motivation crowding theory

7/29/2019 Motivation Crowding Theory

1/25

Motivation crowding theory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to:navigation,search

The Motivation crowding theory suggests that external interventions -monetaryincentives or punishments - may undermine (and under different conditions strengthen)

intrinsic motivation. The theoretical possibility ofcrowding outis widely accepted

among economists. Many of them, however, have been critical about its empirical

relevance. The idea that monetary incentives can crowd out the motivation to undertakean activity is usually considered a major anomaly because it predicts the reverse reaction

expected according to therelative price effect, upon which much of acceptedeconomics

is based.

Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior, especially

human behavioras studied inpsychologyandneuropsychology. These reasons mayinclude basic needs such as food or a desired object, hobbies,goal, state of being, or

ideal. The motivation for a behavior may also be attributed to less-apparent reasons such

asaltruismormorality. According to Geen,[1]

motivation refers to the initiation, direction,intensity and persistence ofhuman behavior.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation_crowding_theory#column-one#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation_crowding_theory#column-one#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation_crowding_theory#column-one#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation_crowding_theory#searchInput#searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation_crowding_theory#searchInput#searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation_crowding_theory#searchInput#searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowding_out_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowding_out_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowding_out_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relative_price_effect&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relative_price_effect&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relative_price_effect&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_%28goal%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_%28goal%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_%28goal%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-0#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-0#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-0#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-0#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_%28goal%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relative_price_effect&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowding_out_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation_crowding_theory#searchInput#searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation_crowding_theory#column-one#column-one


2/25

Contents[hide]

1 Motivational concepts

o 1.1 Reward and reinforcemento 1.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

o 1.3 Self-control

2 Motivational Theories

o 2.1 Drive Reduction Theories

2.1.1 Cognitive dissonance theoryo 2.2 Affective-Arousal Theories

2.2.1 Need Achievement Theory

2.2.2 Interests Theory

o 2.3 Need Theories

2.3.1 Need Hierarchy Theory

2.3.2 Herzbergs two-factor theory 2.3.3 Alderfers ERG theory

2.3.4 Self-determination theory

2.3.5 Broad Theories

o 2.4 Cognitive theories

2.4.1 Goal-setting theory

o 2.5 Unconscious motivation

3 Controlling motivation

o 3.1 Early programming

o 3.2 Organization

o 3.3 Drugs

4 Applicationso 4.1 Education

o 4.2 Business

5 See also

6 References

7 External links

[edit] Motivational concepts

[edit] Reward and reinforcement

Areward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e.

behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done byassociating

positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward

immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitiveaction-reward combination can cause the action to becomehabit.
http://toggletoc%28%29/http://toggletoc%28%29/http://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_concepts#Motivational_conceptshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_concepts#Motivational_conceptshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Reward_and_reinforcement#Reward_and_reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Reward_and_reinforcement#Reward_and_reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-control#Self-controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-control#Self-controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_Theories#Motivational_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_Theories#Motivational_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drive_Reduction_Theories#Drive_Reduction_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drive_Reduction_Theories#Drive_Reduction_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_dissonance_theory#Cognitive_dissonance_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_dissonance_theory#Cognitive_dissonance_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Affective-Arousal_Theories#Affective-Arousal_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Affective-Arousal_Theories#Affective-Arousal_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Achievement_Theory#Need_Achievement_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Achievement_Theory#Need_Achievement_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Interests_Theory#Interests_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Interests_Theory#Interests_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Theories#Need_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Theories#Need_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Hierarchy_Theory#Need_Hierarchy_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Hierarchy_Theory#Need_Hierarchy_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theory#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theory#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theory#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-determination_theory#Self-determination_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-determination_theory#Self-determination_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Broad_Theories#Broad_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Broad_Theories#Broad_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_theories#Cognitive_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_theories#Cognitive_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Goal-setting_theory#Goal-setting_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Goal-setting_theory#Goal-setting_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Unconscious_motivation#Unconscious_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Unconscious_motivation#Unconscious_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Controlling_motivation#Controlling_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Controlling_motivation#Controlling_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Early_programming#Early_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Early_programming#Early_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Organization#Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Organization#Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drugs#Drugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drugs#Drugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Applications#Applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Applications#Applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Education#Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Education#Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Business#Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Business#Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#External_links#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#External_links#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#External_links#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Business#Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Education#Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Applications#Applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drugs#Drugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Organization#Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Early_programming#Early_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Controlling_motivation#Controlling_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Unconscious_motivation#Unconscious_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Goal-setting_theory#Goal-setting_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_theories#Cognitive_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Broad_Theories#Broad_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-determination_theory#Self-determination_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theory#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Hierarchy_Theory#Need_Hierarchy_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Theories#Need_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Interests_Theory#Interests_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Achievement_Theory#Need_Achievement_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Affective-Arousal_Theories#Affective-Arousal_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_dissonance_theory#Cognitive_dissonance_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drive_Reduction_Theories#Drive_Reduction_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_Theories#Motivational_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-control#Self-controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Reward_and_reinforcement#Reward_and_reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_concepts#Motivational_conceptshttp://toggletoc%28%29/


