? A) importance B) message involvement C) mood D) repetition E) all of the above
Answer: E Page: 338
70. Donald has just learned that he has Type II diabetes, so he wants to learn as much as he can to manage his health. He reads health magazines, visits health-related Web sites, and reads product nutrition and ingredient information on packages. Donald's strength of learning is most likely to be strong due to which factor that affects the strength of learning? A) mood B) punishment C) importance D) repetition E) dual coding
Answer: C Page: 339
71. Ads that encourage consumers to remember past personal experiences and use language such as “you” and “your” in the copy are using the strategy of _____ to enhance message involvement. A) importance B) personalization C) dual coding D) mood enhancement E) self-referencing
Answer: E Page: 339
72. Anything that increases the likelihood that a given response will be repeated in the future is considered _____. A) punishment B) a reward C) reinforcement D) a conditioned stimulus E) an operant
Answer: C Page: 340
73. A local car dealership advertises quite frequently on local broadcast and cable television, and it seems as though the man in the ad is always yelling for consumers to “Come on down, you'll be glad you did!” This car dealership uses the same type of ad over and over even though the specific information changes, and consumers tend to shut out the message, evaluate it negatively, or disregard it. John is so sick of these ads that he instantly changes the channel when one comes on. This is an example of _____. A) zipping B) advertising wearout C) interference D) pulsing E) poor positioning
Answer: B Page: 342
74. Sometimes consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of information because other related information in memory gets in the way, which is an effect referred to as _____. A) noise B) echoic memory C) interference D) clutter E) memory failure
Answer: C Page: 344
75. Which of the following is a strategy to reduce competitive interference? A) create a semantic memory of a brand B) create a episodic memory of a brand C) use pulsing D) provide external retrieval cues E) provide an incentive for trial
Answer: D Page: 345
76. _____ refers to the schematic memory of a brand. A) Brand image B) Brand equity C) Brand leverage D) Brand position E) Brand benefit
Answer: A Page: 346
77. Many consumers associate Mercedes automobiles with status, luxury, quality engineering, and high price. This is an example of Mercedes' _____. A) brand equity B) brand image C) brand leverage D) brand position E) brand identity
Answer: B Page: 346
78. The decision by a marketer to try to achieve a defined brand image relative to competition within a market segment is called _____. A) product extension B) brand extension C) brand leveraging D) product positioning E) product equity
Answer: D Page: 347
79. Which of the following offers marketing managers a useful technique for measuring and developing a product's position by taking consumers' perceptions of how similar various brands or products are to each other and relates these perceptions to product attributes? A) regression analysis B) conjoint analysis C) analytical mapping D) perceptual mapping E) laddering
Answer: D Page: 349
80. Vanity Fair, the makers of Lee jeans, learned from market research that young men perceived the brand as for women. As a result, they developed an advertising campaign targeted to young men and used Buddy Lee, which is a little doll in dungarees that is portrayed as “cool,” to alter this market's perception of this brand. Vanity Fair's deliberate decision to significantly alter the way the market views its brand is an example of _____. A) product positioning B) product repositioning C) brand extension D) brand leveraging E) brand revival
Answer: B Page: 350
81. The value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond the functional characteristics of the product is known as _____. A) brand solvency B) brand liquidation C) brand image D) brand equity E) brand leverage
Answer: D Page: 351
82. When Honda introduced its Odyssey mini-van, its advertising merely claimed, “It's the Honda of mini-vans.” This is an example of _____. A) brand leverage B) brand generalization C) brand discrimination D) brand substitute E) brand complement
Answer: A Page: 351
83. When consumers see the new product (i.e., brand extension) as requiring the same manufacturing skills as the original, successful brand leverage is more likely. Which dimension is this referring to? A) complement B) substitute C) transfer D) image E) extension
Answer: C Page: 351-352
True/False Questions
84. Long-term memory (LTM) is also called working memory.
Answer: False Page: 323
85. Elaborative activities occur in short-term memory.
Answer: True Page: 324
86. Semantic memory is the memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated.
Answer: False Page: 325
87. In general, multiple memory nodes are activated simultaneously.
Answer: True Page: 326
88. Explicit memory is characterized by the conscious recollection of an exposure event.
Answer: True Page: 328
89. Level of involvement is the primary determinant of how material is learned.
Answer: True Page: 330
90. The process of encouraging partial responses leading to the final desired response is known as classical conditioning.
