motivation hc (final)

8/7/2019 Motivation HC (Final)

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Table of Contents

What is Motivation? ................................................................................................................................ 2

Components Of Motivation ..................................................................................................................... 4

Short Story on Motivation........................................................................................................................ 5

Content Motivation Theories ................................................................................................................... 6

Process Motivation Theories ........................ ................................ ...................... ................................ ...... 6

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs ....................... ................................ ...................... ................................ ...... 7

Herzbergs two factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory) ...... ................................ ....................... ......... 8

Alderfer's ERG Theory .............................................................................................................................. 9

McClelland's 3 Needs Theory ................................................................................................................. 10

Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation ......................... ................................ ...................... .......................... 12

Expectancy Theory ............................... ......................... ............................ ................................ ............. 14

Motivation in Organizations..15

Rewarding Employees18

Why Employees Succeed or Fail ............................................................................................................. 20

Bibliography..21



Motivation

What is Motivation?

y Motivation is the driving force which causes us to achieve goals. Motivation is said to

be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but, theoretically, it

can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well.

y According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in a basic need to minimize

physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating

and resting, or a desired object, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to

less-apparent reasons such as altruism, selfishness, morality, or avoiding mortality.

y Conceptually, motivation should not be confused with either volition or optimism.

Motivation is related to, but distinct from, emotion.

y It is a process which begins with a physiological or psychological need or

deficiency which triggers a behavior or a desire that is aimed at a goal or an

incentive.

y It can also be the processes that account for an individual¶s intensity, direction,

and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.

y The definition of motivation is to give reason, incentive, enthusiasm, or interest

that causes a specific action or certain behavior.

y Motivation is present in every life function. Simple acts such as eating are

motivated by hunger. Education is motivated by desire for knowledge. Motivators

can be anything from reward to coercion.

y Motivation is what propels life. It plays a major role in nearly everything we do.

Without motivation, we would simply not care about outcomes, means,

accomplishment, education, success, failure, employment, etc.

y Motivation is a piviotal concept in most theories of learning. It is closely related to

arousal, attention, anxiety, and feedback/reinforcement. For example, a person

needs to be motivated enough to pay attention while learning; anxiety can decrease

our motivation to learn.



y R eceiving a reward or feedback for an action usually increases the likelihood that the

action will be repreated. Weiner (1990) points out that behavioral theories tended to

focus on extrinsic motivation (i.e., rewards) while cognitive theories deal with

intrinsic motivation (i.e., goals) .

y In most forms of behaviorial theory, motivation was strictly a function of primary

drives such as hunger, sex, sleep, or comfort. According to Hull's drive reduction

theory, learning reduces drives and therefore motivation is essential to learning.

y The degree of the learning achieved can be manipulated by the strength of the drive

and its underlying motivation. In Tolman¶s theory of purposive behaviorism, primary

drives create internal states (i.e., wants or needs) that serve as secondary drives

and represent intrinsic motivation.

y In cognitive theory, motivation serves to create intentions and goal-seeking acts

(see Ames & Ames, 1989). One well-developed area of research highly relevant to

learning is achievement motivation (e.g., Atkinson & R aynor, 1974; Weiner).

y Motivation to achieve is a function of the individual's desire for success, the

expectancy of success, and the incentives provided. Studies show that in generalpeople prefer tasks of intermediate difficulty.

y In addition, students with a high need to achieve, obtain better grades in courses

which they perceive as highly relevant to their career goals. On the other hand,

according to R ogers, all individuals have a drive to self-actualize and this motivates

learning.



Components Of Motivation

The 3 main components of motivation are: 1.) Direction

2.) Effort

3.) Persistence

y Out of these 3 components, persistence is perhaps the one people struggle with the

most. Usually, when we decide on something, we have our direction; we know where

we want to go. Effort is individual and for a certain period of time we are prepared to

really give it our all.

y However, after a while even the most motivated of us start to feel less enthusiastic

and often, in the end, we give up, especially if things don't happen fast enough.

y This is when the role of persistence is so important. Those who keep going after their

goal or desire are usually those who, in the end, achieve it. The road to it might have

been uphill but the victory is so much sweeter as a result.

y Consider this next time you are about to give up your efforts - the results might be

just round the corner. It would be a pity to leave them there and not reach out for

them. With a bit of good old persistence, you can do it without too much hassle.

y We start off by deciding what we want, which is our direction as we know where we

want to go and what we have to achieve. Then we make an effort towards our goal.

We start to do things and we continue our making the efforts for some time and give

it everything that we have. Many times things don¶t give results fast or as desired.