3/25

Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external to

the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the person; for

example,satisfactionor a feeling of accomplishment.

Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one based on

enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context,obligationrefers to motivation basedon what an individual thinks ought to be done. For instance, a feeling of responsibility for

a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.

Areinforceris different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a

measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something

to the environment.

[edit] Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is when people engage in an activity, such as ahobby, without

obvious external incentives.

Intrinsic motivation has been studied byeducational psychologistssince the 1970s, and

numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational achievement and

enjoyment by students. There is currently no universal theory to explain the origin or

elements of intrinsic motivation, and most explanations combine elements of FritzHeider'sattribution theory, Bandura's work onself-efficacyand other studies relating to

locus of controlandgoal orientation. Though it is thought that students are more likely to

be intrinsically motivated if they:

Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the

amount of effort they put in), Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are

not determined by luck),

Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good

grades.

Note that the idea ofreward for achievementis absent from this model of intrinsicmotivation, since rewards are an extrinsic factor.

In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons

for their participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to

the group, mentorship or 'giving back'. Inworkenvironments,moneymay provide amore powerful extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable

workplace.

The most obvious form of motivation iscoercion, where the avoidance ofpainor other

negative consequences has an immediate effect. Extreme use of coercion is consideredslavery. While coercion is considered morally reprehensible in many philosophies, it is

widely practiced on prisoners, students in mandatory schooling, within the nuclear family
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratification


4/25

unit (on children), and in the form ofconscription. Critics of moderncapitalismcharge

that without social safety networks,wage slaveryis inevitable[citation needed]

. However,

many capitalists such asAyn Randhave been very vocal against coercion[citation needed]

.Successful coercion sometimes can take priority over other types of motivation. Self-

coercion is rarely substantially negative (typically only negative in the sense that it avoids

a positive, such as forgoing an expensive dinner or a period of relaxation), however it isinteresting in that it illustrates how lower levels of motivation may be sometimes tweakedto satisfy higher ones.

In terms of GCSE PE, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the

performer. E.g. they compete for the love of the sport. Extrinsic motivation comes from

outside of the performer. E.g. The crowd cheer the performer on, this motivates them to

do well, or to beat a PB (Personal Best). Another example is trophies or a reward. Itmakes the performer want to win and beat the other competitors, thereby motivating the

performer.

[edit] Self-control

The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset ofemotional

intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservativedefinition (as measured by manyintelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this

intelligence to certain tasks.Yale School of ManagementprofessorVictor Vroom's

"expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert selfcontrol to pursue a particular goal.

Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behaviour thatis aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual

and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behaviour. Basic drives could besparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas

more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a personto behave in a manner pleasing to others.

By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of

training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat

motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is

removed from the process.

[edit] Motivational Theories

[edit] Drive Reduction Theories

There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the

concept that we have certain biological needs, such as hunger. As time passes the strength

of the drive increases as it is not satisfied. Then as we satisfy that drive by fulfilling its

desire, such as eating, the drive's strength is reduced. It is based on the theories ofFreudand the idea of feedback control systems, such as a thermostat.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Randhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Randhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Randhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Vroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Vroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Vroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Vroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Randhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription


5/25

There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of the Drive Reduction

Theory open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how Secondary

Reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money does not satisfy any biological orpsychological need but reduces drive on a regular basis through a pay check second-order

conditioning. Secondly, if the drive reduction theory held true we would not be able to

explain how a hungry human being can prepare a meal without eating the food beforethey finished cooking it.

