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Motivation
Why did you decide to attend university?
Why did you decide to come to class tonight?
Why did you eat supper before (after) class?
Why do you sit in the same spot as last week?
Essential Qualities of Motivational States
Emotional states are: energizing (activate or arouse behaviours) directive (guide behaviours towards
goals/needs) persistance (persist in behaviour until
goals/needs met) strength (motives differ in strength)
“Motivation involves goal-directed behaviour.”
Needs, Drives & Rewards
Needs states of deficiency lead to goal-directed behaviours failure to satisfy needs leads to
psychological or physical damage (or death)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Needs, Drives & Rewards
Drives psychological states activated to satisfy
needs needs arousal (“physiological
activation”) arousal behavioural activation (to
satisfy needs) “If a behaviour consistently reduces a drive,
it becomes a habit.”
Needs, Drives & Rewards
Drives psychological states activated to satisfy needs needs arousal (“physiological activation”) arousal behavioural activation (to satisfy
needs) “If a behaviour consistently reduces a drive, it
becomes a habit.” BUT … why do we do things that don’t satisfy
biological needs?
Needs, Drives & Rewards
Rewards Freud - seek pleasure/avoid pain pleasure is a primary motivator
Internal and External Motivation
Internal (biological) Motivation reflect needs essential for survival “regulatory” motives
thirsthunger
neurobiology hormonesneurotransmittersbrain sites
Internal Motivation
homeostatis “tendency for body functions to maintain
equilibrium”negative feedback model
deviations from equilibrium detected physiological responses
hypothalamusi.e., sweating to cool offi.e., shivering to warm up
instrinsic - value or pleasure without direct biological goal play creativity
Internal Motivation
Instincts “unlearned, automatic actions triggered
by external cues” “produce an immediate impulse to act” fixed-action pattern
facial expressions
many “instinctive” behaviours modified by learning
descriptive but not explanatory
External Motivation
External (social) motives “purposive” motives extrinsic - external goal such as
paycheque
External Motivation
social needs depend upon experience: can have unlimited number acquired through learning & socialization
Tolman - •“more highly motivated to obtain things of
value”•“value determined to large extent by
culture”•for example, Inuit and high pay
External Motivation
social needs depend upon experience: can be extrinsic
pay cheque
can be intrinsicachievementautonomyaffiliation
Learned Helplessness
Self-efficacy “expectancy that your efforts will lead
to success”learned helplessness - the belief that
your actions will be futile
Arousal Theories of Motivation
Yerkes-Dodson Law optimal level of arousal provides rationale for intrinsic
behaviours such as dancing, listening to music, reading
contradicts “drive theories” where motivation hypothesized to tension/arousal
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Arousal Theories of Motivation
Berlyne expanded Yerkes-Dodson Law what is optimally arousing depends on
initial level of arousalif low levels of arousal, then novelty,
complexity, uncertainty will (+) effect of arousal
if already at high arousal level, additional arousing events will be “aversive”
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Berlyne
Hunger
Does your stomach rumble when you are hungry?
Do stomach contractions cause hunger?
Internal Motivation
Hunger
Brain Regulation in Hunger
Hypothalamus lesions of lateral hypothalamus - little or
no interest in eatingaphagia
lesions of ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus - excessive eating (could not recognize satiety?)hyperphagia blood levels of insulin fat storage
Brain Regulation in Hunger
Orbitofrontal cortex “processes info about the potential
reward value of food”
Homeostatic Regulation
Glucose (glucostatic theory) specialized glucose receptors monitor
extent glucose taken up by cells to be used for energy
Lipids (lipostatic theory) set-point for body fat deviations “initiate compensatory
behaviours to return to homeostatis”
Homeostatic Regulation
Leptin hormone released from fat cells in relation to
amount of fat stored in those cells acts on hypothalamus slow-acting
External Motivations
When did you eat lunch? Where you hungry?Classical conditioning
hungry at mealtimes even though metabolic rates differ
food - related cues (sight and smell)Learned preferences
observational learning
Genetic Predisposition
Body mass index (ratio of body weight to height): strongly related to biological parents NOT
adoptive parentsWhy, if body weight determined
primarily by genetics, has percentage of North Americans who are obese increased dramatically in the past few decades?
Genetic Predisposition
Genetics = can you become obese predisposition set-point
Environment = will you become obese
External (Social) Motivations for Overeating
Positive (?) in developing nations: improved health Social status symbol
Negative (Western world) lower socioeconomic status social conditioning
Food Addictions
Anorexia nervosaBulimia nervosa
Neural Systems in Motivation
Hypothalamus physiological responses controls autonomic and endocrine
systems maintain homeostasis
W. W. Norton
Neural Systems in Motivation
Prefrontal Cortex
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Prefrontal Cortex
Formulating goals, executing behaviours to reach goals, tracking progress and modifying strategies as needed
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
Selecting and initiating actionsworking memory
compare current with past and future temporal organization
what steps do you need to take in what order
2-Back Working Memory
F+LF
Orbitofrontal Cortex
“planning and coordinating behaviours designed to achieve goals”
processing emotional information for decision making
“coding reward values of different behavioural outcomes”
If involves reward then -
Orbitofrontal Cortex
“planning and coordinating behaviours designed to achieve goals”
processing emotional information for decision making
“coding reward values of different behavioural outcomes”
If involves reward then - dopamine!
