libraries, conflicts the internet · mission of ifla/faife (7), the role of libraries and...

libraries, conflicts & the internet

The report will discuss and focuson Internet accessible informationand censorship; present an over-view of the global situation relat-ing to libraries and informationservices and intellectual freedom;look at the Internet as the informa-tion tool of the 21st century; intro-duce the topic ‘libraries and con-flicts’, which sadly enough hasbecome more and more pressingfor the international library com-munity; and finally discuss someof the possibilities on how to re-spond when intellectual freedomsare at stake.

2 0 0 2IFLA/FAIFE Summary Report

ifla/fa

ife sum

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AcknowledgmentW

orld Report S

eries Vol II

Libraries, Conflictsand the Internet

IFLA/FAIFE Summary Report

IFLA/FAIFE 2002

http://www.ifla.org/faife/report/intro.htm

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Acknowledgment

Libraries, Conflicts and the Internet

IFLA/FAIFE World Report Series vol. II: IFLA/FAIFE Summary Report 2002

published bythe ifla/faife officebirketinget 6dk - 2300 copenhagen [email protected]

edited byifla/faife

designper lukman

printed byhandy-print, skive, denmark

isbn87 988013-2-5


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Acknowledgment

Table of

Contents

567

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31

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

AUTHORS

INTRODUCTIONmission of ifla/faife (7), the role of libraries and information

services (8) , ifla/faife world report series (9), general update of the conclusions of the world report 2001 (10), focus of the summary

report 2002 (13)

AN OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL INTERNET ACCESS BARRIERSthe ‘informatisation’ of society (15), new freedoms (15),

society (16), rise of corporate society (16), consequences for libraries (17), asia/pacific (17), africa (19), the middle east (20),

latin america and the caribbean (21), europe (22), north america (24), post september 11th legislation (26), conclusion (27)

THE INTERNET: THE INFORMATION TOOL OF THE 21st CENTURYthe global rise of the internet (31), user gender (32), access points (32),

type of use (33), future developments (34), the digital divide (35)


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LIBRARIES AND CONFLICTSintroduction (39), role of the international librarycommunity (41), recent destruction of libraries (42),

afghanistan (42), limor loro’sae (44), north caucasus and chechnya (45), conclusion (48)

LEARNING FROM HISTORY - ‘BEACON FOR FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION’

an information bank on censorship and freedom of expression is needed (50), censorship in libraries - the benevolent

public concern for morality (51), our knowledge of the past is our key to understanding the present (52)

HOW TO RESPOND WHEN THE INTELLECTUALFREEDOMS ARE AT STAKE?

libraries in the new millennium (53), reaffirmation ofvalues and ethics (53), limitless freedom of expression? (53),libraries and the response to terrorism (55), ifla/faife and

codes of ethics (56), ethical accountancy and auditing (57),library and information science education (57), concrete

responses to issues of concern (59)

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49

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Acknowledgment

The IFLA/FAIFE Summary Report 2002: ‘Librar-ies, Conflicts and the Internet’ is the secondvolume of The IFLA/FAIFE World Report Series.The first volume, The IFLA/FAIFE World Report:‘Libraries and Intellectual Freedom’ was pub-lished in 2001.

The Summary Report was initiated by the IFLA/FAIFE Committee and developed by the editorialteam and the IFLA/FAIFE office.

We wish to record the invaluable contributions ofour co-contributors Ekaterina Genieva, Stuart

Acknow

ledgements

Hamilton, Hege Newth Nouri and Robert W.Vaagan, and express our gratitude to the editorialteam and other colleagues willing to spend timeto discuss and evaluate this report such as VickyAyllon, Charles Batambuze, Sonia Garces,Oxblood Ruffin, Mike Jensen and Daniel Toffetti.Finally, our sincere thanks to the designer of TheWorld Report Series, Per Lukman, for his unfailingcommitment to creating a design which wouldcommunicate global cultural diversity.

Alex Byrne and Susanne SeidelinMay 30, 2002


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Acknowledgment

Aut

hors

Mr Alex Byrne University Librarian, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia, Chair ofthe IFLA/FAIFE Committee, and member of the IFLA Governing BoardEmail: [email protected]

Ms Ekatarina Genieva Director of the Library of Foreign Literature, Moscow, RussiaEmail: [email protected]

Mr Stuart Hamilton MALIS, PhD Student, IFLA/FAIFE and the Royal School of Library andInformation Science, Copenhagen, DenmarkEmail: [email protected]

Ms Hege Newth Nouri Writer and project worker ‘Beacon for Freedom of Expression’Email: [email protected]

Ms Susanne Seidelin Director of the IFLA/FAIFE Office, Copenhagen, DenmarkEmail: [email protected] or [email protected]

Dr. Robert W.Vaagan Associate Professor, Faculty of Journalism, Library and Information Sci-ence, Oslo University College, NorwayEmail: [email protected]


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Introduction

Introduction

Introduction

Alex Byrne & Susanne Seidelin

“A library is an arsenal of liberty.”Unknown

Mission of IFLA/FAIFE

In August 2001 the Executive Board of TheInternational Federation of Library Associationsand Institutions (IFLA) confirmed the terms ofreference of the Committee on Freedom ofAccess to Information and Freedom of Expres-sion (IFLA/FAIFE)1:

• FAIFE is an initiative within IFLA to defendand promote the basic human rights definedin Article 19 of the United Nations UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights.

• The FAIFE Committee and Office furtherfreedom of access to information and freedomof expression in all aspects, directly or indi-rectly, related library and information services.

• FAIFE monitors the state of intellectual freedomwithin the library and information commu-nity worldwide, supports IFLA policy develop-ment and cooperation with other international

human rights organisations, and responds toviolations of freedom of access to informationand freedom of expression.

FAIFE is an IFLA Core Activity that builds on theexcellent work pursued over many years throughIFLA’s Divisions, Sections and Core Programs,but with a focus on human rights, intellectualfreedom and the barriers to freedom of access toinformation and freedom of expression. Themain focus of our work is to ensure that ourclients, the peoples of the world, may “seek, receiveand impart information and ideas through anymedia and regardless of frontiers”.