However, when comparing this to a real life situation such as preparing food, one doesget hungrier as the food is being made (drive increases), and after the food has been

consumed the drive decreases. The only reason the food does not get eaten before is the

human element of restraint and has nothing to do with drive theory. Also, the food will

either be nicer after it is cooked, or it won't be edible at all before it is cooked.

[edit] Cognitive dissonance theory

Main article:Cognitive dissonance

Suggested byLeon Festinger, this occurs when an individual experiences some degree ofdiscomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions. For example, a

consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that

another decision may have been preferable.

Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior are in conflict.

A person may believe smoking is bad for one's health and yet continues to smoke.

[edit] Affective-Arousal Theories

[edit] Need Achievement TheoryMain article:David McClelland

David McClellands achievement motivation theory envisions that a person has a need

for three things, but differs in degrees to which the various needs influence their

behavior:Need for achievement,Need for power, andNeed for affiliation.

[edit] Interests Theory

Main article:Holland Codes

Holland Codes are used in the assessment of interests as in Vocational PreferenceInventory (VPI; Holland, 1985). One way to look at interests is that if a person has astrong interest in one of the 6 Holland areas, then obtaining outcomes in that area will be

strongly reinforcing relative to obtaining outcomes in areas of weak interest.

[edit] Need Theories
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Festingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Festingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Festingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Achhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Achhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Achhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Powhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Powhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Powhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Affilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Affilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Affilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Affilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Powhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Achhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Festingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=7


6/25

[edit] Need Hierarchy Theory

Main article:Hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow'shierarchy of human needstheory is the most widely discussed theory

of motivation.

The theory can be summarized as thus:

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior; only

unsatisfied needs can influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot.

Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic tothe complex.

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied.

The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness andpsychological health a person will show.

The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest, latest) are asfollows:

Physiological

Safety and security

Social

Self esteem

Self actualization

[edit]Herzbergs two-factor theory

Main article:Frederick Herzberg

Frederick Herzberg'stwo-factor theory, aka intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that

certain factors in the workplace result injob satisfaction, but if absent, lead to

dissatisfaction.

He distinguished between:

Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction, and

Hygiene factors; (e.g. status,job security,salaryand fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.

The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not make youhealthier, but absence can cause health deterioration.

The theory is sometimes called the "Motivator-Hygiene Theory."
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Safety_and_security&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Safety_and_security&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_esteemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_esteemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_actualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_actualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Two-factor_theory&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Two-factor_theory&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Two-factor_theory&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Two-factor_theory&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_actualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_esteemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Safety_and_security&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=12


7/25

[edit]Alderfers ERG theory

Main article:Clayton Alderfer

Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory

(existence, relatedness andgrowth).Physiologicalandsafety, the lower order needs, are

placed in the existence category, whileloveandself esteemneeds are placed in therelatedness category. The growth category contains our self-actualization and self-esteem

needs.

[edit] Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory, developed byEdward Deciand Richard Ryan, focuses on theimportance ofintrinsic motivationin driving human behavior. Like Maslow's hierarchical

theory and others that built on it, SDT posits a natural tendency toward growth anddevelopment. Unlike these other theories, however, SDT does not include any sort of

"autopilot" for achievement, but instead requires active encouragement from the

environment. The primary factors that encourage motivation and development areautonomy, competence feedback, and relatedness.

[2]

[edit] Broad Theories

The latest approach in Achievement Motivation is an integrative perspective as lined outin the "Onion-Ring-Model of Achievement Motivation" by Heinz Schuler, George C.

Thornton III, Andreas Frintrup and Rose Mueller-Hanson. It is based on the premise that

performance motivation results from way broad components of personality are directed

towards performance. As a result it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant tosuccess at work but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance

motivation. Especially it integrates formerly separated approaches as Need forAchievement with e.g. social motives like Dominance. TheAchievement MotivationInventory AMI(Schuler, Thornton, Frintrup & Mueller-Hanson, 2003) is based on this

theory and assesses three factors (17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and

professional success.

