master assignment psychology

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY HMEF5043

PART A

Definition of Creative Thinking and Problem Solving

Creative thinking is an important parcel in the educational process in each of the

different fields of education, as mentioned in the different journals and articles that

focuseson creative thinking. With that simple definition, creative thinking is also

applicable not only to the student’s cognitive development but to the teachers as well,

as they need to develop this particular skill in order to be productive in teaching (Patton

& Kritsonis, 2007). Both the teacher and the student must be aware of our own thinking

skill. It is important for both teachers and students learn how to sharpen these cognitive

skills. The teachers role is to plan creative lessons that develops the students to think

and create creative outputs from and for their learnings, in result developing their

creative thinking.

Meanwhile, problem solving is the process of designing, evaluating and implementing a

strategy to answer an open-ended question or achieve a desired goal. Both creative

thinking and problem solving can be promoted by the classroom climates such as open,

comfortable, relaxed, challenging, safe, supportive, trusting, humorous, energized, and

collaborative. These climates rewarded creative behavior and encouraged thinking and

exploring processes; students were free to voice opinions through non-threatening,

entertaining, and enjoyable methods. The exemplary teachers selected for this study

shared many character traits. They were: approachable, personable, creative, caring,

flexible, knowledgeable, energetic, interesting, motivating, imaginative, innovative,

aesthetic, seekers of possibilities, leaders, insightful, original and unique.

In the development of education, there is a need to cultivate the creative thinking of the

students (Liu et al., 2007). There was progressive shift of teacher-centered teaching to

student-centered teaching in the different fields of education. Even in the traditional

Master of Eduation/Open University Malaysia 1


education of sciences like nursing, medicine, and allied sciences, there is a need to a

healthy infusion of creative thinking in the traditional knowledge impartation of the

professors and clinical instructors. Creative thinking cultivates active thinking in the

students, brings with them a deeper understanding of the knowledge and concrete

application of that knowledge learned. In planning the methods to be used, both critical

thinking and creative thinking are used for the teacher to formulate innovative waysto

teach the lesson (through simulations or role playing). The teacher must of course must

be able to create activities that encourage the students to develop and practice critical

and creative thinking, not only as to fulfill the needs of the lesson but also to become an

inherent skill that may come to use in the future.



Important findings of the study

Based on the research finding, the researcher conducted this study to explore and to

investigate teaching methods and those environments created by teachers who

demonstrated exemplary instructional approaches that nurture creative thinking and

problem solving in students. During that period, the researcher conducted data

collection from student interviews, teacher interviews, classroom observations, data

analysis, and data dissemination. The researcher followed the guidelines of naturalistic

inquiry in conducting ethnographic interviews with students, teachers, and other college

employees to obtain qualitative data for exploration of the proposed research problem.

The data that the researcher collected from classroom observations, exploration,

investigation, and surveys of student attitudes toward such classroom environments

assisted in preparing the analysis of findings. Constructions that emerged from the

study showed the notability of the following factors vital to promoting a creative

classroom environment: (1) teacher's knowledge; (2) teacher character traits; (3)

teaching style; (4) teacher's passion and attitude toward students, subject, and

teaching; (5) classroom management; (6) climate; (7) teacher-student interaction; and

(8) student attitudes. During this study, the researcher observed that students favored

creative, open, and non-threatening climates over learning only by authority and

conformity; furthermore, students supported such change.

Classroom climates such as open, comfortable, relaxed, challenging, safe, supportive,

trusting, humorous, energized, and collaborative promoted creative thinking and problem

solving. Such climates rewarded creative behavior and encouraged thinking and exploring

processes; students were free to voice opinions through non-threatening, entertaining, and

enjoyable methods.



The exemplary teachers selected for this study shared many character traits. They were:

approachable, personable, creative, caring, flexible, knowledgeable, energetic, interesting,

motivating, imaginative, innovative, aesthetic, seekers of possibilities, leaders, insightful,

original, and unique. In order to raise a student’s curiosity, teacher can use diverse methods and

strategies in presentation of subject content, in leading discussions and debates, and in

encouraging small group interactions. These approaches encourage students to study issues from

contrasting views. The selective content of what to teach is yet another important element. The

researcher observed that the exemplary teachers selected for this study exhibited an in-depth and

rich specificity of knowledge in the subject matter and the field of study. These teachers also

held considerable knowledge about other issues, topics, and domains. The researcher also

observed that teacher-student interaction in the classroom sought numerous possibilities in

fostering creative climate. In addition, these teachers displayed much respect toward the students

who asked unusual questions and who held opposing opinions.