IFLA/FAIFE’S mandate is clearly drawn fromArticle 19 of the United Nations Universal Decla-ration of Human Rights:

“Everyone has the right to freedom of expres-sion; this right includes freedom to holdopinions without interference and to seek,receive and impart information and ideasthrough any media and regardless of frontiers.”


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Introduction

IFLA/FAIFE operates independently and does notsupport any specific political, economic or otherspecial interests except the promotion and defenceof intellectual freedom through unrestrictedaccess to information.

The role of libraries and informationservices

Intellectual freedom is the right of every indi-vidual both to hold and express opinions and toseek and receive information; it is the basis ofdemocracy; and it is at the core of library service.In an increasingly interconnected world, infor-mation is more crucial than ever. The humanright to freedom of expression and freedom ofaccess to information is the foundation of bothindividual and societal autonomy. Thus unhin-dered access to information is essential to free-dom, equality, global understanding and peace.

The role of libraries and information services todefend this universal right, ensuring that it is notcompromised nor abrogated, is closely connectedwith the central responsibility of the library andinformation profession to safeguard freedom ofaccess to information by all people, regardless ofmedia and frontiers.

While taking steps to respect individual culturesand individual preferences, libraries and informa-tion services must stand for freedom for all, inboth expressing their views and obtaining andusing information. Barriers to the flow of infor-mation should be removed, especially those that

promote inequality, poverty, and despair. Thechallenges posed by unequal economic capacitiesmust be addressed. In addition, the war againstilliteracy must continue to be waged and thegood work of libraries in promoting reading andinformation for all must be extended. Effortsmust be redoubled to implement services andprovide resources in appropriate formats whichwill ensure that all people can obtain the infor-mation they need to pursue and enjoy their livesregardless of their capacity to read printed text.

Libraries and information services and theircustomers in countries all over the world are dailyfacing the consequences of censorship in variousdegrees from total governmental control of allinformation supplied to local censorship of titlesor websites issued by authorities or groups withspecial interests. Living up to the commitment ofoffering their clients access to relevant resourcesand services without restriction and to opposingany form of censorship is therefore a profession-ally challenging task.

How can libraries and information services ensurethat the selection and availability of librarymaterials and services are governed only byprofessional considerations and not by political,moral and religious views? And how can librariesand information services play the important roleof contributing to the development and mainte-nance of intellectual freedom and help safeguarddemocratic values and universal civil rights?There is no easy answer to these questions - theydepend on the local or national situation in


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Introduction

which libraries and information services operatebut the principles are fundamental and universal.

However, the worldwide increase of censorship -and self-censorship - in the wake of the tragicevents of September 11, 2001 has reinforced theimportance of promoting vigorously internation-ally accepted values and ethics. Applying interna-tional guidelines and manifestos in libraries andinformation services alone will not ensure theintellectual freedom of our clients. But adherenceto these principles will make it easier to defendthem. Only through cooperation and the supportof the international library community canlibraries and information services and libraryorganisations in each country defend and pro-mote the core principles of our profession. ThisSummary Report will discuss these aspectsfurther in the chapter How to respond whenintellectual freedoms are at stake.

IFLA/FAIFE World Report Series

The IFLA/FAIFE World Report on Libraries andIntellectual Freedom, published in 2001, was thefirst attempt to systematically collect informationon freedom of access to information related tolibraries and information services and theircustomers and provided a picture on the status ofintellectual freedom with regards to libraries andinformation services and librarianship in a globalperspective.

The report represents a significant achievementbut covers only 46 countries, about 30% of the

countries represented in IFLA. Ideally, the reportshould cover all member countries and present areliable and authoritative summary of the state ofintellectual freedom with regards to libraries andinformation services around the globe.

To offer timely and detailed summaries of thestate of intellectual freedom and libraries world-wide, the IFLA/FAIFE Committee has developedThe IFLA/FAIFE World Report Series whichconsists of two publications, the IFLA/FAIFEWorld Report and the IFLA/FAIFE SummaryReport. Our ambition is high. We would like theseries to become the authoritative source onlibraries and information services and intellectualfreedom in a global perspective. However, oursuccess in achieving this ambition depends on theavailability of the necessary funding for theeditorial work. Each publication in The IFLA/FAIFE World Report Series will be launched atthe annual IFLA Conference. The IFLA/FAIFEWorld Report will be published bi-annually andthe IFLA/FAIFE Summary Report in alternateyears.

The next IFLA/FAIFE World Report will thus bepublished in 2003. It and future Reports willdepict the state of freedom of access to informa-tion in the countries represented combined withdiscussion, analysis and general conclusions onthe state of affairs. Currently, the editors aredeveloping a new concept for the report toenhance the general quality and consistency ofindividual reports, and to increase the number ofsubmissions and the amount of information on


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Introduction

each country. It will then be easier to compare thestatus country-by-country and region-by-region.

The alternately published IFLA/FAIFE SummaryReport, a shorter report, will provide a globalupdate on the status of intellectual freedom andfreedom of access to information. The IFLA/FAIFE Summary Report will also focus on theprevailing international political situation and itsimpact on freedom of access to informationissues and libraries and information services.Consequently, successive IFLA/FAIFE SummaryReports will identify areas of special interest andconcern to the international library and informa-tion community.

The IFLA/FAIFE World Report Series shouldthus become a useful source on freedom of accessto information related to libraries and informa-tion services and their role in the development ofcivil society. We trust that it will inspire andencourage colleagues worldwide to engage in theimportant work of promoting and defending thatrole.

General update on the conclusions of theWorld Report 2001

The most encouraging conclusions of the firstIFLA/FAIFE World Report were the many coun-try reports that bore witness to a great professionaldedication and a capacity to focus on the mainproblems. Many contributors depicted the futurelibrary vision of their country, and almost allembraced international cooperation as the very

instrument of development and the safeguardingof freedom of access to information.