[edit] Cognitive theories

[edit] Goal-setting theory

Goal-setting theoryis based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to

reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal'sefficiency is affected by three features; proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal

should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end

state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride abike than mastering algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Alderferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Alderferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Alderferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Alderferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Alderferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_development_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_development_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_development_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_esteemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_esteemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_esteemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_L._Decihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_L._Decihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_L._Decihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-1#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-1#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-1#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=16http://http/www.achievement-motivation.org/7.htmlhttp://http/www.achievement-motivation.org/7.htmlhttp://http/www.achievement-motivation.org/7.htmlhttp://http/www.achievement-motivation.org/7.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Setting_Goal_Theory&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Setting_Goal_Theory&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Setting_Goal_Theory&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=17http://http/www.achievement-motivation.org/7.htmlhttp://http/www.achievement-motivation.org/7.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-1#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_L._Decihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_esteemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_development_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Alderferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Alderferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=14


8/25

complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a

challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people

want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificityconcerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined

and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get

the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need toreach that goal. For further reading, see Locke and Latham (2002).

[edit] Unconscious motivation

Somepsychologistsbelieve that a significant portion of human behavior is energized and

directed byunconsciousmotives. According toMaslow: "Psychoanalysis has often

demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate

unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct[3]

." In other words, statedmotives do not always match those inferred by skilled observers. For example, it is

possible that a person can be accident-prone because he has an unconscious desire to hurt

himself and not because he is careless or ignorant of the safety rules. Similarly, someoverweight people are not really hungry for food but for attention and love. Eating is

merely a defensive reaction to lack of attention. Some workers damage more equipment

than others because they harbor unconscious feelings of aggression toward authorityfigures.

Psychotherapists point out that some behavior is so automatic that the reasons for it arenot available in the individual's conscious mind. Compulsive cigarette smoking is an

example. Sometimes maintaining self-esteem is so important and the motive for an

activity is so threatening that it is simply not recognized and, in fact, may be disguised or

repressed. Rationalization, or "explaining away", is one such disguise, or defense

mechanism, as it is called. Another is projecting or attributing one's own faults to others."I feel I am to blame", becomes "It is her fault; she is selfish". Repression of powerful but

socially unacceptable motives may result in outward behavior that is the opposite of therepressed tendencies. An example of this would be the employee who hates his boss but

overworks himself on the job to show that he holds him in high regard.

Unconscious motives add to the hazards of interpreting human behavior and, to the extent

that they are present, complicate the life of the administrator. On the other hand,

knowledge that unconscious motives exist can lead to a more careful assessment ofbehavioral problems. Although few contemporary psychologists deny the existence of

unconscious factors, many do believe that these are activated only in times of anxiety and

stress, and that in the ordinary course of events, human behaviorfrom the subject'spoint of viewis rationally purposeful.

[edit] Controlling motivation

The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many differentapproaches ofmotivation training, but many of these are consideredpseudoscientificby
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=19http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=19http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscioushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscioushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscioushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-2#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-2#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-2#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=20http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=20http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-2#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscioushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=19


9/25

critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why

many people lack motivation.

[edit] Early programming

Modernimaginghas provided solid empirical support for the psychological theory thatemotional programming is largely defined in childhood.Harold Chugani, Medical

Director of thePETClinic at theChildren's Hospital of Michiganand professor of

pediatrics,neurologyandradiologyatWayne State University School of Medicine, has

found that children's brains are much more capable of consuming new information(linked to emotions) than those of adults. Brain activity in cortical regions is about twice

as high in children as in adults from the third to the ninth year of life. After that period, it

declines constantly to the low levels of adulthood. Brain volume, on the other hand, is

already at about 95% of adult levels in the ninth year of life.