Answer: False Page: 332
91. Consumers must directly experience a reward or punishment to learn.
Answer: False Page: 334
92. Stimulus discrimination refers to the process of learning to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli.
Answer: True Page: 336
93. In conditioned learning, forgetting is often referred to as extinction.
Answer: True Page: 337
94. Self-concept indicates that consumers are relating brand information to themselves.
Answer: False Page: 339
95. Learning cannot occur in the absence of reinforcement.
Answer: False Page: 340
96. Echoic memory is the memory of sounds, including words.
Answer: True Page: 343
97. Brand image refers to the semantic memory of a brand.
Answer: True Page: 346
98. Successful brand leverage generally requires that the original brand have a strong positive image and that the new product fit with the original product on the each of the following four dimensions: complement, substitute, transfer, and image.
Answer: False Page: 351-352
Essay Questions
99. Name and describe the two components of memory.
Page: 323-327 Answer: Memory consists of two interrelated components: short-term memory and long-term memory. These are not distinct physiological entities. Instead, short-term memory (STM) or working memory is that portion of total memory that is currently activated or in use. Long-term memory (LTM) is that portion of total memory devoted to permanent storage.
STM memory is short lived, meaning that consumers must constantly refresh information through maintenance rehearsal or it will be lost. STM also has limited capacity, thought to be in the range of 5 to 9 bits of information. Organizing individual items into groups of related items that can be processed as a single unit is called chunking. Finally, elaborative activities occur in STM. Elaborative activities are the use of previously stored experiences, values, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings to interpret and evaluate information in working memory as well as to add relevant previously stored information.
Long-term memory (LTM) is viewed as an unlimited, permanent storage. Semantic memory is the basic knowledge and feelings an individual has about a concept, and episodic memory is the memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated. Two important memory structures are schemas and scripts. A pattern of associations around a particular concept is terms a schema, and schematic memory is a complex web of associations. Memory of how an action sequence should occur is known as a script.
100. Bryan is the brand manager for a brand of paper towels and knows that consumers' involvement with this product is low. Name and briefly describe learning theories that are appropriate for this situation, and provide an example of how Bryan can use each to influence consumers to purchase his brand.
Page: 330-335 Answer: Classical conditioning and iconic rote learning tend to occur in low-involvement situations. Vicarious learning/modeling is also common in this situation, although it is also common in high-involvement situations.Classical conditioning is the process of using an established relationship between one stimulus (e.g., music, beautiful outdoor scene) and response (e.g., pleasant feelings) to bring about the learning of the same response (e.g., pleasant feelings) to a different stimulus (e.g., the brand). Bryan could pair a pleasant stimulus in advertising, such as a sparkling clean kitchen, with the brand of paper towel, which could increase the likelihood that consumers will like the brand.Iconic Rote Learning involves learning a concept or the association between two or more concepts in the absence of conditioning. That is, there is neither an unconditioned stimulus (i.e., classical conditioning) nor a direct reward or reinforcement (operant conditioning) involved. Numerous repetitions of a simple message that occur as the consumer scans the environment may result in the essence of the message being learned. Thus, Bryan could use mere repetition of ads to enable consumers to learn about the characteristics or attributes of the brand.In Vicarious Learning/Modeling, it is not necessary for consumers to directly experience a reward or punishment to learn. Instead, they can observe the outcomes of others' behaviors and adjust their own accordingly. A substantial amount of learning occurs in low-involvement situations. Throughout the course of their lives, people observe others using products and behaving in a great variety of situations, and do not pay much attention most of the time. However, over time they learn that certain behavior, and products, are appropriate in some situations and others are not. Bryan needs ensure that uses of his brand are portrayed in advertisements.