The relevance of the findings to your own learning environment

An important aspect of effective teaching that I learned during the past year relates to

creating a supportive classroom environment. A warm, safe, and caring environment

allows students to “influence the nature of the activities they undertake, engage

seriously in their study, regulate their behavior, and know of the explicit criteria and high

expectations of what they are to achieve” (Queensland Department of Education, 2005).

After reading the journal, I expressed the importance of a positive classroom

environment by stating that teachers needed to try to relate to their students, be

someone they could confide in, make students feel comfortable asking questions, and

avoid labeling students

According to Wilen et al., (2004), part of building a supportive climate for

learning involves teachers sharing their expectations concerning learning of content,

achievement, and social behavior with their students. I creating a positive and learning-

centered environment. In fact, I described many instances in which I set a positive tone

for the class, made her expectations known and established a routine of conduct and

respect. The purpose of this was to guide students to be both respectful in their conduct

and responsible for their actions and work.

The researcher indicate that creating an atmosphere of mutual respect and

support in the classroom, where students feel safe in expressing concerns or asking

questions, and where tolerance and a sense of common identity and community are

promoted (Stronge, 2002; Wilen et al., 2004; Shepard, 2000). I began to develop an

understanding of methods for creating a classroom environment conducive to teaching

and learning, and tried to put them into practice during the instruction of my class. One

of my first goals was to create a classroom community which fostered acceptance and

respect (Benchmark 4.1 and Benchmark 4.2). A way in which I set out to accomplish



this was in instructing students how they should treat one another. For example, I

wanted students to treat each other nicely when playing class review games. I

indicated to students that they were not to laugh or get angry at someone who didn’t

know an answer, but to be supportive and applaud their effort. In this way I hoped to

instill a sense of community in which individual strengths and difference were respected.

Another way in which I hoped to inspire respect and tolerance was through the

use of cooperative learning groups. The goal of using groups was to encourage

students to help and rely on one another to complete a task, and to learn to work with

people who may be different from them. For example, in the Lab, students were divided

into four-person lab groups designed to have students with varying abilities work

together. I assigned each member of the group a specific role so that everyone could

participate to the best of his or her unique abilities. Students worked cooperatively in

order to perform the experiment, collect data, and analyze the results. Each student

was then responsible for writing a laboratory report based on group work in order to

ensure individual accountability. In this way, I hoped to ensure the conscientious

participation of every student because each was responsible for his or her own work

and the success of the group as a whole.

Beyond promoting tolerance and respect, I also wanted to create a classroom

environment that enhanced social relationships, student motivation, and engagement in

productive work (Benchmark 4.3). One way in which I accomplished this was by

changing student seats monthly, as indicated on my lesson calendar. I changed seats

frequently in order to allow students the chance to work with different people of varying

abilities and to make new friends. I hoped that this would promote new social

interactions, motivate students with a change of scenery, and maximize productive work

by splitting up talkative or easily distracted students. I also let students know that if they

were repeatedly disruptive, their seats would be changed more frequently



(expectations). These examples demonstrate that I regularly analyzed the classroom

and made decisions to promote student learning.

In order to create and maintain a smoothly functioning learning community

(Benchmark 4.4), I enacted several strategies. To begin with, I carefully planned

lessons for the class with the idea of making transitions between activities as smooth

and efficient as possible. Students easily became familiar with my basic lesson format

of start-up activity, interactive lecture, lab/activity, and reinforcement exercise (lesson

calendar). Moreover, I sought to develop thinking routines in my classroom. According

to Ritchart et al. (2002), “Thinking routines act as a major enculturating force by

communicating expectations for thinking as well as providing students the tools they

need to engage in that thinking. Thinking routines help students answer the questions

they have The goals of these activities were to get students thinking about a concept at

the start of class, evaluate their prior knowledge, clear up any misconceptions, and link

concepts to their everyday lives.