[edit] Organization

Besides the very direct approaches to motivation, beginning in early life, there are

solutions which are more abstract but perhaps nevertheless more practical for self-

motivation. Virtually every motivation guidebook includes at least one chapter about theproper organization of one'stasksand goals. It is usually suggested that it is critical to

maintain a list of tasks, with a distinction between those which are completed and those

which are not, thereby moving some of the required motivation for their completion from

the tasks themselves into a "meta-task", namely the processing of the tasks in the task list,which can become a routine. The viewing of the list of completed tasks may also be

considered motivating, as it can create a satisfying sense of accomplishment.

Most electronic to-do lists have this basic functionality, although the distinction betweencompleted and non-completed tasks is not always clear (completed tasks are sometimes

simply deleted, instead of kept in a separate list).

Other forms of information organization may also be motivational, such as the use ofmind mapsto organize one's ideas, and thereby "train" theneural networkthat is thehuman brain to focus on the given task. Simpler forms of idea notation such as simple

bullet-point style lists may also be sufficient, or even more useful to less visually oriented

persons.

[edit] Drugs

Some authors, especially in thetranshumanistmovement, have suggested the use of"smart drugs", also known asnootropics, as "motivation-enhancers". The effects of many

of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status

often makes open experimentation difficult.

Converging neurobiological evidence also supports the idea that addictive drugs such as

cocaine,nicotine,alcohol, andheroinact on brain systems underlying motivation for
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=21http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=21http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harold_Chugani&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harold_Chugani&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harold_Chugani&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Children%27s_Hospital_of_Michigan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Children%27s_Hospital_of_Michigan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Children%27s_Hospital_of_Michigan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatricshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatricshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_State_University_School_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_State_University_School_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_State_University_School_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=22http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=22http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=23http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=23http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_State_University_School_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatricshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Children%27s_Hospital_of_Michigan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harold_Chugani&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=21


10/25

natural rewards, such as the mesolimbicdopaminesystem. Normally, these brain systems

serve to guide us toward fitness-enhancing rewards (food, water, sex, etc.), but they can

be co-opted by repeated use of drugs of abuse, causing addicts to excessively pursue drugrewards. Therefore, drugs can hijack brain systems underlying other motivations, causing

the almost singular pursuit of drugs characteristic of addiction.

[edit] Applications

[edit] Education

This section needs additionalcitationsforverification.Please helpimprove this articleby addingreliable references. Unsourced material may bechallengedand

removed. (November 2007)

Motivation is of particular interest toEducational psychologistsbecause of the crucial

role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied

in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general formsof motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.

Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and their behaviortowards subject matter (Ormrod, 2003). It can:

1. Direct behavior toward particular goals2. Lead to increased effort and energy3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities4. Enhance cognitive processing5. Determine what consequences are reinforcing

6. Lead to improved performance.

Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes needsituated

motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.

There are two kinds of motivation:

Intrinsic motivationoccurs when people are internally motivated to dosomething because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or

they feel that what they are learning is significant.

Extrinsic motivationcomes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (likemoney or good grades).

Note also that there is already questioning and expansion about this dichotomy on

motivation, e.g.,Self-Determination Theory.

Motivation has been found to be a pivotal area in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as

inPivotal Response Therapy.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=24http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=24http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=24http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=25http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=25http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Extrinsic_motivation#Extrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Extrinsic_motivation#Extrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Determination_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Determination_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Determination_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivotal_Response_Therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivotal_Response_Therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivotal_Response_Therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivotal_Response_Therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Determination_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Extrinsic_motivation#Extrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=25http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine


11/25

Motivation is also an important element in the concept ofAndragogy(what motivates the

adult learner).

[edit] Business

At lower levels ofMaslow's hierarchy of needs, such as Physiological needs, money is amotivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short

period (in accordance withHerzberg'stwo-factor model of motivation). At higher levels

of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition,empowermentand a sense of belonging are

far more powerful motivators than money, as bothAbraham Maslow'stheory ofmotivation andDouglas McGregor'sTheory X and theory Y(pertaining to the theory of

leadership) demonstrate.

Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better

motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a

poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are

considered stronger motivators than money.

Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.

Motivated employees are more quality oriented.

Motivated workers are more productive.

The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high

opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more

attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side.

According to the system of scientific management developed byFrederick Winslow

Taylor, a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore managementneed not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence scientific

management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea

of intrinsic rewards.