However, the IFLA/FAIFE World Report gener-ally concluded that not all is well in regard tofreedom of access to information in the world.2

Many examples were given of various kinds ofviolations of intellectual freedom and limitationsof freedom of access to information demonstrat-ing the enormous differences in approaches tohuman rights. The numerous reports on censor-ship and other barriers of economic, educationaland constitutional character also demonstratedthe enormous differences in the standards oflibrary services and professionalism in the worldleading to the conclusion that the informationgap is rapidly increasing. On one side, we find thecountries that have safeguarded library andinformation services through legislation, adequatefinancing and high standards. On the other, thosecountries that for various reasons are unable orunwilling to provide similar services. The reportalso touched upon the major concerns and thechallenges we face in regard to the digital divide.Focusing on Internet accessibility, this year’sIFLA/FAIFE Summary Report will further dis-cuss the digital divide between the informationrich and information poor countries.

A broad view of the past year shows the state ofaffairs is unchanged or to some extent growingworse. There seems to be a tendency of moregovernmental and regional control concerningintellectual freedoms all over the world as aneffect of the terrorist attacks in the USA on


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Introduction

September 11, 2001. The consequences of thechange of power in a number of African andEuropean countries are yet to be seen but thetrend appears to be towards greater restrictionson access to information. A case in point is thecontinuing censorship of library acquisitions andactivities in some of the municipalities in south-ern France: this is a matter of special concern indemocratic Europe. The European Bureau ofLibrary, Information and Documentation Asso-ciations, EBLIDA has put the case before theEuropean Parliament and the European Parlia-ment Committee on Petitions has now under-taken an investigation.3

Over the past years, IFLA/FAIFE has followed thesituation with regards to freedom of access toinformation in Cuba issuing reports in 1999 and20014. A panel debate was held at the IFLAconference in Boston 2001, and IFLA Counciladopted a resolution on freedom of access toinformation and the effects of the US embargo.5

On May 20, 2002 the president of the US an-nounced that the administration had no inten-tions of lifting the embargo. That decision willextend the ‘collateral damage’ caused by theembargo by continuing to effect “a severe reduc-tion in the capacity of Cuban libraries and citizensto purchase information materials and relatedtechnologies due to the economic effects of theembargo” and the “indirect disruption of accessto information by Cubans and Cuban librariescaused by the effects on power supply, telecom-munications and other aspects of life in Cuba”.

We have witnessed the armed conflicts in Af-ghanistan and other parts of the world as well asthe dramatic escalation of the conflict betweenIsrael and the Palestinians which is filling ourtelevision screens and newspapers at the time ofwriting this Introduction and having a devastat-ing effect on the peoples of that region. Naturally,the personal tragedies of human casualties andother impacts on peoples’ lives overshadow thethreats and actual damage to freedom of access toinformation and freedom of expression. But bothare at stake both during and in the wake of suchconflicts and both can cause long term damage tocommunities and their cultural and social wellbeing. The destruction of libraries, library mate-rials and administrative and cultural heritagedocuments has been reported in Afghanistan andin the Palestinian Authority areas and is currentlyinvestigated by IFLA/FAIFE.

As has been demonstrated too often, the workingconditions of the press are often very difficult anddangerous in areas of conflict. Organisations suchas the World Association of Newspapers (WAN)6

and the International Freedom of ExpressionExchange (IFEX)7 have reported harassment,imprisonment and murder of journalists. Inmany cases they are misinformed and preventedfrom entering areas of conflict. Media manipula-tion is rife. When the press is hindered fromreporting on events, its ability to inform societydecreases. This violates the right of citizens toform their own independent views. Withoutfreedom of expression there can be no freedomof access to information, libraries and informa-


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Introduction

tion services cannot safeguard access withoutinformation to access. And without histories andother records, the media and people are unable tounderstand the meaning of events. Freedom ofexpression is intertwined with unhindered accessto information. Both are necessary throughoutthe world as our inability to comprehend fullyevents such as those suffered by the peoples ofAfghanistan, Israel and the Palestinian Authorityareas compromises our ability to understand ourinterconnected world.

Since the launch of the first IFLA/FAIFE WorldReport in August 2001 the world has witnessedthe tragic events of September 11, 2001 and in thesubsequent ‘war against terrorism’. In severalcountries parliaments have passed terrorist acts.Most include provisions limiting access to infor-mation and, often, freedom of speech. At presentwe do not know the full consequences of theimplementation of these laws but the developmentis of great concern. In some countries freedom ofaccess to information is definitely at stake. Sur-veillance of Internet use and e-mail communica-tion in libraries and information services may beone of the undesirable consequences for librariesand information services and their users. Librar-ies and information services may thus be pre-vented from protecting the privacy of theirclients. The Office of Intellectual Freedom of theAmerican Library Association (OIF/ALA) hasfollowed this development in the US closely,issuing statements and reports that support theright to freedom of information.8

A general increase in the use of Internet filtering,censorship and self-censorship are other exam-ples of how we, the peoples of the world, react, inthe name of democracy, when we feel democracyis threatened. In this context, it seems relevant tocontemplate how far we will go to protect our-selves against terrorism. Is the sacrifice of ourfreedoms, of human rights, worth the price? Andhow can we safeguard the role of libraries andinformation services as institutions providingaccess to information, ideas and works of imagi-nation in any medium and regardless of frontiers,serving as gateways to knowledge, thought andculture, offering essential support for independ-ent decision-making, cultural development,research and lifelong learning by both individualsand groups?

The use of Internet is generally growing by themonth. This fact underlines the role of theInternet as one of the fastest and most importantmediums we have. At the same time the informa-tion gap between developed and developingcountries increases. Though we are also witness-ing a growth in Internet use in developing coun-tries it cannot in any way match that of theinformation-rich nations. To this end, the pastyear has shown an increase in the use-by-pay-ment services on the Internet. Information thatearlier was free of charge has now become a fastgrowing source of income for many informationproviders. Libraries and information services indeveloping countries, but also some in the devel-oped, cannot afford to pay for these services andneither can their clients. Therefore there is reason


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Introduction

to be concerned about a development that insteadof narrowing the so-called digital divide seems tofurther decrease access to Internet availableinformation. The special focus on the Internet,libraries and information services and conflicts inthis year’s IFLA/FAIFE Summary Report is acontribution to advance the discussion of thesetopics.