I also provided opportunities for students to work both collaboratively and

independently. Student groups worked together to time the motion of their car and

measure the distance it moved (picture), and then used this data to calculate their car's

speed. This activity was also designed to foster students' higher order thinking, as

students were required complete a lab report in which they reflected on the accuracy of

their hypotheses or ways in which they could have improved their project. I feel it is

crucial in science to make sure that students make the connections between the content

and the activities in order to achieve complete understanding.

In order to further improve students’ higher-order thinking, I also included

several writing activities. I wanted students to be able to express themselves in a

scientific fashion through writing, which is a task students often find challenging. For

the Motion Story assignment, students wrote a creative story describing an imaginary



walk that corresponded to a provided distance vs. time graph. Students were required

to reference distance, time, speed, and acceleration in their story, and were provided

with a performance checklist to verify that their assignment contained all necessary

components.

The aspect of teaching that I struggled with my student teaching was

establishing and maintaining discipline. I decided to develop a list of expectations for

the class as well as determine consequences for misbehavior, in order to establish a

clear standard of conduct for the classroom (Benchmark 4.9). My expectations included

being quiet and listening while I was speaking, and completing homework on time.

Consequences for disrupting class or failing to complete homework included a referral

to the student planning center or inability to participate in lab activities, respectively. I

also made myself available to students to talk about any problem or to provide extra

help. Moreover, I decided to talk to certain students individually about their conduct,

demonstrating that I was sensitive to students’ individual needs (Benchmark 4.5). I

found that expliciting detailing my expectations and having an open discussion with

students fostered better teacher-student communication and ultimately led to a more

productive classroom and successful classroom management.

I also believe one of the keys to an effective functioning classroom lies in knowing

what students should be doing at any moment, and incorporating multiple and varying

hands-on activities into lessons designed to engage students in productive tasks. As

indicated by my lesson calendar, I carefully planned and organized activities for each

day, hoping to maximize engaged learning time and minimize wasted time (Benchmark

4.10). Each lesson, which lasted 1-5 days, included a demonstration or start-up activity,

an interactive lecture, one or more laboratory activities, and assignments designed to

reinforce concepts and give students the opportunity to practice new knowledge and

procedures. I also included extra worksheets or activities for each lesson in my unit in

case there was additional time available.



Another way in which I managed space and attention to provide equitable

engagement of students was through periodically switching which students sat in the

front of the room. Because students sitting in the front of the room typically receive

more teacher attention, I wanted both low and high-achieving students to have this

experience. I also tried to keep students on task and prevent them from falling behind

through the use of progress reports. These reports were designed to let students and

their parents know how students are doing in class by showing their grades and any

missing assignments. Reports were produced monthly and required parent signatures.

Similarly, students in the strategies course received weekly print outs of missing works

for all of their classes, so that they could use their class time productively to finish up

work and learn new approaches for keeping up with their works.



Aspects of the study that are worth applying in your own context

According to Torrance and Safter (1990), students prefer to learn creatively by

exploring, questioning, experimenting, manipulating, listening, and testing. Reacting to

powerful cultural forces, however, educational institutions encourage intelligence and

logic, insisting that students learn by authority. Notably, students do not learn

exclusively through authoritarian command. Authoritarian systems of learning lack

flexibility, originality, elaboration, uniqueness, novelty, fluency, and purposiveness of

creative thinking. “The preservation of this nation’s way of life and future security

depends upon its most important national resources; intellectual abilities and, more

important, creative abilities. It is time, then, that we learn all we can about those

resources” (Guilford, 1959, p. 2, Masuri & de Corte, 2005).

Many of these students seemed to learn better and think more critically and more

creatively in a “safe environment," a term which students and teachers used frequently

during their interviews. To their way of thinking, safe environments are settings in which

they do not feel threatened, but feel comfortable to express opinions and ideas. Many of

these students are intuitive, courageous risk takers; they are brilliant, open to change,

creative, emotional, dedicated, and care much about their learning experience. In

return, they also hold the same expectations of their teachers. When they visited with

the researcher about what constitutes a creative environment, students used the

following key words most frequently to express their opinions:

Learning; fun; interest; freedom to voice opinions;

enthusiasm; comfortable and safe environment; humor; challenge;

openness; love of the teacher for teaching and for the subject taught;

encouragement to think; student-teacher interaction; student-student

interaction, respect, and challenge of one’s own thinking.