In contrast,David McClellandbelieved that workers could not be motivated by the mere

need formoney-- in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsicmotivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator

of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his

consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto "To make everyone

productive, happy, and free." For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life

with their fundamental motivations.

Elton Mayofound out that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are veryimportant and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo

believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and

making them feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to makedecisions on the job and greater attention was paid toinformal work groups. Mayo named
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=26http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=26http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowermenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowermenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowermenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_McGregor_%28business_theorist%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_McGregor_%28business_theorist%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_X_and_theory_Yhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_X_and_theory_Yhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_X_and_theory_Yhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_Mayohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_Mayohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Informal_work_groups&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Informal_work_groups&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Informal_work_groups&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Informal_work_groups&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_Mayohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClellandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_X_and_theory_Yhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_McGregor_%28business_theorist%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowermenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Herzberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogy


12/25

the model theHawthorne effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on

social contacts at work situations for motivating employees.[4]

Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior, especially

human behavioras studied inpsychologyandneuropsychology. These reasons may

include basic needs such as food or a desired object, hobbies,goal, state of being, orideal. The motivation for a behavior may also be attributed to less-apparent reasons such

asaltruismormorality. According to Geen,[1]

motivation refers to the initiation, direction,

intensity and persistence ofhuman behavior.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-3#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-3#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-3#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_%28goal%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_%28goal%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_%28goal%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-0#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-0#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-0#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-0#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_%28goal%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#cite_note-3#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect


13/25

Contents[hide]

1 Motivational concepts

o 1.1 Reward and reinforcemento 1.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

o 1.3 Self-control

2 Motivational Theories

o 2.1 Drive Reduction Theories

2.1.1 Cognitive dissonance theoryo 2.2 Affective-Arousal Theories

2.2.1 Need Achievement Theory

2.2.2 Interests Theory

o 2.3 Need Theories

2.3.1 Need Hierarchy Theory

2.3.2 Herzbergs two-factor theory 2.3.3 Alderfers ERG theory

2.3.4 Self-determination theory

2.3.5 Broad Theories

o 2.4 Cognitive theories

2.4.1 Goal-setting theory

o 2.5 Unconscious motivation

3 Controlling motivation

o 3.1 Early programming

o 3.2 Organization

o 3.3 Drugs

4 Applicationso 4.1 Education

o 4.2 Business

5 See also

6 References

7 External links

[edit] Motivational concepts

[edit] Reward and reinforcement

Areward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e.

behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done byassociating

positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward

immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitiveaction-reward combination can cause the action to becomehabit.
http://toggletoc%28%29/http://toggletoc%28%29/http://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_concepts#Motivational_conceptshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_concepts#Motivational_conceptshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Reward_and_reinforcement#Reward_and_reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Reward_and_reinforcement#Reward_and_reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-control#Self-controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-control#Self-controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_Theories#Motivational_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_Theories#Motivational_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drive_Reduction_Theories#Drive_Reduction_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drive_Reduction_Theories#Drive_Reduction_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_dissonance_theory#Cognitive_dissonance_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_dissonance_theory#Cognitive_dissonance_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Affective-Arousal_Theories#Affective-Arousal_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Affective-Arousal_Theories#Affective-Arousal_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Achievement_Theory#Need_Achievement_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Achievement_Theory#Need_Achievement_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Interests_Theory#Interests_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Interests_Theory#Interests_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Theories#Need_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Theories#Need_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Hierarchy_Theory#Need_Hierarchy_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Hierarchy_Theory#Need_Hierarchy_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theory#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theory#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theory#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theory#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-determination_theory#Self-determination_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-determination_theory#Self-determination_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Broad_Theories#Broad_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Broad_Theories#Broad_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_theories#Cognitive_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_theories#Cognitive_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Goal-setting_theory#Goal-setting_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Goal-setting_theory#Goal-setting_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Unconscious_motivation#Unconscious_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Unconscious_motivation#Unconscious_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Controlling_motivation#Controlling_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Controlling_motivation#Controlling_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Early_programming#Early_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Early_programming#Early_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Organization#Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Organization#Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drugs#Drugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drugs#Drugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Applications#Applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Applications#Applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Education#Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Education#Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Business#Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Business#Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#External_links#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#External_links#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#External_links#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Business#Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Education#Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Applications#Applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drugs#Drugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Organization#Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Early_programming#Early_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Controlling_motivation#Controlling_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Unconscious_motivation#Unconscious_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Goal-setting_theory#Goal-setting_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_theories#Cognitive_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Broad_Theories#Broad_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-determination_theory#Self-determination_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theory#Alderfer.E2.80.99s_ERG_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theory#Herzberg.E2.80.99s_two-factor_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Hierarchy_Theory#Need_Hierarchy_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Theories#Need_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Interests_Theory#Interests_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Need_Achievement_Theory#Need_Achievement_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Affective-Arousal_Theories#Affective-Arousal_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Cognitive_dissonance_theory#Cognitive_dissonance_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Drive_Reduction_Theories#Drive_Reduction_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_Theories#Motivational_Theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Self-control#Self-controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Reward_and_reinforcement#Reward_and_reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Motivational_concepts#Motivational_conceptshttp://toggletoc%28%29/