This is where is role of persistence is the most important. You never know when you

give up, that your goal was just around the corner. All your efforts made so far just

go in waste.

y Those who are persistent and keep making efforts towards their goal are the one¶s

who ultimately achieve it and taste sweet success.



Short Story on Motivation

Once upon a time there were 2 brothers. One was a drug addict and a drunk who

frequently beat up his family. The other one was a very successful businessman

who was respected in society and had a wonderful family.

Some people wanted to find out why two brothers from the same parents,

brought up in the same environment, could be so different. T

he first one was asked´How come you do what you do? You are a drug addict, a

drunk, and you beat your family. What motivates you; He said,´ My father´. They

asked´What about your father?´The reply was, ³My father was a drug addict, a

drunk and he beat his family. What do you expect me to be? That is what I am´.

They went to the brother who was doing everything right and asked him the same

question.³How come you are doing everything right? What is your source of

motivation ´ And guess what he said? ³My father. When I was a little boy, I used to

see my dad drunk and doing all the wrong things. I made up my mind that that is

not what I wanted to be´

Both were deriving their strength and motivation from the same source, but one

was using it positively and the other negatively.



Theories Of Motivation

There are 2 types of motivation theories

1. Content Motivation Theories

2. Process Motivation Theories

Before we go into look at the four major content theories of motivation developed by the

theorists, it is thus vital to have a general understanding of what content theories are in the

first place. Hence so, the content theories also known as the µneeds theories' are based on

the needs of the individuals. In other words, these theories basically explain why the needs

of the humans keep changing overtime thus focusing on the specific factors that motivate

them. By doing so, what they try to explain is that the needs of the individuals should be

taken into consideration, and thus be satisfied in order to motivate them. To say, if these

needs of the individuals are not met or satisfied, then it is unlikely that the people will bemotivated to perform the tasks in order to meet the goals and objectives.

Content Motivation Theories

o Theories that focus on factors within a person that:

Energize behavior

Direct behavior

Sustain behavior

Stop behavior

Process Motivation Theories

o Theories that describe and analyze how behavior is:

Energized

Directed

Sustained

Stopped



Need Theories of Motivation

These Include:

o Maslows hierarchy of needs

o Herzbergs two factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory)

o Alderfers ERG theory

o McClellands theory of needs

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

y

The Hierarchy of Needs theory is one of the four major content theories developedby Ibrahim Maslow in the year 1943. This theory is based on the fact that it is the

unfulfilled needs that leads to motivate the individuals.

y It also provides an understanding to why the needs of the individuals keep changing

overtime and the importance of identifying what each and every individual is after in

terms of their needs.

y This is because, it probably gives an insight to what exactly are the individual needs

that have to be met, in order to motivate them. Having said that, Maslow identified

five levels of needs which are basically the,

Self Actualization ( level 5 - highest level)

Self Esteem ( level 4 )

Social belonging & Love needs (level 3)

Safety ( level 2)

P hysiology ( level 1)

y According to Maslow, these five levels of needs have to be satisfied if the individualsare to be motivated. In other words, it is said to believe that motivation is thus

driven by the existence of these unsatisfied needs, meaning to say that unless they

have fulfilled their needs there are motivated to do so.

y However, his idea was that in order to motivate the individuals the first higher level

of needs have to be satisfied before the next level of needs. And only once the lower

level of needs is satisfied the next level of needs will act as a motivator.



y For example, a person who is dying of hunger will at first be motivated to fulfil his

hunger by earning wages/salaries. But once his basic needs are satisfied, then this

will no longer act as a motivator, but thereafter it is only the second level of needssuch as a good and safe working environment etc that will lead to motivate him.

y To say, Maslow pointed out the fact that satisfying the individual needs is a step by

step process that should follow from the lowest level to the highest level of needs

and only satisfies one level of needs at a time.

Herzbergs two factor t heory (motivation-hygiene t heory)

y Herzberg's Two factor theory is another major content theory that focuses on the

individual needs of the people. According to Herzberg, he basically identified two

separate groups of factors that had a strong impact on motivation.

y His first group of factors was the hygiene factors which consisted of factors such as

working conditions, quality of supervision, salary, status, company policies and

administration.

y What he tend to believed was the fact that hygiene factors strongly influenced

feelings of dissatisfaction among employees thus paving way to affect the job

performance. He also went in to say that the presence of these factors will not

motivate the employees as such, but rather it is necessary to have the hygiene

factors right in the first place if the employees are to be motivated.

y What actually meant by this was that, if these hygiene factors are not present in the

organization then it is not quite possible to motivate the employees thus because it is

these factors that act as the foundation for the motivating factors to be effective.

y For example, without a good and safe working environment it is no use giving

responsibility to an employee because the chances of motivating him are very low.

y Having said that, the second group of factors identified were known as the

motivating factors which consisted of factors such recognition, achievement,

responsibility, interesting job and advancement to higher level tasks as and growth

etc. Herzberg believed that the motivating factors do satisfy employees which will

eventually lead to employee motivation.



y But he also went into say that in order for the motivating factors to act there have to

be the hygiene factors present.