Focus of the Summary Report 2002

The IFLA/FAIFE Summary Report 2002: Libraries,Conflicts and the Internet is the first of its kind.The report will discuss and focus on Internetaccessible information and censorship; present anoverview of the global situation relating to librar-ies and information services and intellectualfreedom; look at the Internet as the informationtool of the 21st century; introduce the topic

‘libraries and conflicts’, which sadly enough hasbecome more and more pressing for the interna-tional library community; and finally discusssome of the possibilities on how to respond whenintellectual freedoms are at stake.

We would like to encourage readers to commentand forward ideas for future reports [email protected].

References

1 http://www.ifla.org2 The IFLA/FAIFE World Report Libraries and Intellec-

tual Freedom, IFLA/FAIFE 2001, pp. 9-18.3 http://eblida.orh/press_releases/press.htm4 http://www.faife.dk5 http://ifla.org6 http://www.wan-press.org7 http://www.ifex.org8 http://www.ala.org


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Introduction


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An Overview of Global Internet Access Barriers

Global Internet A

ccess Barriers

An Overview of GlobalInternet Access Barriers

Stuart Hamilton

The ‘Informatisation’ of Society

The last decade has seen a great increase inInternet use all over the world. As more individu-als, institutions and companies go online moreinformation than ever before is being passedalong the highways of the Internet. This explosionin information availability is backed up by a risein personal computer ownership stimulated byfalling costs of hardware in many areas of theglobe. Based on current predictions, access toinformation in homes, workplaces and librarieswill continue to increase as we move further intothe 21st century.

It has been proposed by theorists such as JürgenHabermas, Anthony Giddens and Herbert Schiller- that the world we live in today is seeing an‘informatisation’ of established relationships. Thismeans that information has a heightened presencein society and the flow of this information has aspecial significance for individuals, businessesand governments, all of whom are adjusting to

the new medium of the Internet and the opportu-nities it brings with regards to information access.

Librarians, as facilitators of information access,have had to adjust very quickly to the new de-mands placed upon them by society. The last fiveyears have seen attitudes of staff and library userstowards Internet use change dramatically. In thedeveloped world especially, it is becoming hardfor staff to remember a time before the presenceof the Internet in the library. Users, particularlynew, younger users, demand the presence of thenet in the library as essential, along with expertiseand guidance in its use. The library now offersaccess to more information resources than everbefore and a freedom to investigate the like ofwhich most users have never experienced previ-ously.

New freedoms

These new freedoms are not only available in thelibrary; they are in theory available to any


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Internet user across the world. Individuals arenow free to express themselves globally via theInternet, and to get their point of view across to avast audience with the greatest of ease. Previouslymarginalized sections of society have found theInternet provides a great forum for the expositionof ideas and beliefs, whether they are distastefulto the majority of people or not. The last decadehas seen the Internet adopted by the oppressedand the disenfranchised but also by the moreunderground elements of society such as thepornographers, and the criminal fraternity.

As these elements continue to grow online theirpresence is highlighted by the media, and theiractivities are brought to the attention of theauthorities and governing powers. The Internethas in some parts of the world become a by-wordfor all that is wrong with society - it is where onecan find instructions on bomb-making, informa-tion on race-hate movements and access to allsorts of perversions. It has become a scapegoat atthe same time as a saviour, and now it finds itselfhaving to answer its critics only a few years afterits incorporation into mainstream society.

Society

The freedom to express oneself on the global stagehas contributed to the belief that the Internet isinherently democratising and therefore the saviourof those living in oppressive regimes. Without acentralised headquarters, and by being everywhereat once, it may seem that everyone will have accessto the information that is available via the web.

The oppressed will be heard and tyranny over-thrown. In reality however, this is far from thecase.

Gradually, instead of a new equality of freedomfor all Internet users around the world, cultural,political and religious barriers are being re-pro-duced on the net. Societies all over the world areseeking to impose restrictions on Internet use,often in the form of Internet-specific legislationor the extension of existing print and broadcastregulations to cyberspace. Government control-led servers can filter content and block sites, andeven force surveillance equipment onto InternetService Providers in order to monitor Internettraffic and communication.

Rise of corporate society

Alongside the reclamation of power by govern-ments through legislation and surveillance,globalisation has also interfered with the flow ofdata on the Internet by taking some of the con-trol of this flow away from nation states andplacing it in the hands of the corporations. Thecorporate world, keen to protect its economicwell-being and exploit the new medium, hasbegun to impress the values of the market uponmany areas of the Internet, not only on the high-profile e-commerce sector that it is in theirinterests to promote.

After a slow start, the corporations have rallied toprotect their interests online through the use oflegal action and business expansion. The downfall


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of the file sharing service Napster and the pendinglawsuits against the similar Morpheus service isan example of trans-national music corporationsseeking to protect their profits and their monopolyover music distribution. On top of this, mediacorporations in the United States are lobbying theFederal Communications Commission to passlegislation that will give them greater control ofbroadband Internet access and eventually eradi-cate smaller ISPs from the market.

We are also beginning to see a move away fromfree content on the Internet towards paying forinformation. As the fallout from the dot.comcrash subsides, we are discovering that onlycompanies with firm business models are suc-ceeding in the market. If information, due tomarket forces, is only being created for and madeavailable to those able to pay then large amountsof the world’s population will be left watching theopportunities of our new digital information agepass by.

Consequences for libraries

There is a real danger that a combination ofinformation as a commodity and the priorities ofthe large corporations will transform the Internetfrom a tool of democracy and a voice of thedisenfranchised into an extension of the high streetwhere all information costs money. Combine thiswith an increased willingness of governmentsaround the world to restrict free expression andaccess to online resources, and the future for freeaccess to information looks bleak. In order for

libraries to continue their role as gateways toinformation for all, regardless of wealth, influenceor interest, librarians must be aware of challengesbeing faced globally so we can combine as acommunity to tackle barriers to informationaccess wherever we find them. This IFLA/FAIFESummary Report 2002 gives a brief overview ofsome of the problems currently being experiencedby defenders of freedom of access to informationaround the world today.