Anterior Cingulate
Located in PFC but also considered part of limbic system
directing attention to essential stimuli activated during novel tasks, more
complex tasks, tasks involving personal choices
“processing mood-relevent information”
Motivation and Emotion
Links between frontal lobes and limbic system orbitofrontal cortex and ______
Motivation and Emotion
Links between frontal lobes and limbic system orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala
somatic marker theory (Damasio) when think of an outcome emotional
reaction (dependent on past experience) emotional reactions promote survival and
reproduction
Somatic Marker Theory
Anticipate of desired event etc. Pleasurable emotional states behaviour designed to acquire that object, event etc.
“Anticipation of negative emotions motivates us to avoid other situations.”
Sleep
Science, 279, 91-95. Images Courtesy of Allen R. Braun, NIH.
Emotions, Stress & Coping
Are women more emotional than men?
Emotions vs Expression
Emotions innate basis
Expression cultural display rules
Adaptive Role for Emotions
Interpersonal relations facial/nonverbal expressions
communicate mood, reaction
strengthens emotional bonds
Adaptive Role for Emotions
Interpersonal Emotional Bonds: guilt
discourages inappropriate behaviours and encourages appropriate ones
demonstration of bond /b/ individualsinfluence tactic to manipulate behaviourmore environmental than genetic influence
Adaptive Role for Emotions
Interpersonal Emotional Bonds: embarrassment
“submission to and affiliation with the social group”
“recognition of unintentional social error”
Adaptive Role for Emotions
Interpersonal Emotional Bonds: jealousy
“sign of commitment to the relationship”
Adaptive Role for Emotions
Cognitive functions positive effect of good moods (dopamine
levels) on cognitive tasks good moods tend to use heuristic thinking anticipated emotions guide decision making
emotions tend to have more impact on decisions than cognition - ex. Me and cruise liners
emotion biases attention improved memory for emotional events
Subjective componentPhysiological componentCognitive component
Components of Emotional Experiences
Subjective Component
How you “feel”types of emotions
primary secondary
Primary/Secondary Emotions
primaryevolutionarily adaptiveshared across culturesassociated with biological/physical statesanger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, ?
surprise, ?contempt
secondaryblend of primary emotionsremorse, guilt, submission, anticipation
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Circumplex model
Dissociation of positive and negative affect subjective level
“mixed feelings” neurochemical level
positive emotions - dopaminenegative emotions - norepinephrine
(vigilance and arousal)
Subjective componentPhysiological componentCognitive component
Components of Emotional Experiences
Physiological Component
Physiological changes correlated with emotions
Is there a causal relationship? Observational info
sweaty palmsphysiological changes in actors’ displays of
emotions
Facial feedback hypothesis
W. W. Norton
Subjective componentPhysiological componentCognitive component
Components of Emotional Experiences
Physiological-Based Theory
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Physiological & Cognitive Components - Act Independently
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Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interactional Theory
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Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interaction
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Misattribution of arousal source
Chris Lisle/Corbis.
Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interaction
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Misattribution of arousal sourceexcitation transfercognitive framing
learned helplessness
Influence on cognitive “set” on emotional reaction: p. 67
Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interaction
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Misattribution of arousal sourceexcitation transfercognitive framing
learned helplessnesscounterfactual thinking
“act of imagining a possible alternative outcome that didn’t happen”example of winning a silver medal
Mood Regulation
W. W. Norton
Antecedent-focus situation selection situation modification attentional deployment cognitive change
Response-focus response modulation
Response Modulation
W. W. Norton
Effective: Humor
release of endorphins
focused problem solving distraction
Ineffective: Suppression
rebound effect
Rumination
Neurophysiological Basis
Physiological input spinal cord injury patients report feeling
less intense emotionsneurochemical input
dopamine = euphoria serotonin = lessen depression
anatomical structures
Anatomical Correlates
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Based on what you know so far, which structures would you expect to be involved?
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Amygdala
Processes emotional significance of stimuli
generates immediate reactionevolved as protective mechanism
emotional learning classical conditioned fear responses processing emotional content of facial
expressions damage leads to social impairments
Amygdala
Possible gender differences greater activation of left amygdala in
women greater activation of right amygdala in
men
Orbitofrontal Cortex
Assess potential reward valueprocess emotional cuesdamage
insensitive to emotions of others difficulties with emotional control
aggression/violence
fail to use somatic markersno emotion when discussing emotional topics
Emotional Asymmetry
Greater activation of right hemisphere associated with negative affect prefrontal cortex amygdala lack of motivation clinical depression
greater activation of left PFC associated with positive affect
Emotional Asymmetry
Greater activation of left hemisphere associated with positive affect left prefrontal cortex increased confidence increased effort to achieve goals
negative affective states (i.e., anxiety) may suppress left PFC
Emotional Asymmetry
In general, right hemisphere associated with:
interpretation and comprehension of emotional material (such as faces)
emotional tone of speech
Stress
Fight - or - flight response hypothalamus - pituitary activation hormonal response
Tend - and - befriend response
General Adaptation Syndrome
W. W. Norton
Read #4 on page 66
General Adaptation Syndrome
W. W. Norton
Coping Strategies
Emotion-focused coping designed to prevent emotional response enable functioning when faced with
uncontrollable stressor or high level of stress includes
avoidanceminimizing problemdistancing oneself from outcomesinappropriate strategies such as eating and
drinking
Coping Strategies
Problem-Focused Coping when stressor is perceived as
controllable usually more effective over the long run
typically use both problem- and emotion-focused coping