Alderfer's ERG Theory

y The ERG theory is another form of content theory developed by Alderfer. This is alsobased on the needs of the individuals. To say, the ERG theory was proposed thusthinking that it will basically overcome the limitations of the Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. However, this too is in the form of a hierarchy but only comprising of three levels.

y In other words, unlike the Maslow's theory which has five levels of needs the ERG theory has simplified the levels of individual needs in to just three levels. The threelevels of needs identified by Alderfer are,

Existence ( P hysiological & Safety needs)

Relatedness ( Social & External Esteem needs)

Growth ( Internal Esteem & Self-Actualization needs )

y Alderfer basically reduced the number of levels in his hierarchy thus combiningeach of the levels together. In other words, the first level in his hierarchy wasformed by grouping both the physiology and safety needs together.

y Then he combined the social and external esteem needs as the second level and lastof all the internal esteem and self-actualization needs as the third and final level.

y However, he went into say that the first level of needs which is existence still havethe priority over the other two levels of needs. And hence, the order of the needsmay not exact be the same for all individuals and thus could rather changedepending on the individual.

y It doesn't always happen that the individuals are motivated to satisfy the lower levelfirst in order to go to the next level as in the Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory.

y For example, an individual will be motivated to perform the tasks because of hisneed for recognition is fulfilled rather than for a safer working environment. Unlike inMaslow's hierarchy, the ERG theory allows for different levels of needs to be pursuedsimultaneously.

y He further went into say that, according to his theory the individuals may expect tosatisfy a higher level of needs and those who are unable to satisfy that level (frustration regression process) will eventually be frustrated and look to satisfy thelower level that seems to be much more easier to satisfy in order to motivate them.

y This will motivate the individuals for the moment with the hope that they couldsatisfy the higher level in the times to come. In such situations, it is thus important



for the employers to identify this and help them to satisfy the lower level of needs inorder to motivate them.

McClelland's 3 Needs Theory

The 3 Needs theory also known as the Acquired theory or the Learned theory, is another

content theory developed by McClelland around 1961. Like the other content theories, this

theory is also based on the needs of the individuals. In his theory, what McClelland tries to

explain is the fact that motivation of an individual could basically result from three dominant

needs. The three dominant needs identified are,

T he need for achievement

T he need for power

T he need for affiliation

y According to McClelland, human motivation is thus dominated by these three needs.

In other words, some individuals will look for tasks that will help them to achieve

something, paving way to motivate them. Likewise some others may need power

and some may look for affiliation.

y However, he also went into say that even though all these needs are present in each

and every individual, there is basically one need that dominates the individuals when

it comes to most people.

y For example, an individual will want to achieve certain things, will want to maintain

good relations with others but at the same time, more than anything else they

may want lead the others in order to motivate them.

The need for Achievement

y Having said that, the need for achievement basically means the extend to which an

individual wants to perform tasks that are difficult and indeed challenging. To say ,

in order to motivate an individual with a need for achievement they probably have

to be given difficult and challenging tasks.

y They will basically go to achieve goals that are challenging and realistic. In other

words, what they really want is success and positive feedback, avoids both the low-

risk and high-risk situations, and prefer to work alone rather than in a team with

other high achievers.



y That way, they really tend to be motivated if they happen to believe the tasks they

are given to perform are indeed challenging.

The need for power

y Likewise, individuals with the need for power will basically want to lead the others.

This may be two types meaning to say personal and institutional. . In other words,

some individuals will look for personal power while the other may need for

institutional power.

y Individuals with a need for personal power will thus want to direct and influence

others. What actually mean by this is that, if they are not allowed to lead the others

then they probably will be de-motivated.

y Saying that, individuals with a high need for institutional power wants to organize

the efforts of others for the success of the organization. For example, individualswith the need for institutional power are more likely to be motivated if they are

provided with status oriented positions, managerial posts and leadership.

The need for Affiliation

y And to say, individuals with the need for affiliation basically look for good, friendly

interpersonal relationships with others.

y In others words, they really want to feel like that they are accepted by others and

liked by others, they basically strive to maintain good relationships by way of trustand understanding, they prefer cooperation more than competition, As a result,

individuals with a high need for affiliation do prefer to work as a team and work in

customer service environments which will lead to motivate them.

y And finally, it should be said that all of the content theories are based on the fact

that in order to motivate the people their needs have to be satisfied or fulfilled.

y Individual need do vary from one individual to another, and that is why it is

important to understand these theories properly in order to motivate the individuals

effectively.