Asia/Pacific

Many countries in the Asian/Pacific region areexperiencing various types of access barriers withregards to Internet-based information. In somecases these barriers are thrown up by infrastruc-ture deficiencies and the problems of wiringhuge, often dispersed areas (India, Indonesia) butthere are a significant number of countries thathave restrictions placed on Internet-accessibleinformation by governments. Censorship, sur-veillance and the spread of propaganda arecombining in many areas to restrict freedom ofaccess to information and freedom of expression.

At one end of the scale in Asia are countries likeBurma and North Korea, where Internet access istightly controlled by the ruling powers. Bothcountries are keen to limit access to informationonline and any communication with oppositionsympathisers abroad. Burma requires all telecom-munications devices to be registered with thegovernment under threat of imprisonment, thusrestricting computer access to the favoured elite.


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Even those with computers are rarely allowed toventure past the country’s intranet onto the worldwide web. The posting of anti-government infor-mation on the net is outlawed and instead gov-ernment propaganda is disseminated via thecountry’s main website, Myanmar.com. It is uncer-tain who, if anyone, in North Korea has access tothe Internet, as the government has not officiallyopened up access to the web. Development of aweb infrastructure is taking place however,although a model similar to Burma can be expec-ted with high costs of access and firewalls in placeto restrict access to inappropriate information.

If the Burmese and North Korean authoritiesrepresent the tightest grip on Internet access, thereare a variety of other approaches to be found inthe Asian/Pacific region. China struggles with itsdesire to increase economic development while atthe same time maintaining control of the coun-try’s overall political direction, something it fearswidespread Internet access might undermine. Tothis end, and with the help of US software firms,it has begun construction of a huge surveillancearchitecture called Golden Shield that will enablemonitoring of online communications andrestrict what information can be accessed via theInternet1. China has cracked down on websitescontaining anti-government information orFalun Gong materials, and other countries - suchas Malaysia, Vietnam and Laos - have followedtheir lead by restricting web access and filteringwebsites and threatening prison sentences foroffenders2. The monitoring of online communi-cations in these countries, as well as in places like

Pakistan and Russia, is a serious threat to freedomof expression. Often this monitoring is madeeasier, as in the case of Laos or Vietnam, by thegovernment controlling the country’s ISPs.

Of equal importance in the region is the type ofcensorship practised by Singapore or South Korea,both countries with vibrant Internet infrastruc-tures and increasing patterns of use. In SouthKorea, the government introduced filtering on allmachines in public PC centres, schools andlibraries in July 20003. In future, websites mustcarry a tag indicating content in an effort toprevent minors from harmful materials. This tagconforms to the Platform for Internet ContentSelection which is a content labelling infrastruc-ture designed to aid website selection choices.PICS is used in tandem with a rating system(such as that designed by the Internet ContentRatings Association) and lets users determine aset of criteria that allows only acceptable sites tobe accessed on their machines. In South Koreathis means websites need to be rated in order tobe accepted on government computers where thedetermining criteria have been set up to protectminors. Mainstream gay and lesbian sites havebeen censored, and the government has alsooutlawed online protest. The problem is that ifgovernment is determining the criteria sites mustmeet in order to be accessed then it is acting as acensor with its own rules and perspectives. Anexample of this came in 2001 when one of thecountry’s leading gay and lesbian sites wasbanned by the government criteria after it waslabelled as ‘Obscenity and perversion’4. In Singa-


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pore, where accessing sites advocating homosexu-ality or lesbianism is also forbidden, the samesituation may come to pass as the BroadcastingAuthority is considering calls from a nationalparents group to implement a PICS system onpublic machines that children use5.

In the Pacific region, Australia is having a censor-ship debate of an entirely different kind. Here, atwo-tiered system of Commonwealth and Statelegislation exists that concentrates on ensuringboth ISPs and content providers refrain frompublishing content on the web that is unsuitablefor children, even if this material is only madeavailable for adults. Content is to be judged alongthe guidelines set out by the Australian board offilm classification where films unsuitable forminors are rated ‘R’. The problem is that thelegislation applies not only to pornography butalso to social and political issues such as crime,suicide, emotional trauma and religion. In lightof this, Electronic Frontiers Australia has declaredthat the effects of proposed state legislation inNew South Wales will be a ban on adult discourseregarding social and political issues on AustralianInternet sites, newsgroups, forums and archivedemail discussions6. More relevantly for librarians,if online content is classified in the same way asfilm librarians who supervise premises connectedto the Internet could be prosecuted for ‘screening’objectionable matter to minors.

The government in New Zealand has recentlyproposed legislation that would force ISPs toinstall surveillance devices onto networks in

order to help law enforcers capture private emailsand messages7. While the government claims thislegislation will simply bring New Zealand intoline with other countries, it has been noted thatthe bill bears a resemblance to the US Communi-cations Assistance for Law Enforcement Act,which has been criticised by privacy advocates inAmerica8.

Africa

Africa suffers from the lowest Internet penetra-tion rates in the world. Telecommunicationsinfrastructure deficiencies such as this mean thatonly 4.15 million - 0.5% of the population -people use the Internet in Africa, compared with166.14 million people, or 59.75% of the popula-tion in the United States9. More than half of thecontinent’s Internet users are in South Africa.Economic problems are at the root of the lowInternet penetration, and a recent report fromKenya’s Internet Providers’ Association states thateven connecting to the Internet costs Africa $500million a year due to western telecommunicationscompanies charging full rate for connecting tointernational networks10. Mozambique, Sudanand Angola all suffer from low numbers oftelephone lines and high call costs. Ethiopia hasan 80% rural population, one of the lowesttelephone lines per capita in the world and agovernment that has forbidden any satellitetransmissions, even for International organisa-tions. This has led to a waiting list of over 10,000potential Internet users11. Even in South Africa,only 6% of homes have access to the Internet.


