migration and gender--guntur sugiyarto
TRANSCRIPT
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Impact of Global Crisis on Asian Migrant Workers and
their Families:A Survey-based Analysis with a Gender Perspective
Guntur Sugiyarto
Economics and Research Department/ADB. 30 July 2013, ADBHeadquarters
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Outline
Next steps
Policy implications
Key findings
Methodology
Background and objectives
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Background
Global crises impacted Asian migration and remittancesat different levels: global, country and household levels.
Impact at household level: based on migrant householdsurveys in BAN, INO and PHI (ADB and IOM 2011).
Results were presented already, but further analysiswith more gender dimension was needed.
Follow-up surveys with gender lens in 2012 in INO andPHI, where feminization of migration is very strong.
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Main Objectives
Using gender lens:
Examine the trend and impact dynamics.
Analyze the gender-differentiated impacts. Identify the coping mechanisms.
Unit of analysis:
Migrant workers and migrant households.
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Methodology
Analyzed gender-disaggregated data from
ADB-IOM survey in 2010 (first survey).
Period covered: Oct 2008 to Sept 2009.
Sample: 217 and 200 migrant households in INO and PHI.
Revisit (second) survey in 2012 to collect more gender-relevant data.
Period covered: 2009 to 2012.
Re-sample: 100 households each in INO and PHI.
Conducted FGDs and RTDs with migrant households, returningmigrants and key informants.
Combined results of surveys and FGDs/RTDs in the analysis.
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Impacts Examined
Impacts
Migrant
Workers
Earning andRemittance
Job andworking
condition
Coping
Mechanism
Migrant
Households
Income andExpenditure
Employment andJob status
CopingMechanism
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General Findings ...
Crisis had limited impact on international migration andremittances at global and country levels.
Migrants and Remittances proved to be resilient.
But the crisis affected men and women migrant workersand migrant households differently.
There seems a Macro-Micro mismatch and strongimpact dynamics at the micro level.
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Macro: Deployments and Remittances
Remittances Flows, 2006-2011 (US$ million)
Number of Deployed MigrantWorkers, 2006-2011
5.6 6.06.5 6.6 6.7 6.7
12.8
14.5
16.417.4
18.8 20.1
0
5
10
15
20
25
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
(US$millions)
Indonesia Phi lippines
0200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
('000persons)
Indonesia Philippines
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Migrant Earning
Related to education, skill and occupation.
INO: Women mostly in domestic work and men inmanufacturing and construction.
PHI: spread over various occupations (services,technical/professional, sea-based, construction anddomestic work). Earning more than INO.
INO: monthly earnings fell by 15% and 4% for men and
women migrants.
PHI: monthly earnings of men & women increasedslightly.
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Average monthly earnings of migrants
Indonesia Philippines
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
Before Crisis First Period
(Rph)
Men
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Before Crisis First Period
(PhP)
Women
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Regression Analysis
VariablesHousehold
incomeRemittances
Migrant
worker's
income
abroad
VariablesHousehold
incomeRemittances
Migrant
worker's
income
abroadHousehold
size
0.0323
[0.332]
0.0172
[0.661]
0.0446**
[0.029]
Number of
migrant worker's
children
-0.0253
[0.659]
-0.0274
[0.592]
-0.0412
[0.210]
Number of
migrants in
household
-0.0397
[0.749]
0.0579
[0.842]
-0.0366
[0.719]
Level of education
of migrant worker
0.2903***
[0.003]
0.0471
[0.624]
0.2733***
[0.000]
Level of
education ofhousehold head
0.3386***
[0.000]
-0.0827
[0.331]
0.0332
[0.572]
Migrant worker's
length of stayabroad
-0.0022
[0.510]
0.0098**
[0.024]
0.0036
[0.396]
Sex of
household
head
0.2373*
[0.094]
-0.3236*
[0.051]
-0.0644
[0.485]
Constant 2.4662***
[0.000]
7.0252***
[0.000]
4.6098***
[0.000]
Knowledge
of the
global financial
and economic
crisis
0.1347
[0.101]
-0.0532
[0.543]
0.1908***
[0.001]
Observations 243 246 219
Sex of migrant
worker
-0.1665
[0.183]
-0.2710**
[0.032]
-0.2664***
[0.002]
R-squared
0.538 0.098 0.369
Age of
migrant worker
0.0156**
[0.038]
0.0032
[0.677]
0.0061
[0.242]Robust pval in brackets
*** p
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Working conditions
Working condition deteriorated, and more profound than impacton earning.
INO migrants reported more deteriorating working conditions
(60% compare to 15% for PHI).