They also expressed opinions about experiences that they usually had as

students. Those experiences sharply contrasted with experiences they had with favorite

and exemplary teachers. In those classrooms students frequently commented that,

unlike the creative environments mentioned above, they felt stifledin expressing creative

ideas. In addition, they felt an overwhelming pressure to conform and obey to rigid

classroom structural guidelines. On the other hand, the respondent pool of teachers

selected for this study was open to new possibilities. Most of them spoke openly about

the need to change an antiquated educational system. And most expressed their

disappointment with a rigid and “so-traditional” system of thinking and learning. They

responded favorably to student concerns, ideas, and questions; they verified the

importance and value of student ideas; and they were skillful in capturing students’

attention. In addition, they understood the significance of basic skills to creativity and

emphasized these skills in their classrooms. They guided students through the learning

process with care, wisdom, and knowledge. Some teachers used many approaches not

only to motivate students in their thinking, but also to produce interest and excitement.

Frequently they constructed debate, discussions, and role playing scenarios to

accomplish such goals. Without exception, all of these teachers connected prior

information and prior required entry skills to new information and new knowledge. They

used brainstorming activities and synectics (a well-known creative thinking technique of

making the familiar strange and the strange familiar) exercises to relate problems and

ideas that seem difficult, if not impossible, to relate. Throughout the learning process,

these teachers used critical monitoring and continuous evaluation methods (by way of

discussions, group projects, or teacher-student interaction) to assist in diagnosing the

prerequisite skills that the students already possessed. Making these evaluations by the

teacher were essential in planning instructional focus and individually guiding students’

needs in learning new materials and new skills. Intrinsically, these teachers were able to

minimize confusion and avoid unnecessary instructions; this permitted extra time for the



teacher to focus on problems such as skills deficiencies and content misinterpretations

(Gagnè, et al., 1992; Smith & Ragan, 2000). Some of the teachers encouraged students

to create the connections on their own; others created the connections for them. All of

these teachers showed respect toward the students and treated them as adults,

younger colleagues, and future professionalsPART B

Method to identify field dependence and field independence among the students.

Witkin (1973), a pioneer in learning styles, defined learning styles in terms of a

process. He argued that learning styles are concerned with the form rather than the

content of the learning activity. Learning style refers to individual differences in how we

perceive, think, solve problems, and learn. Witkin spent a great part of his academic

career developing measures of learning style.

His work concentrated on determining to what extent a person's perception of an

item was influenced by the surrounding field in which the item appeared. He wanted to

determine if “some people saw the tree, while others saw the forest”. According to him

whereas field-dependent people see the forest, field-independent learners see the tree

within the forest.

In theory, there are as many learning styles as there are learners, and the

practical implication of learning styles for teaching-learning interactions are numerous.

Nevertheless, in recent years, only a few of the possible number of styles have received

the attention of L2 researchers; one of the most well researched areas is “field

independence” (FI) or “field dependence” (FD). FI / FD refers to how people perceive

and memorize information (Chapelle, 1995).

Students can enhance their learning power by being aware of style areas in

which they feel less comfortable, work on the development of these, and thus provide



avenues to foster their intellectual growth (Eliason in Kang, 1999). Similarly, teachers

can identify strong style patterns in their classes and make effective use of such

information by devising lesson plans, which accommodate individual learning style

preferences.

Robert Wyss (2002) has created the following learning styles checklist to enable

teachers of EFL gauge their learners' tendencies towards FI/FD. This kind of

assessment does indicate students' preferred general learning styles. Learners whose

responses tend toward the right-hand side of the list, indicate a preference for FD,

conversely, those who check more on the left show a preference for FI.

Cognitive tunnel vision limits learners with a strong FI tendency and prevents

them from seeing the big picture. While they get “stuck” on unfamiliar vocabulary or

ambiguous grammar structures, their FD counterparts will have already understood the

gist of a written or spoken discourse - without, however, having caught the precise

meaning of every word. Seen in this light, the FD learner has the advantage of

overlooking problems in order to see the general configuration of a problem or idea.

