A contraction is the shortening of a word, syllable, or word group by omission of internal letters.[1] In traditional grammar, contraction can denote the formation of a new word from one word or a group of words, for example, by elision. This often occurs in rendering a common sequence of words or, as in French, in maintaining a flowing sound.

In strict analysis, contractions should not be confused with abbreviations or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance.1

Contractions List o'Contractions

A contraction is a shortened form of one or two words (one of which is usually a verb). In a contraction, an apostrophe takes the place of the missing letter or letters. Some contractions are: I'm (I am), can't (cannot), how's (how is), and Ma'am (Madam).

For example, "don't" is a contraction that is short for "do not"; the apostrophe in "don't" takes the place of the missing "o". Another example is "o'clock," a contraction "of the clock." A less common example of a contraction is "jack-o'-lantern," short for "jack-of-lantern"; in it, the apostrophe takes the place of the missing "f" in "of."

List o' Common Contractions:

BE WILL WOULD HAVE HAD

II'm

I amI'll

I willI'd

I wouldI've

I haveI'd

I had

youyou're

you areyou'll

you will

you'dyou

would

you'veyou have

you'dyou had

hehe'she is

he'llhe will

he'dhe would

he'she has

he'dhe had

sheshe'sshe is

she'llshe will

she'dshe would

she'sshe has

she'dshe had

itit's (or 'tis)

it isit'll

it willit'd

it wouldit's

it hasit'd

it had

WORDS (negating a

verb)

CONTRACTION

is not isn't

are not aren't

was not wasn't

were not weren't

have not haven't

has not hasn't

had not hadn't

will not won't

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraction_%28grammar%29

wewe're

we arewe'll

we willwe'd

we would

we'vewe

have

we'dwe had

theythey're

they are

they'llthey will

they'dthey

would

they'vethey have

they'dthey had

thatthat'sthat is

that'llthat will

that'dthat

would

that'sthat has

that'dthat had

whowho'swho is

who'llwho will

who'dwho

would

who'swho has

who'dwho had

whatwhat's/what'rewhat is/what

are

what'llwhat will

what'dwhat

would

what'swhat has

what'dwhat had

wherewhere'swhere is

where'llwhere will

where'dwhere would

where'swhere

has

where'dwhere had

whenwhen'swhen is

when'llwhen will

when'dwhen would

when'swhen has

when'dwhen had

whywhy'swhy is

why'llwhy will

why'dwhy

would

why'swhy has

why'dwhy had

howhow'show is

how'llhow will

how'dhow

would

how'show has

how'dhow had

WORDS DOUBLE CONTRACTION

she would have she'd've (colloquial)

it is not 'tisn't (archaic)

would not wouldn't

do not don't

does not doesn't

did not didn't

cannot can't

could not couldn't

should not shouldn't

might not mightn't

must not mustn't

WORDS (woulda-shoulda-coulda)

CONTRACTION

would have would've

should have should've

could have could've

might have might've

must have must've

WORDS (odd ones)

CONTRACTION

of o'

of the clock o'clock

madam ma'am

never-do-well ne'er-do-well

cat-of-nine-tails

cat-o'-nine-tails

jack-of-the-lantern

jack-o'-lantern

will-of-the-wisp

will-o'-the-wisp

it was 'twas (archaic)

2

2 http://www.enchantedlearning.com/grammar/contractions/

Definition

In English, words, particularly adjectives and nouns, are combined into compound structures in a variety of ways. And once they are formed, they sometimes metamorphose over time. A common pattern is that two words — fire fly, say — will be joined by a hyphen for a time — fire-fly — and then be joined into one word — firefly. In this respect, a language like German, in which words are happily and immediately linked one to the other, might seem to have an advantage. There is only one sure way to know how to spell compounds in English: use an authoritative dictionary.