Factors: delays and withholding salaries, overtime loss, benefitreductions and wage cuts.
Country and gender influence very strong.
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Changes in Working Conditions
Indonesia Philippines
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Men Women Total
(%)
Reduction of benefits
Wage cuts
Working hours reduction
Overtime without pay
Conditions improved
Other
No change
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Men Women Total
(%)
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Impact on remittances
Remittances increased (in both survey periods), despite theadverse impacts on earning and working conditions.
PHI remit more regularly than INO (may be due to Migranthousehold share in PHI already 25%, INO only 3%)
Men remitted larger amount than women.
PHI: men remitted 2.4 times more than women.
INO: men remitted 1.2 times more than women.
Women made more transactions to remit than men
Remittance Dynamics
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Amount of monthly remittances ..
PhilippinesIndonesia
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
Before crisis First period Second period
('000Rp)
Men Women Average
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Before crisis First period Second period
('000PhP)
Men Women Average
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Remitting Frequency
PHI migrants remit more regularlythan INO migrants.
INO: women remit more regularly(monthly) than men.
PHI: men remit more regularly thanwomen.
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Returning migrants
INO: accounted to 25% of household members.
50% and 25% of women and men received assistance from their employers
PHI: Very small, only 3% of household members with very few receivedassistance.
Reasons: premature termination and non-renewal of contracts.
More women reported facing difficulties after returning, including in finding ajob.
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Returning migrants
Indonesia
9
0
6
11
20
7
18
5 5
13
9
14
27
5
11
24
29
21
0
10
20
30
40
Before
2008
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
(Number)
Men Women
Philippines
20 0
24
0
8
0 02
0 1
10
0 0
4 4
10
10
20
30
40
Before
2008
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
(Number)
Total
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Returnees
INO
Most returnees found a job within 6 months.
25% and 15% of women and men returneeswould like to work abroad again.
PHI
Mostly found a job in 6-10 months.
50% of them would like to work abroadagain.
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Intention to migrate of migrant family
members and impact on work status
8% and 2% of INO and PHI household membersintended to go abroad for employment, mostlywomen.
INO: Unemployed 50%. Wage, non-wage andvulnerable employments are 15%, 2% and 35% ofhouseholds members.
PHI: Unemployed 80%. Wage, non-wage andvulnerable employments are 15%, 1% and 5%.
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Changes in work status
Since the crises: Reduced wage employmentand increased vulnerable employment of
household members.
Women were more likely to be in vulnerableemployment.
More 10% of Filipino household membershave joined the labor force, mostly men.
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Work status of household members
Indonesia PhilippinesA. Before the crisis
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Men Women Total
(%)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Men Women Total
(%)
B. Since the crisis
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Men Women Total
(%)
Wage employee- full time/regular/permanentWage employee casual/ temporary/part-time/contractSelf-employed (own account)Unpaid family worker
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Men Women Total
(%)
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Migrant Households Economic Condition
INO: Women-headed households tend to have lowerincome or expenditure, contrary to the PHI.
INO: 20% households experienced deterioration in 1st
period and further deteriorated in 2nd period.
PHI: 1st period 15% a deteriorated, 40% improved. 2ndperiod, 50% improved.
The impact mostly felt through rising food prices.
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Migrant Household Economic Conditions Indonesia Philippines
A. First Period (2008-2009)
B. Second Period (2010-2012)
5
1411
37
10 82 12 2 1
71 0 1 0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Greatly
improved
M
oderately
improved
Slightly
improved
Nochange/thesame
Slightlydeteriorated
Moderately
deteriorated
Greatlydeteriorated
Notspecified/no
an
swer
(Number)
1
57
19
5
132
1214
25
3 2 1
0
10
20
30
Greatlyim
proved
Mo
derately
im
proved
Slightlyim
proved
Nocha
nge/the
sa
me
Slightly
dete
riorated
Moderately
dete
riorated
Greatly
dete
riorated
(Number)
Men Women
5
14 13
33
713
2 12 24 5
0 1 0 0010
20
30
40
50
Greatlyimproved
Moderately
improved
Slightlyimproved
Nochange/the
same
Slightlydeteriorated
Moderately
deteriorated
Greatlydeteriorated
Notspecified/no
answer
(Number)
2
48
17
35
23
17 1619
2 1 10
10
20
30
Greatlyimproved
Moderately
improved
Slightlyimproved
Nochange/the
same
Slightly
deteriorated
Moderately
deteriorated
Greatly
deteriorated
(Number)
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Migrant Household Incomes
INO: Majority of household incomes fell
PHI: only 10% experienced a decrease
Reasons: Reduction in remittances and wage cuts,and for the PHI includes exchange rate volatility.