Summerville (1999) referred to field dimensions of independence and field

dependence as a global versus an articulated style that reflects the “degree to which an

individual’s processing of information is affected by the contextual field” (p. 3). FI

learners have been referred to as “analytical, competitive, individualistic, task oriented,

internally referent, intrinsically motivated, hypothesis testing, self-structuring, linear,

detail oriented, and visually perceptive” (Hall, 2000, p. 5) whereas FD learners have

been referred to as “group-oriented, global sensitive to social interactions and criticism,

extrinsically motivated, externally referential, not visually perceptive, non-verbal, and

passive learners who prefer external information structures” (Hall, 2000, p. 6). Governor

(1998) added that FD learners are in more need of social input and external help in

interpreting clues embedded in a particular learning task. Hu (1998) observed that FI

learners are more analytic and rely less on external clues than their FD counterparts. FI



learners, it appears, are more able to generate and structure their own knowledge

rather than accepting knowledge reprocessed by others. Hall (2000) pointed out that the

5differences between FI and FD learners are more likely the result of “varying

information processing skills such as selective attention, short-term memory encoding,

and long-term recall at which field independent individuals are more accurate and

efficient” (p. 72).

A number of studies have noted that the distinction between Field-Dependent

and Field-Independent individuals is similar to that of differentiating Holists and

Serialists (e.g., Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993; Riding & Cheerna, 1991). Field-

Dependent individuals typically see the global picture, ignore the details, and approach

a task more holistically. Field-Independent individuals tend to discern figures as being

discrete from their background, to focus on details, and to be more serialistic in their

approach to learning.

In the field-dependent/independent model of cognitive or learning style, a field-

independent learning style is defined by a tendency to separate details from the

surrounding context. It can be compared to a field-dependent learning style, which is

defined by a relative inability to distinguish detail from other information around it.

Theorists define these two cognitive styles in terms of how they are psychologically

different - which makes this a useful model for teachers trying to understand their

learners.

Example

Field-independent learners tend to rely less on the teacher or other learners for support.

In the classroom

Activities such as extensive reading and writing, which learners can carry out alone, are

useful for field-independent learners.



In the field-dependent/independent model of cognitive or learning style, a field-

dependent learning style is defined by a relative inability to distinguish detail from other

information around it. It can be compared to a field-independent learning style, which is

defined by a tendency to separate details from the surrounding context.

Example

Field-dependent learners often work well in teams as they tend to be better at

interpersonal relationships.

In the classroom

Activities that connect different parts of a lesson are useful for field-dependent learners.

For example, learners can discuss what they know about a topic, predict content, or

look at and listen to related material.

Field Indepencence and Field Dependence Checklist

There are advantages and disadvantages to FI and FD learning styles and both are

important for L2 learning. The FI learner excels in classroom learning which involves

analysis, attention to details, and mastering of exercises, drills, and other focused

activities. The FD learner, by contrast, seems to achieve a higher degree of success in

everyday language situations beyond the constraints of the classroom; tasks requiring

interpersonal communication skills.

Listed below are the principal characteristics of the two cognitive styles and the

implications of each for L2 learning (Ellis 1993; based on Hawkey: 1982). By using this

check list, teacher can differentiate the students whether they are in FI or FD learners.



Bil. Item A B C D E

1 I have no problem concentrating amid noise and confusion.

2 I enjoy analysing grammar structures

3 I feel I must understand every word of what I read or hear.

4 I think classroom study is the key to effective language learning.

5 I prefer working alone to working with other people.

6 Receiving feedback from other people really doesn't affect my learning at all.

7 I need a quiet environment in order to concentrate well.

8 I find grammar analysis tedious and boring.

9 I don't mind reading or listening in the L2 without understanding every single word

as long as I 'catch' the main idea.

10 I think communication is the key to effective language learning.

11 I really enjoy working with other people in pairs or groups.

12 I find feedback useful as a means of understanding my problem areas.

Activities for students who have been grouped as either field dependent or field independent

Reading strategy training (especially for field independent learners): Crossing Out

Unfamiliar Items

This lesson plan has been devised to teach learners to develop the habit of forgoing

unfamiliar items for main idea comprehension and may be used most effectively as a

segment of a series of lessons, each structured around a specific reading strategy (eg,

reading for gist, scanning for details, crossing out subordinate details, etc). Naturally,

this lesson plan can have as its theme a variety of topics and is given here merely as a

sample from which teachers might draw ideas: any number of topics can be substituted

for the one given here. Teachers should choose a reading context they feel would be of

general interest to their learners.