101. Strength of learning is one factor that determines how long-lasting a learned response will be. That is, the stronger the original learning (e.g., of nodes and links between nodes), the more likely relevant information will be retrieved when required. Discuss three of the six factors enhancing the strength of learning.
Page: 338-342 Answer: Strength of learning is enhanced by six factors: importance, message involvement, mood, reinforcement, repetition, and dual coding. Students can discuss any three:Importance--refers to the value that consumers place on the information to be learned. Importance might be driven by inherent interest in the product or brand, or it might be driven by the need to make a decision in the near future. Importance is positively related to strength of learning, largely due to the greater elaborative activities involved in fully processing and categorizing the material.Message Involvement--processing can be increased by causing the person to become involved with the message itself. Deepened involvement with the messages increases the extent of processing of the message and memory of the associated features or theme. Ways to increase message involvement include adding scents to ads, using suspense, and increasing the personal relevance of the message to the consumer.Mood--a positive mood during the presentation of information enhances learning because it appears to enhance the information's relational elaboration, producing a more complete and stronger set of linkages among a variety of other brands and concepts, which in turn enhances retrieval.Reinforcement--anything that increases the likelihood that a given response will be repeated in the future is considered reinforcement. Reinforcement has a significant impact on the speed at which learning occurs and the duration of its effect.Repetition--enhances learning and memory by increasing the accessibility of information in memory or by strengthening the associative linkages between concepts. Basically, the more times people are exposed to information or engage in a behavior, the more likely they are to learn and remember it.Dual Coding--consumers can store (code) information in different ways. Storing the same information in different ways (dual coding) results in more internal pathways (associative links) for retrieving information. This, in turn, can increase learning and memory.
102. Explain the concept of memory interference, and discuss four strategies for reducing it.
Page: 344-345 Answer: Memory interference is the difficulty in retrieving a specific piece of information because other related information in memory gets in the way. A common form of interference in marketing is due to competitive advertising. Competitive advertising makes it harder for consumers to recall any given advertisement and its contents. A number of strategies exist for reducing memory interference:Avoid Competing Advertising--avoid having your ad appear in the same set of ads (i.e., same pod in a TV format) as your competitors. Some companies actually pay a premium to ensure this exclusivity. Another strategy is called recency planning, which involves trying to plan advertising exposures so that they occur as close in time to a consumer purchase occasion as possible.Strengthen Initial Learning--stronger learning is less subject to memory interference. Memory interference is less pronounced in high-involvement contexts and for highly familiar brands. Strategies that encourage dual coding can strengthen initial learning.Reduce Similarity to Competing Ads--similarity can be in terms of ad claims, emotional valence, and ad execution elements. Just as unique ads can break through advertising clutter to garner greater attention, unique ads are also more resistant to competitive memory interference.Provide External Retrieval Cues--retrieval cues provide an external pathway to information that is stored in memory, and brands are so important because they can serve as a retrieval cue. Additionally, marketers can use point-of-purchase displays or package cues that link directly back to the advertisements for that brand.
103. Compare and contrast the terms brand image, brand equity, product positioning, and brand leverage.
Page: 346-351 Answer: Brand image refers to the schematic memory of a brand. It contains the target market's interpretation of the product's attributes, benefits, usage situations, users, and manufacturer/marketer characteristics. It is what people think of and feel when they hear or see a brand name. It is, in essence, the set of associations consumers have learned about the brand. The ability to benefit from a brand image is called brand equity.
Product positioning is a decision by a marketer to try to achieve a defined brand image relative to competition within a market segment. That is, marketers decide that they want the members of a market segment to think and feel in a certain way about a brand relative to competing brands, and product positioning is most commonly applied to decisions concerning brands. The terms product position and brand image are often used interchangeably. In general, however, product position involves an explicit reference to a brand's image relative to another brand or the overall industry. Brand image generally considers the firm's image without a direct comparison to a competitor.Brand equity is the value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond the functional characteristics of the product. Brand equity is based on the product position of the brand.Brand leverage, often termed family branding, brand extensions, or umbrella branding, refers to marketers capitalizing on brand equity by using an existing brand name for new products.