There are three forms of compound words: the closed form, in which the words are melded together, such as firefly, secondhand, softball, childlike, crosstown, redhead, keyboard, makeup, notebook; the hyphenated form, such as daughter-in-law, master-at-arms, over-the-counter, six-pack, six-year-old, mass-produced; and the open form, such as post office, real estate, middle class, full moon, half sister, attorney general

3

Regular and irregular verbs

This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.4

To make the past tense or past participle form of most verbs (regular verbs) we simply add “ed” at the end.

Examples using the verb “walk”:

Past Tense: I walked through the maze.

Past Participle: I have walked through the maze.

3 http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/compounds.htm4 http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-what_classification-main.htm

(The past participle form is used in the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses. The above example is written in the present perfect tense.)

Irregular verbs are not that simple. We sometimes need a dictionary to help us write the different forms of irregular verbs.

Examples using the verb “see”:

Past Tense: We saw the secret maps.

Past Participle: We have seen the secret maps.

Look up the word “see” in the dictionary. Notice that the different forms of the word are given. Look up “walk.” Notice that the dictionary doesn’t bother to give the different forms of regular verbs.5

What is an idiom?An idiom is a combination of words that has a meaning that is different from the meanings of the individual words themselves. It can have a literal meaning in one situation and a different idiomatic meaning in another situation. It is a phrase which does not always follow the normal rules of meaning and grammar.To sit on the fence can literally mean that one is sitting on a fence. I sat on the fence and watched the game. However, the idiomatic meaning of to sit on the fence is that one is not making a clear choice regarding some issue. The politician sat on the fence and would not give his opinion about the tax issue.

Many idioms are similar to expressions in other languages and can be easy for a learner to understand. Other idioms come from older phrases which have changed over time.To hold one's horses means to stop and wait patiently for someone or something. It comes from a time when people rode horses and would have to hold their horses while waiting for someone or something."Hold your horses," I said when my friend started to leave the store.

Other idioms come from such things as sports that are common in the United Kingdom or the United

5 http://www.rhlschool.com/eng4n6.htm

States and may require some special cultural knowledge to easily understand them.To cover all of one's bases means to thoroughly prepare for or deal with a situation. It comes from the American game of baseball where you must cover or protect the bases. I tried to cover all of my bases when I went to the job interview.

Structure of Idioms

Most idioms are unique and fixed in their grammatical structure. The expression to sit on the fence cannot become to sit on a fence or to sit on the fences. However, there are many changes that can be made to an idiom.

Some of these changes result in a change in the grammatical structure that would generally be considered to be wrong.To be broken literally means that something is broken. The lamp is broken so I cannot easily read my book.To be broke is grammatically incorrect but it has the idiomatic meaning of to have no money. I am broke and I cannot go to a movie tonight.

There can also be changes in nouns, pronouns or in the verb tenses. I sat on the fence and did not give my opinion. Many people are sitting on the fence and do not want to give their opinion.

Adjectives and adverbs can also be added to an idiomatic phrase. The politician has been sitting squarely in the middle of the fence since the election.

It is for these reasons that it is sometimes difficult to isolate the actual idiomatic expression and then find it in a dictionary of idioms.6

Passive Voice

The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it.7

Narrative text is a kind of text to retell the story that past tense. The purpose of the text is to entertain or to amuse the readers or listeners about the story.

The generic structure of Narrative text :

6 http://www.idiomconnection.com/whatis.html#A27 http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-voice_passive.htm

1. Orientation :

It set the scene and introduce the participants (it answers the question : who, when, what, and where).

1. Complication :

Tells the problems of the story and how the main characters solve them.

1. Resolution :

The crisis is revolved, for better or worse.

1. Re-orientation :

The ending of the story.

1. Evaluation :

The stepping back to evaluate the story or the moral message of the story

Linguistic features :

1. Use active verbs.

2. Use past tense.

3. Use conjunction.

4. The first person (I or We) or the third person (He, She, or They).

5. Use specific nouns.

6. Use adjective and adverbs

Kind of Narrative text :

1. Legend : Sangkuriang, Malin Kundang, etc.

2. Fable : Mousedeer and crocodile.

3. Fairy tale : Cinderella, Snow white, Pinocchio, etc.

4. Science fiction

Example of Narrative text :

Sleeping Beauty

Long ago there lived a King and Queen who said every day, “If only we had a child!” But for a long time they had none.