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On top of this, geographical factors such asdispersed populations within large countries makeInternet projects difficult to get off the ground.The lack of roads and electricity in some areas is amajor handicap. Cultural factors such as highilliteracy rates and a lack of sites relevant to ruralpopulations due to language and content must beconsidered. These factors reduce take up ofInternet services even in areas where facilities areavailable. The majority of telephone lines andadequate infrastructure resources are to be foundin capital cities, making the Internet a primarilyurban phenomenon.

However, with all 54 of Africa’s countries nowconnected to the Internet and penetration in-creasing, it is no surprise to find usage restrictionssimilar to those in the rest of the world occurringin some African countries. Religious influencehas led to the blocking of pornographic sites inSudan while Somalia is a user of the ‘CleanInternet Services’ program imported from SaudiArabia, restricting access to all sites with sexualcontent and content that is ‘morally unaccept-able’. In countries like Sudan and Somalia, withtheir religious and economic links to the middle-east (Somalia is the leading African economicpartner of the United Arab Emirates) it is clearthat the Islamic attitude to Internet use willcontinue to affect the climate of free expressionon the Internet12.

Government influence, on the other hand, is feltin the monitoring of web use and communica-tions that occurs in countries such as Angola,

Ethiopia and Zimbabwe. The lack of competitionin the telecommunications sector in Africa makesthis sort of monitoring easier for governments toachieve, as state controlled ISPs follow the gov-ernment’s access and monitoring policies. Emailsare monitored in Ethiopia and if the governmentfinds fault with an Internet user’s activities theirtelephone lines can be disabled with no explana-tion. Angola has been known to monitor journal-ists’ online communications leading to someusers switching to ISPs in other countries. Zim-babwe, meanwhile, passed the Post and Telecom-munications Act in 2000 and tightened it with theAccess to Information and Protection of PrivacyBill 2001, authorizing the monitoring of emailmessages and interception of communications13.

The Middle East

In the Middle East there is a greater concentrationon the blocking of materials considered sensitiveto both government and religious authority. Theuse and potential of technology and the Internetmust be seen to come second to the traditionsand culture of the region.

Use of the Internet is booming in Saudi Arabiawith 500,000 people going online in the last twoyears. The government is keen to harness theInternet for e-commerce but, like in Saudi societyin general, personal freedoms are restricted whenit comes to surfing habits. While unofficialstatistics reported that nearly half of SaudiInternet users are women, a women only Internetcafé was closed down in April 2001 for reasons of


21


‘public morality’14. All Internet traffic to and fromthe country must go through a single centralcontrol centre near Riyadh where sites offeringporn or anti-government material are filtered outusing the latest technology provided by US firms.The New York Times reports that the blockingsoftware prevents access to sites such as theCommittee for Defence of Human Rights in theArabian Peninsula, the Movement for IslamicReform in Arabia or others recounting the his-tory of Saudi Arabia15.

Iran was named as one of Reporters Sans Fron-tiers ‘Enemies of the Internet’ in 2001, but recentreports suggest a more enlightened approach tothe Internet16. Once online, access is allegedlyunfiltered, although many cyber cafés were closeddown in 2001 supposedly because the popularityof online chat meant people were not usingtelephone services. Elsewhere however, blockingof websites occurs in the United Arab Emirates,Iraq and Syria. In Iraq access problems are exac-erbated by the costs of access and sanctions, butthese three countries have a common factor - thereis only one government controlled ISP availablewhich makes blocking and surveillance easier.The type of material filtered out is similar toSaudi Arabia, with anti-government, morallyunacceptable and pro-Israel sites being blocked.

Along with filtering, surveillance of web use inthe Middle-East is fairly common. Bahrain,which has previously blocked sites critical of theruling family and recently blocked oppositionwebsites in the run up to October 2002 elections,

has a culture of web surveillance17. What can beseen in the Middle-east region is a conflict similarto that found in countries like China - the need toopen up to the Internet era while retaining abalance that protects the prevailing power struc-ture, in this case the authority, morals and cultureassociated with Islam and Arab society. To thisend governments, in collaboration with religiousauthorities, are keen to remain in control of whatis available for accessing and who is trying to getround restrictions.

Latin America and the Caribbean

In Latin America and the Caribbean countriessuch as Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Chile haveseen Internet growth increase over the last twoyears, but a significant gap still exists betweenthese countries and the likes of Bolivia, Paraguayand Peru where telecommunications infrastruc-ture deficiencies hinder Internet penetration18.Even within countries experiencing Internet usegrowth there is a further divide to consider - thegap between urban and rural computer users. InArgentina, for example, Internet use is a prima-rily urban phenomenon, with the majority ofusers to be found in the capital19. This use is underthreat however - the collapse of the economy hasled to a growth in online banking but predictionsare for a virtual halt in Internet growth over thenext year.

Elsewhere in the region, the most significantproblems with regards to Internet access are to befound in Cuba. Here the single party state finds


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itself in a similar position to China where the widerange of information available on the net createsa conflict with the goals of the state. However,where the Chinese government has blockedwebsites to restrict access to information, theCuban government has censored by restrictingaccess to the Internet itself. Out of 11 millionCubans only 40,000 people are allowed Internetaccess and email accounts, and most of these areacademics or government workers20. Enterprisingordinary Cubans can access the net at university,via the black market in passwords or use email byborrowing foreign friends’ accounts, but they runthe risk of surveillance by the authorities at alltimes21. Individuals at home are almost nevergranted Internet access - the government out-lawed the sale of PCs to members of the public inMarch 200222 - and it is left to institutions such asuniversities, some places of employment and, inthe near future, libraries to provide connectionfacilities. At the same time as controlling accesspoints, the Cuban government is also developinga national Intranet which would allow access toweb pages hosted in Cuba and national email butnot to external sites - in effect a policy of infor-mation censorship23.

Cuba aside, access to Internet-accessible informa-tion in the countries of South America and theCaribbean seems to be generally similar to levelsof freedom of access to information and freedomof expression in other media. The real problemthe region faces is low penetration rates - only 25million people out of a total population of over518 million are online in the whole of Latin

America24. Behind this figure are similar problemsto those found in Africa - infrastructure deficien-cies, dispersed rural populations, cultural factorssuch as language barriers and illiteracy, a concen-tration of resources in urban areas and a lack offinance for IT investment. With large amounts ofpeople unable to afford even a simple telephonyservice, the Internet has clear economic barriersto overcome before it is able to contribute to freeexpression in the region.