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Change in household income
Change in income
Reasons for change
98
119
0
72
22
106
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Increase Decrease No change
(Number)
Indonesia Philippines
40
12
1
35
1
14
30 0
13
2 3 0
7
0 0 04 6
00
10
20
30
40
50
(Number)
Indonesia Philippines
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Changes in Living Conditions
Indonesia Philippines
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Men Women Total
(%)
Adjusting day-to-day expenses
Borrowing money
Using savings
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Men Women Total
(%
)
Other
Adjusting day-to-day expenses
Borrowing money
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Migrant Household Coping Mechanisms
Common methods: cutting expenses, consuming cheaper (andless nutritious) food, using saving, selling assets, and borrowingmoney from loan sharks.
Extreme adjustments in children education such as pullingthem out of school were a last resort.
Women bear the brunt of the crisis as they must also holdreproductive responsibilities.
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Types of Expenditure Adjustments
Men WomenA. Indonesia
B. Philippines
2
1
25
22
14
26
28
12
29
37
62
65
56
51
61
56
53
72
56
50
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Falling behind on repayments
Doing own household chores
Borrowing money
Using savings
Selling valuable possessions
Growing own food
Cutting down on tobacco and alcohol
Cutting medical expenses
Cutting down on buying clothes
Reducing food consumption
0
0
3
5
1
3
1
1
3
5
10
10
8
8
12
10
11
11
10
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
2
5
8
2
3
2
4
3
10
13
6
34
8
13
7
7
11
17
23
28
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Falling behind on repayments
Doing own household chores
Borrowing money
Using savings
Selling valuable possessions
Growing own food
Cutting down on tobacco and alcohol
Cutting medical expenses
Cutting down on buying clothes
Reducing food consumption
Yes No
4
3
12
7
5
01
6
10
21
13
51
12
14
11
1413
24
36
38
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
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Perceptions about Man or Woman
Asked about who should work abroad?
Most households, returning migrants, and keyinformants preferred man than woman.
Men should be the breadwinner and women shouldbe at home taking care of family and finances. Womenneed to work only if financial situation calls for it.
Yet, more women going abroad for employment.
This exemplifies a strong push factor out of necessity,calling for gender mainstreaming policies.
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Man or Woman should be working
abroad?
Indonesia Philippines
50
2117
88
41
712
0
20
40
60
80
100
Better to send
a man
Better to send
a woman
No difference Total
(%)
Men Women
32
4 5
4144
510
59
0
20
40
60
80
100
Better to send
a man
Better to send
a woman
No difference Total
(%)
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Summary of findings (1)
Women migrants more vulnerable to shocks due to
their lower levels of education and skills.
Remitting more frequent during the crisis andremittance market in INO seems to be less developed.
Returning migrants received little assistance.
More women returnees seek to work abroad again as
returning and finding a job at home are morechallenging.
Migrant households were also affected by the crisesthrough the adverse impact on domestic labor market,and women often bear the brunt more.
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Summary of findings (2)
Vulnerable employment increased during the crisis and in INOincrease significantly.
Women were more in vulnerable employment.
Anti-migrant sentiments are on the rise and policy responses of
some key destination countries make them worse.
Pre-departure orientation seminars have a lot of room forimprovement.
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Policy implications (1)
Better job creation in the domestic economy
Investing in education and skills especially for women migrantworkers and household members.
Lower transaction costs, remove barriers to remit andfacilitate the use of formal channels.
Provide better assistance to returning migrants in times ofcrisis.
Reintegration programs need to have better targetingespecially for women to ensure their success.
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Policy implications (2)
Provision of cash and job search assistance, and skillstraining.
Institutions must be improved in the framework that men
and women have equal rights and are treated equally.
Home and host governments and civil society organizationsneed to act better following reports of abuses.
Programs need to improve targeting and coordination.
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Policy implications (3)
Home and host governments and other stakeholders have tocombat discrimination against migrants, which tend toincrease during challenging times.
Make migrant labour inflows more flexible to changingdemand in the destination countries.
Pre departure training on contract familiarization, culturaladjustment, financial literacy for migrant workers and theirfamilies.
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Women migrant workers are morevulnerable to abuse and exploitation.
Host governments are to guarantee basic human rights of
migrant workers and provide them with adequate laborprotection.
Missions of sending countries need to provide assistance toaffected migrants and liaise with host governments.
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Next steps
Further publications anddisseminations in other forms
Policy dialogues with stakeholders
Outreach to local and international media
More in-depth study in other labor-exporting and host countries
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