One day, as the Queen was bathing in a spring and dreaming of a child, a frog crept out of the water and said to her, “Your wish shall be fulfilled. Before a year has passed you shall bring a daughter into the world.”

And since frogs are such magical creatures, it was no surprise that before a year had passed the Queen had a baby girl. The child was so beautiful and sweet that the King could not contain himself for joy. He prepared a great feast and invited all his friends, family and neighbours. He invited the fairies, too, in order that they might be kind and good to the child. There were thirteen of them in his kingdom, but as the King only had twelve golden plates for them to eat from, one of the fairies had to be left out. None of the guests was saddened by this as the thirteenth fairy was known to be cruel and spiteful.

An amazing feast was held and when it came to an end, each of the fairies presented the child with a magic gift. One fairy gave her virtue, another beauty, a third riches and so on — with everything in the world that anyone could wish for.

After eleven of the fairies had presented their gifts, the thirteenth suddenly appeared. She was angry and wanted to show her spite for not having been invited to the feast. Without hesitation she called out in a loud voice,

“When she is fifteen years old, the Princess shall prick herself with a spindle and shall fall down dead!”

Then without another word, she turned and left the hall.

The guests were horrified and the Queen fell to the floor sobbing, but the twelfth fairy, whose wish was still not spoken, quietly stepped forward. Her magic could not remove the curse, but she could soften it so she said,

“Nay, your daughter shall not die, but instead shall fall into a deep sleep that will last one hundred years.”

Over the years, the promises of the fairies came true — one by one. The Princess grew to be beautiful, modest, kind and clever. Everyone who saw her could not help but love her.

The King and Queen were determined to prevent the curse placed on the Princess by the spiteful fairy and sent out a command that all the spindles in the whole kingdom should be destroyed. No one in the kingdom was allowed to tell the Princess of the curse that had been placed upon her for they did not want her to worry or be sad.

On the morning of her fifteenth birthday, the Princess awoke early — excited to be another year older. She was up so early in the morning, that she realized everyone else still slept. The Princess roamed through the halls trying to keep herself occupied until the rest of the castle awoke. She wandered about the whole place, looking at rooms and halls as she pleased and at last she came to an old tower. She climbed the narrow, winding staircase and reached a little door. A rusty key was sticking in the lock and when she turned it, the door flew open.

In a little room sat an old woman with a spindle, busily spinning her flax. The old woman was so deaf that she had never heard the King’s command that all spindles should be destroyed.

“Good morning, Granny,” said the Princess, “what are you doing?”

“I am spinning,” said the old woman.

“What is the thing that whirls round so merrily?” asked the Princess and she took the spindle and tried to spin too.

But she had scarcely touched the spindle when it pricked her finger. At that moment she fell upon the bed which was standing near and lay still in a deep sleep.

The King, Queen and servants had all started their morning routines and right in the midst of them fell asleep too. The horses fell asleep in the stable, the dogs in the yard, the doves on the roof and the flies on the wall. Even the fire in the hearth grew still and went to sleep. The kitchen maid, who sat with a chicken before her, ready to pluck its feathers, fell asleep. The cook was in the midst of scolding the kitchen boy for a mess he’d made but they both fell fast asleep. The wind died down and on the trees in front of the castle not a leaf stirred.

Round the castle a hedge of brier roses began to grow up. Every year it grew higher until at last nothing could be seen of the sleeping castle.

There was a legend in the land about the lovely Sleeping Beauty, as the King’s daughter was called, and from time to time Princes came and tried to force their way through the hedge and into the castle. But they found it impossible for the thorns, as though they were alive, grabbed at them and would not let them through.

After many years a Prince came again to the country and heard an old man tell the tale of the castle which stood behind the brier hedge and the beautiful Princess who had slept within for a hundred years. He heard also that many Princes had tried to make it through the brier hedge but none had succeeded and many had been caught in it and died.

The the young Prince said, “I am not afraid. I must go and see this Sleeping Beauty.”