Europe

In Europe at present there appears to be lessemphasis on censorship and more on dataretention and monitoring. The issue of userprivacy is one that libraries have consideredbefore and will continue to be concerned with inthe Internet age.

Germany, however, does have censorship issuesand far-right hate sites seem to have the highestprofile. As the German constitution prohibitscensorship it has come down to the ISPs them-selves to remove unwanted sites from the web atthe behest of users or the authorities25. In Decem-ber 2000 German legal authorities ruled thatwebsites aiming racist propaganda at Germanaudiences could be prosecuted under Germanlaw, but the problem remains as to how to dealwith sites hosted abroad. The local government inDusseldorf is trying to force ISPs to block specificforeign sites but this approach is at odds with theofficial EU position, which maintains that contentblocking is impractical and recommends filtering


23


and self-regulation instead26. In the meantime,steps have been taken to protect minors fromharmful content in German libraries and mostlibraries use filtering software to ensure thatdissemination of harmful materials is restrictedto users of legal age.

Spain is also at a stage where governments areprepared to legislate to shut down unacceptablewebsites. A proposed bill would enable a govern-ment approved agency to close websites withouthaving to receive court approval. This has impli-cations for freedom of speech, not least becausethe provisions of the bill relating to closing sitesare vaguely defined, and critics worry about thepotential for abuse27.

In the UK a significant piece of legislation waspassed in 2000. The Regulation of InvestigatoryPowers Act requires ISPs to install software thatwould enable police monitoring of subscribers’communications traffic. Within the last year avoluntary code has been introduced asking ISPsto keep this information for 12 months. Previouslyonly billing information was held. In France,where ISPs must offer their subscribers filteringsoftware but it is not mandatory to install it,hosting companies must preserve connectiondata so that website creators can be identified.

Meanwhile, the European Union moves closer toratifying the EU Convention on Cyber Crime, apiece of legislation designed to combat onlinefraud, hacking and terrorism but under attackfrom privacy groups for its vague limits on police

surveillance powers and unwarranted levels ofdata collection and storage. Essentially, say oppo-nents, the Convention will render encryption ofpersonal correspondence meaningless, as au-thorities can order encryption keys to be handedover on demand, and legislate for the sorts ofdata sweeping and mass Internet surveillanceoutlawed under the European Convention onHuman Rights28. Also controversial is the pro-posed criminalizing of online hate speech due tothe problems this poses to freedom of expression.In countries such as the United States, who helpeddraw up the treaty and have been invited to ratifyit, the hate speech portion of the Cybercrimetreaty is seen as a threat to the principles pro-tected under the first amendment29.

Alongside the convention on Cybercrime is aproposed amendment to a 1997 EU Directive onprivacy in the telecommunications sector thatwill grant law enforcement agencies access toInternet traffic and communications data previ-ously only kept for clarifying customer bills. Thisinformation will now have to be held for longerperiods than the previous two-month limit. Theamendment is controversial for a number ofreasons, not least because President Bush requestedthe EU implement these powers - that even theUSA PATRIOT act does not have - in October200130. It was initially thought the directive wouldremain unamended but now increased surveil-lance powers seem likely, despite critics maintain-ing the existing text was adequate for combatingterrorism31.


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The Freedom House 2001 survey on global pressfreedom found that of all European countries,only Albania, Turkey and parts of the formerYugoslavia moderately censored the Internet32. Itis true that Europe as a whole is tolerant ofInternet content and has good levels of access,but this advanced stage of usage is played out in aclimate where governments are keen to retainmore control of Internet traffic. In Hungary, forexample, concerns have been raised regarding theincreased interest of the security forces in onlinedata in the last year33. Trends such as this and thetype of surveillance powers envisaged in the EUConvention on Cybercrime and realised in theUK’s Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act dolittle to create an atmosphere of online expressionfree of reprisals.

North America

The main Internet issue for libraries in NorthAmerica over the past year has been the Children’sInternet Protection Act (CIPA). The CIPA is thethird attempt by the US Congress to censorInternet materials after the first two were over-turned by the judiciary34. It proposes that librariesthat receive certain forms of federal funding, nomatter how small, must implement ‘Internetsafety policies’. This means the mandatory instal-lation and use of content blocking software on alllibrary terminals. Filters must be used at all times,by children, adults and library staff in the hope ofblocking obscenity, child pornography andmaterial harmful to minors. In April 2002 it waschallenged in the courts by the American Library

Association (ALA) and the American CivilLiberties Union (ACLU) on the grounds that itviolates the First Amendment’s guarantee offreedom of speech.

The debate that sprung up as a result of the legalchallenge to CIPA is worth noting. The USgovernment’s line is that the legislation is not adirect prohibition on free speech, and instead ismore of a financial provision - if libraries don’twant to filter, they don’t accept the funding. TheALA and ACLU say that filtering software doesn’tonly block the required categories and its limita-tions mean that access to vast amounts of relevantinformation is denied. If libraries are forced tofilter, they say, some agent, be it human or ma-chine, will be responsible for a list of banned sites.This agent will be a censor, and library users willbe subject to censorship. Large amounts ofdiscussion has ensued with regards to the effec-tiveness of filtering software, with both sides inthe case producing witnesses arguing for andagainst its imposition on library terminals.

What the CIPA appeal highlighted is the existenceof a genuine censorship debate in the UnitedStates. A real fear exists on the part of family andreligious groups that the Internet presents aterrifying threat to children due to the perceivedpornographic pervasiveness online. Free speechadvocates and librarians, on the other hand, resistthe government imposition of censorship via afunding technicality and stress that responsibilityfor a child’s Internet surfing habits lies withparents, not libraries.