14/25

Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external to

the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the person; for

example,satisfactionor a feeling of accomplishment.

Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one based on

enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context,obligationrefers to motivation basedon what an individual thinks ought to be done. For instance, a feeling of responsibility for

a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.

Areinforceris different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a

measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something

to the environment.

[edit] Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is when people engage in an activity, such as ahobby, without

obvious external incentives.

Intrinsic motivation has been studied byeducational psychologistssince the 1970s, and

numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational achievement and

enjoyment by students. There is currently no universal theory to explain the origin or

elements of intrinsic motivation, and most explanations combine elements of FritzHeider'sattribution theory, Bandura's work onself-efficacyand other studies relating to

locus of controlandgoal orientation. Though it is thought that students are more likely to

be intrinsically motivated if they:

Attribute their

educational results tointernal factors that

they can control (e.g.

the amount of effort

they put in),

Believe they can be

effective agents in

reaching desiredgoals (i.e. the results

are not determined

by luck),

Are interested inmastering a topic,

rather than just rote-

learning to achievegood grades.

Note that the idea ofreward for achievementis absent from this model of intrinsicmotivation, since rewards are an extrinsic factor.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reward_for_achievement&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratification


15/25

In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons

for their participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to

the group, mentorship or 'giving back'. Inworkenvironments,moneymay provide amore powerful extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable

workplace.

The most obvious form of motivation iscoercion, where the avoidance ofpainor other

negative consequences has an immediate effect. Extreme use of coercion is considered

slavery. While coercion is considered morally reprehensible in many philosophies, it iswidely practiced on prisoners, students in mandatory schooling, within the nuclear family

unit (on children), and in the form ofconscription. Critics of moderncapitalismcharge

that without social safety networks,wage slaveryis inevitable[citation needed]

. However,

many capitalists such asAyn Randhave been very vocal against coercion[citation needed]

.Successful coercion sometimes can take priority over other types of motivation. Self-

coercion is rarely substantially negative (typically only negative in the sense that it avoids

a positive, such as forgoing an expensive dinner or a period of relaxation), however it is

interesting in that it illustrates how lower levels of motivation may be sometimes tweakedto satisfy higher ones.

In terms of GCSE PE, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the

performer. E.g. they compete for the love of the sport. Extrinsic motivation comes from

outside of the performer. E.g. The crowd cheer the performer on, this motivates them to

do well, or to beat a PB (Personal Best). Another example is trophies or a reward. Itmakes the performer want to win and beat the other competitors, thereby motivating the

performer.

[edit] Self-control

The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset ofemotional

intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservativedefinition (as measured by manyintelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this

intelligence to certain tasks.Yale School of ManagementprofessorVictor Vroom's

"expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert selfcontrol to pursue a particular goal.

Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behaviour thatis aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual

and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behaviour. Basic drives could be

sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereasmore subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a personto behave in a manner pleasing to others.

By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of

training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat

motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat isremoved from the process.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Randhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Randhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Randhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Vroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Vroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Vroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Vroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Managementhtt

motivation crowding theory

Documents