Learners/Skills Level: Intermediate-Advanced

Preparation Time: 30 minutes

Approximate Class Time: 50 minutes - 1 hour

Main Focus Objectives: Build learner confidence as regards ability to understand

difficult texts. Assist learners in adopting and using reading strategies which will boost

their reading rate proficiency while increasing their overall reading comprehension.

Necessary Materials: Some basic visual props (eg, pages from an art magazine), news

article related to lesson theme which is to be divided in half, photocopies for students,

clock.

Incidental Objectives: Help field independent learners 'overlook' problem areas in order

to focus on main idea. Increase learner interest in reading rate proficiency.

Increase learner motivation to engage in L2 reading more often. Stimulate reflection on

the sociolinguistic similarities/ differences between the native and target language

cultures.

Warm-up Activity: The Blues

As a visual aid, the teacher may choose to walk quietly around the classroom holding

up a few examples of art where shades of blue are particularly appealing or striking,

such as in the the Impressionist work of Monet, or in Picasso's Blue Period. Another

option is to read off a few lines of poetry and/or popular song lyrics that speak about the

blues, such as "My love is blue," etc.

Teacher: "The blues. What does it mean to 'have the blues'? How do you feel when

you've got the blues?" Elicits random responses.



"Do you know any other colloquial expressions in English that mean to feel sad?"

(Possible responses may include "to be down in the mouth," "to be down in the dumps,"

etc.)

"What about in your native language? What expressions do you know?" Elicits a few

examples. May elect to provide examples from another language .

"You know, cultures differ in the ways they express the experience of feeling blue. They

also differ in the ways they view and react to sadness. In some European countries and

in the United States feeling sad is sometimes thought of as something negative, or even

abnormal, and is often treated with prescription medicine. Is this the case in your

country too? What do people usually do to get over feeling blue in your country? What

do you do?" Elicits comments.

Activity 1: Timed Reading

Teacher hands out text: an excerpt from a recent magazine article (i.e, first half) on how

different cultures respond to feeling blue.

"Read though the passage quickly, but not so fast that you miss the overall meaning.

I'm going to time the reading and keep time on the board. Note how long it takes you to

read and understand the text." Class reads the text while the teacher times the

students.

Activity 2: Crossing Out Unfamiliar Items

"OK. Here is another passage from the same article. This time, while you read take your

pencil and cross out all the unfamiliar words you encounter and continue reading.



Again, write down how long it takes you to read through the passage." Class reads the

second text while the teacher keeps time.

Analysis

"Was it possible to catch the main idea of the passage even without understanding all

the vocabulary?" Elicits responses and directs the focus of the class discussion toward

the possibility of reading texts without stopping to look up all the unfamiliar words in the

dictionary.

"When and where might this way of reading be most useful?" Elicits responses, or

provides answers if students produce none (eg: on the bus when time and/or resources

are limited, etc).

"Notice how your time improved with the second reading. When you read difficult

material in the future, instead of using your pencil to cross out unfamiliar words you can

use your mind to cancel them....and get on with your reading! Now, this is really the key

point of this reading strategy: that you develop the ability to focus on comprehension

rather than allowing yourself to repeatedly get stuck on unfamiliar vocabulary and

thereby lose the flow of the discourse."

Context Clues (Optional):

At this point, the teacher might wish to engage the class in identifying the specific

"context clues" in the second passage which helped facilitate main idea reading

comprehension. This is done in pairs or small groups. (If the students are not familiar

with the concept of "context clues," this is an ideal opportunity to introduce them to this

important reading strategy.)



Research Assignment

Students research a magazine, newspaper, or internet article in English related to the

blues. This could include anything from the Black American Blues music tradition to

Picasso's early artistic development, historical investigation into the Elisabethan origins

of 'blues' expressions in English, or merely some learner reflections as to why the color

blue might be so often associated with sad moods in colloquial English. After having

read the article they've selected or reflected long enough, students next write a brief

summary.