The good old man did all in his power to persuade him not to go, but the Prince would not listen.

Now the hundred years were just ended. When the Prince approached the brier hedge it was covered with beautiful large roses. The shrubs made way for him of their own accord and let him pass unharmed.

In the courtyard, the Prince saw the horses and dogs lying asleep. On the roof sat the sleeping doves with their heads tucked under their wings. When he went into the house, the flies were asleep on the walls and the servants asleep in the halls. Near the throne lay the King and Queen, sleeping peacefully beside each other. In the kitchen the cook, the kitchen boy and the kitchen maid all slept with their heads resting on the table.

The Prince went on farther. All was so still that he could hear his own breathing. At last he reached the tower and opened the door into the little room where the Princess was asleep. There she lay, looking so beautiful that he could not take his eyes off her. He bent down and gave her a kiss. As he touched her, Sleeping Beauty opened her eyes and smiled up at him.

Throughout the castle, everyone and everything woke up and looked at each other with astonished eyes. Within the month, the Prince and Sleeping Beauty were married and lived happily all their lives.

8

Dictation

The act of dictating; the act or practice of prescribing; also that which is dictated.

The speaking to, or the giving orders to, in an overbearing manner; authoritative utterance; as, his habit, even with friends, was that of dictation.9

Definition of Dictation

Dictation is technique used in both language teaching and language testing in which a passage is read

aloud to student or test taker, with pauses during which they must try to write down what they have

heard accurately as possible. Basically, this is a technique used to know how much student ability to

recognize and identify the spoken language10

8 http://4antum.wordpress.com/2009/12/03/narrative-text-itu/9 http://www.brainyquote.com/words/di/dictation154091.html10 http://sancesdict.blogspot.com/2010/01/definition-of-dictation.html

Homophone means "sounds the same," and a homophone is a word that sounds the same as another word, while having a different spelling and a different meaning. Many homophone examples turn up in lists of frequently confused words. They are the words that make up one of the largest classes of typo. Some examples of common homophones that people often substitute for each other when writing include the following:11

Homophones

Homophones are words that have exactly the same sound (pronunciation) but different meanings and (usually) spelling.

For example, the following two words have the same sound, but different meanings and spelling:

hourour

In the next example, the two words have the same sound and spelling, but different meanings:

bear (the animal)bear (to carry)

Usually homophones are in groups of two (our, hour), but very occasionally they can be in groups of three (to, too, two) or even four. If we take our "bear" example, we can add another word to the group"

bare (naked)bear (the animal)bear (to tolerate)

" Our bear cannot bear to be bare at any hour ."

The word homophone is made from two combining forms:

homo- (from the Greek word "homos", meaning "same" -phone (from the Greek word "phone", meaning "voice" or "sound"

You will see many other English words using one or other of these combining forms.

11 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-homophone.htm

The following list of 70 groups of homophones contains only the most common homophones, using relatively well-known words. These are headwords only. No inflections (such as third person singular "s" or noun plurals) are included.

air heir

aisle isle

ante- anti-

eye I

bare bear bear

be bee

brake break

buy by

cell sell

cent scent

cereal serial

coarse course

complement compliment

dam damn

dear deer

die dye

fair fare

fir fur

flour flower

for four

hair hare

heal heel

hear here

him hymn

hole whole

hour our

idle idol

in inn

knight night

knot not

know no

made maid

mail male

meat meet

morning mourning

none nun

oar or

one won

pair pear

peace piece

plain plane

poor pour

pray prey

principal principle

profit prophet

real reel

right write

root route

sail sale

sea see

seam seem

sight site

sew so sow

shore sure

sole soul

some sum

son sun

stair stare

stationary stationery

steal steel

suite sweet

tail tale

their there

to too two

toe tow

waist waste

wait weight

way weigh

weak week

wear where

NB: In a few cases, a third homophone, although possible, has not been included for simplicity. Different varieties and accents of English may produce variations in some of these pronunciations. The homophones listed here are based on British English.12

12 http://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/homophones.htm