Process Theories of Motivation

These Include

Goal-setting theory

Equity theory

Expectancy theory

Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation

Goals or intentions motivate workers to meet higher performance levels. Employees are

more likely to target reachable goals, but allowing them to take part in goal setting can

increase their commitment to even those goals that are more difficult to attain.

In his book Performance Management, Aubrey Daniels stresses that goals are not the sole

source of motivation, and that goal-setting programs like MBO (management by objectives)

fail because organizations do not take into account the need for reinforcers.

Managers should strive to ³reinforce progress toward the goal, maintenance of performance

at or above the goal, and achieving levels of performance above the goal.´

Equity Theory of Motivation

The Equity theory developed by Adam in 1963 is based on the idea that employees

basically expects a fair balance between their inputs and outputs. In other words, what

exactly means by is that the employees are likely to be de-motivated both in relation to

their employer and the job if they happen to believe that their inputs ( effort, loyalty, hard

work, commitment, ability, adaptability, tolerance, flexibility, skills etc) are greater than

their outputs( salary, benefit, recognition, reputation, responsibility, sense of achievement,

sense of advancement/growth, job security, praise etc).



The employees usually compare themselves with the other employees who are likely to put

in similar inputs as they do and the outputs they receive.

Meaning to say that, an employee will basically compare himself/ herself with another

employee in order to find out whether he/she has been treated fairly. However, this actually

does not mean that all employees have to be treated the same way and given exactly what

is being to the other employees. This is because all employees are not motivated by the

same outputs expected by the other employees. For example, a newly working mother may

look for something like flexible hours more than an in crease in pay.

However, even though employees may seek for a balance between their inputs and outputs

it is not always possible to measure the inputs and out puts of the employees and provide

them with the correct balance . But still it is possible to give a similar output for the inputs

of the employee in order to have a fair balance between the two. Having said that, in order

to motivate the employees to higher levels and which eventually lead to enhance the

performance, it is thus important to try and give a fair outcome for the inputs of the

employees. In order to do so, the managers must understand the employees better of what

are they aiming for and try and give them the best possible out come according to what

they expect.

R einforcement theory is a behaviorist application based on the idea that people are not

driven by motivation, but by their environment. The reinforcers, or positive consequences,are what make a behavior more likely to be habit than exception.

R einforcers work best when they are immediate, sincere, and specific to an activity.

Managers wanting to apply reinforcement theory to the workplace can do so through

organizational behavior modification, a successful and scientific approach to changing

behavior based on the research of B.F. Skinner.

Alternatives to Restore Equity

o Change their Inputs

o Change their Outcomes

o Distort their Perception

o Distort perceptions of others

o Changing the reference person



o Leave the field

Expectancy Theory

According to Management:

Concepts, Practices, and Skills, by

R . Mondy and Shane

Premeaux, expectancy theory ³attempts to explain behavior in terms of an individual¶s goals

and choices and the expectation of achieving the objectives.´ The probability of an individual

acting in a particular manner will increase when an employee associates it strongly with a

given, attractive outcome. The theory states that motivation depends on three variables:

1. Attractiveness (the person sees the outcome as desirable)

2. Performance-reward linkage (the person perceives a desired outcome will result from

a certain degree of performance)

3. Effort-performance linkage (the person believes a certain amount of effort will lead

to performance)

Motivation, then, is a function of attractiveness, expectancy, and instrumentality. An

individual¶s perception of all three (regardless of reality) must be high for motivation to be

optimized.

Expectancy theory is similar to positive reinforcement, and both expectancy and

reinforcement theory hold that a reward, or outcome, must be meaningful to the individual,

and must be seen as highly likely to result from a given behavior to be effective.



Motivation in Organizations

In Order to Motivate Employees

Recognize individual differences

Use goals and feedback

Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them

Link rewards to performance

Check the system for equity

Workers in any organization need something to keep them working. Most times the salary of

the employee is enough to keep him or her working for an organization. However,

sometimes just working for salary is not enough for employees to stay at an organization.

An employee must be motivated to work for a company or organization. If no motivation is

present in an employee, then that employee¶s quality of work or all work in general will

deteriorate.

When motivating an audience, you can use general motivational strategies or specific

motivational appeals. General motivational strategies include soft sell versus hard sell and

personality type. Soft sell strategies have logical appeals, emotional appeals, advice and

praise. Hard sell strategies have barter, outnumbering, pressure and rank. Also, you can

consider basing your strategy on your audience personality. Specific motivational appeals

focus on provable facts, feelings, right and wrong, audience rewards and audience threats.