The evaluation on the suitability of the activities developed

The suitability of the activities of the student is one of the main concerns of educational

needs. Recent theories about this issue defend that teaching must be adapted to

individuals while promoting, at the same time, the student’s adapting to the teaching

demands (Corno, 2008). Cognitive styles are among the dimensions of individual

differences considered particularly relevant in adaptive teaching (Sternberg, Grigorenko,

& Zahn, 2008). They have been defined as forms of processing information, manifested

in intellectual activities and also in the affective and social spheres of the individual

(Grigorenko & Sternberg, 1995); these patterns seem to modulate individuals’ learning

behavior (Price, 2004; Richardson, 2005).

In particular, field dependence-independence (FDI) is considered one of the most

heuristic cognitive styles constructs (Zahn & Sternberg, 2006). It is conceived as

referred to preference for internal versus external cues for conduct organization (Witkin

& Goodenough, 1981). Field-dependent subjects, who are especially sensitive to

external clues, and tend to take information exactly as it is presented to them, normally

pay attention to its global aspects in what seems to be an effort to capture the structure

of this information (Clark & Roof, 1988; Marendaz, 1985). This tendency is an

obstruction in intellectual tasks which demand concentration upon isolated elements

within a perceptive and/or symbolic whole, or in those which involve restructuring.

As a teacher, we should identify the difference of cognitive learning styles among our

students. We have to know that there are certain differences between field

independence and field dependence groups. Field independence students tend to use

metacognitive strategies, which involve monitoring, planning, organization, etc., more

frequently than their field dependence counterparts. This is in line with the findings of

Jamieson and Chapelle (1987) and Krashen (1977, as cited in Brown, 2000). As field



dependence has been associated with naturalistic second language acquisition and

field independence with classroom learning (Ellis, 1985; Brown, 2000; Carter, 1988), it

seems natural for field dependent students to use more metacognitive strategies to

enhance their formal learning. Similarly, field independent students make more use of

cognitive strategies including translation, repetition, transfer, rehearsal, etc. This can

also be attributed to conscious learning and the activities that can be found in formal

classroom situations.

For example in Activity 1 and 2, field independent and operational learners excel;

field dependent students benefits from the attention to detail during the timed reading

for fluency. Timed repeated readings are an instructional practice for monitoring

students' fluency development. Repeated readings, under timed conditions, of familiar

instructional level text can increase students' reading speed which can improve

comprehension. This ativity will improves reading rate, one aspect of fluency. It is also

improves reading accuracy, a second aspect of fluency, and leads to improved

comprehension.

There are many benefits in gaining a faster reading rate and Klaeser (1977)

presents four positive points in this regard. The first one is the amount of time you will

save when you're able to double your speed (for example). With an increase in speed,

the student will be able to cover more materials than at a slower speed. For example,

students that are slow readers (150 words per minute versus students that are good

readers (350 words per minute). The difference in quantity is at about 2.33 times more

for the faster students. If the student increases their production to 250 WPM, they would

be increasing their reading production. These are important gains for the student that

will promote academic success.

The second advantage is that readers are able to concentrate better which leads

to greater comprehension. Of course this area is under debate because there have



been studies of students that lost comprehension when they were striving to increase

their reading speed. This is usually the cause of "rushed reading" and contains little

more technique than scanning. However, it is believed that through an "effective" timed

reading program, students can attain an increased reading rate and comprehension.

Thirdly, with the increase in potential speed and comprehension, academic

grades tend to rise as well. This is all due to the control of extra time, which allows for

greater understanding.



References

Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (3rd ed.).

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Eliason, P. 1995. Difficulties with cross-cultural learning styles assessment. In Learning

Styles in the EFL Classroom. Ed. J. Reid. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle

Publishers.

Ellis, Rod. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, England: Oxford

University Press.

Hudson, R.F., Lane, H.B., & Pullen, P.C. (2005). Reading Fluency Assessment and

Instruction: What, Why, and How?. The Reading Teacher, 58(8), 702-714.

Johns, J. & Berglund, R. (2002). Fluency: Question, answers, evidence-based

strategies. Dubuque, IO: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Kuhn, M. (2004). Helping students become accurate, expressive readers: Fluency

instruction for small groups. The Reading Teacher, 58(4), 338-344.

Kang, Shumin. 1999. Learning Styles: Implications for ESL/EFL Instruction. FORUM,

Vol 37, No 4.

Keefe, J.W. 1979. Student Learning Styles: Diagnosing and Prescribing Programs.

Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.

Skehan, Peter. 1989. Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. London:

Edward Arnold.


master assignment psychology

Documents