At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as physiological needs, money is a

motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short

period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At higher levels of

the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far

more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation

and Douglas McGregor's theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership)

demonstrate.

Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better

motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor



motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered

stronger motivators than money.

Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.

Motivated employees are more quality oriented. Motivated workers are more productive.

The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high

opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more

attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. Motivation is

a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead to employees working at their most

efficient levels of production.

Nonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common character types of subordinates:

ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent who all react and interact uniquely, and must be

treated, managed, and motivated accordingly. An effective leader must understand how to

manage all characters, and more importantly the manager must utilize avenues that allow

room for employees to work, grow, and find answers independently.

The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study at Vauxhall

Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of orientation to work and

distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an end),

bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and

solidaristic (which prioritises group loyalty).

Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg included Kurt

Lewin's Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke's Goal Theory and Victor Vroom's Expectancy

theory. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be

motivated by different factors at different times.

According to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, a

worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not

consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence, scientific management bases

human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.

In contrast, David McClelland believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere

need for money²in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic

motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of

success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting

firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and



free." For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental

motivations.

Elton Mayo found that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important

and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed

that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel

important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and

greater attention was paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model the Hawthorne

effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts at work

situations for motivating employees.

In Essentials of Organizational Behavior , R obbins and Judge examine recognition programs

as motivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success of an employee

incentive program.

Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition

Allowing employees to participate

Linking rewards to performance

Rewarding of nominators

Visibility of the recognition process



Rewarding Employees

The following four ideas are ineffective and actually constitute barriers to increased quality.

To use the ideas

and skills described in this book, you must decide to abandon, surrender, give up,

abolish, and mentally

banish these four fallacious ideas!

As a manager, I can force employees to do what I want them to do.

Some managers relentlessly and unswervingly cling to the misguided belief that they can

control employees

with rewards and coercion. But today there are few threats which are sufficient to induce

some people to

change what they do²much less what they think. And even reward systems are suspect

as effective motivators.

Increasing the compensation package is sufficient to keep people happy.

Although money is an important desire in the minds of many people, human motivation is

complex and

variegated. What motivates one person does not necessarily motivate others.

That employees will have a salary is a given. Their moment-to-moment motivation comes

from the five

inner needs discussed in this book. Employees want and need more than a salary. The

more may be monetary, but it more often involves other forms of need fulfillment.

It is not necessary to reward people for ³doing what they are supposed to do.´

Human needs drive behavior and appreciation, or respect, is a need that must be fulfilled.

In a previous age,

people accepted more control from authority. But since the 1950s autocratic control has

increasingly created



rebellion and resistance on the part of workers.

People are good, honest, and will always perform to the best of their ability.

On the contrary, people are human, fallible, and prone to mistakes. We misconstrue,

misinterpret, and mislead. We can beguile and bedazzle. We can work at cross purposes,

make blunders, and get lost in illogic

and ill-advice. We can be delusive, deriding, and deceitful. In short, Murphy was an

optimist!

Whatever problems may appear to be, their root is usually a ³people problem.´ One study

showed that the

ability of companies to make a profit depended 87% on people skills and only 13% on

technical skills.

Supervisors and managers learn to deal realistically with the people

J ob Characteristics Model

Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.

o Characteristics:

o Skill variety

o Task identity

o Task significance

o Autonomy

o Feedback

Alternative Work Arrangements

o Flextime

o Job Sharing

o Telecommuting

Rewarding Employees

o Piece Rate Pay Plans: Workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed.



o Profit Sharing Plans: Organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some

established formula designed around a companys profitability

o Gain Sharing : An incentive plan in which improvements in group productivity determine the total

amount of money that is allocated.

o Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs): Company-established benefit plans in which employees

acquire stock as part of their benefits.

Why Employees Succeed or FailMotivated employees succeed in their work. Therefore, all managers and supervisors, to

some extent, seek

to motivate workers. A common mistake is the failure to understand that people develop

values and motivation from within themselves²not from external forces.



Bibliography

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Other_theories

http://www.articlesbase.com/human-resources-articles/motivation-theories-understanding-the-content-theories-of-motivation-818172.html

http://ezinearticles.com/?Motivation-Theory&id=410700

http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/foundations_of_psychology/41616

http://www.articlesbase.com/human-resources-articles/motivation-theories-understanding-the-

expectancy-and-equity-theories-of-motivation-853427.html

https://www.spcpress.com/pdf/Wubbolding.pdf

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