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The CIPA is not the only piece of legislation thatthreatens to have an impact on freedom of accessto information online. In March 2002 the world’smost popular search engine, Google, announcedit was removing search results featuring sitescritical of the Church of Scientology. The basisfor this was the 1998 Digital Millennium Copy-right Act that the Church of Scientology used tomake Google remove links to sites using copy-righted Scientology material to criticise thechurch. As the sites concerned were hostedabroad, the Scientologists went after the only linkto the US - the search engine based in MountainView, California. If Google failed to comply thenthey would be subject to a claim of copyrightinfringement35. Google reinstated the sites insearch results the next day after word of theirreaction to the demands of the Scientologistsspread around the net. The use of a copyright lawto quell online criticism caused uproar amongstfree speech advocates and is an important occur-rence with regards to online information nowthat the net becomes more regulated by legislation.

As the Internet becomes increasingly commodifiedand subject to the whims of law and business, itwill be essential to examine proposed legislationfor potential effects on freedom of access toinformation and freedom of expression. Anexample of this can be seen in the way corpora-tions in the US are looking to consolidate theirhold on domestic information markets. HomeInternet access began in the US through dial-upmodem connections but now high-speedbroadband access - the method of choice for

information delivery by new media firms - isbeing made available on an increasing scale bycable companies. The major media organisationsin the US have been lobbying the Federal Com-munications Commission to end restrictions onthe number of cable and TV stations they canown and to regulate Internet service in the sameway as existing cable service thus enabling themto extend their monopoly into the Internetbroadband era. This will in effect end the era ofopen access to the Internet where an unlimitednumber of Internet Service Providers wereallowed to connect to the network36.

The problem here is that content - once protectedby the large number of ISPs - will now be in thehands of a small number of cable companies.Taking its cue from the example of cable television,the argument is that cable companies provide atleast part of the programming (content) on theirnetworks and at the same time the pipeline fortransmitting. The cable companies therefore, havea lot of say over the content transmitted becausethey get to decide who can use their network. AsLawrence Lessig, professor at Stanford law School,has said “You get the right to innovate (providecontent) depending on whether AOL or AT&T orthe music industry like your innovation”37. Orwhether you can afford to buy ‘air’ time.

In the US therefore, the key threats to freedom ofaccess to information on the Internet come fromthe growing market for filtering software, fromnew forms of legislation designed to protectcopyright holders and from the new environment


26


that sees corporations applying the rules of themarket to all aspects of online activity. Thecommodification of the Internet is guaranteed todeny the less well off members of society access tocertain types of information.

Post September 11 legislation

The September 11 terrorist attacks on the UnitedStates have contributed greatly to a change in theinformation environment around the world. Thegreatest consequence for libraries as informationproviders is the USA PATRIOT act passed by theUS Congress in October 2001. This gives theauthorities greater access to user informationheld by ISPs and authorisation to spy on websurfing, including terms entered into searchengines38. These acts can now be carried out withminimal input from the judiciary, and with a verylow level of proof. Library Internet use recordscan be demanded by authorities and it has beenmade possible for surveillance software to beinstalled on library servers if needs be.

The attacks in America led to the introduction ofnew anti-terror laws in many countries and theUSA PATRIOT act has been the template formuch of this legislation. In the new post-Septem-ber 11 environment, governments are keen tocontrol more of the information flow on theInternet, both in terms of information provisionand also in the records of users’ surfing andcommunications. Following the lead shown byUSA PATRIOT, both the UK and France haveextended the length of time web users’ data can

be held by ISPs. Security forces can now moreeasily access this information and the laws inFrance effectively make encryption of electronicmessages an offence39. In October, Germanyrushed through a bill forcing telecommunicationscompanies to install surveillance software soauthorities can better intercept online communi-cations40. Spanish anti-globalisation protestorshave complained of monitoring by security forcessince September 11 who equate them withterrorists41. This is a worrying trend for freedomof expression on the Internet.

Outside of Europe, Canada’s “Law C-36” has alsomade it easier for intelligence services to institutesurveillance on an individual’s web traffic. Indi-viduals under surveillance are no longer requiredto be informed they are being investigated42. Tofurther tighten Internet controls in Saudi Arabia,all Internet service providers are now required tokeep records of all Internet users in order to trackaccess to forbidden web sites43. Anti-terror billshave restricted freedom of expression in Indonesia,China, Russia, Pakistan, Jordan, Mauritius,Uganda and Zimbabwe44. India’s anti-terror billmeanwhile, will punish anyone setting up an‘anti-India’ website with 5 years in jail45. Theresults of America’s terrorist crackdown havebeen seen in Somalia where the only Internetcompany was forced to close until January, alongwith the only telecommunications company, afterits international gateway was blocked and itsassets frozen by the US who suspected them ofterrorist links46.


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It is the United States however, where librarianshave been most affected by the war againstterrorism. Since September 11 there has been areduction in the availability of certain types ofinformation on government websites47. Maps,environmental resources, transport informationand resources considered to aid terrorists areamong the types of information being removed48.Federal deposit libraries around the US have beenasked to destroy resources considered sensitive inwartime, a move that has caused concern to USlibrarians49. Internet resources made available bynon-governmental bodies such as the Federationof US Scientists have been removed, and there arenumerous examples of individuals, ISPs andforeign governments closing down websitesconsidered to be linked to terrorists or expressingopinions contrary to government opinion50.While the restriction of sensitive information inthe public domain is to be expected in the post-September 11 environment, librarians and othersare worried that the lack of detailed criteria forwhat information is to be removed from the webwill make things difficult for people who needinformation for specific, lawful purposes51. Mostnotably in this case is the opposition, from theAmerican Library Association amongst others, tothe executive act signed by President Bush re-stricting access to the records of former presi-dents for an indefinite period of time. Freedomof access to information is suffering as a result,and the ALA is supporting a lawsuit to overturnthe order52.

The international library community has not

been silent on the issue of freedom of access toinformation post-September 11. The IFLA/FAIFEstatement on Terrorism, the Internet and FreeAccess to Information laid emphasis on theability of libraries to offer much needed facilitiesin the aftermath of the terrorist attacks. Only bysafeguarding access to information can we main-tain the ideals of intellectual freedom that is acore responsibility of our profession.

Despite this, there are many more countriesaround the world that have passed legislationlimiting intellectual freedom since September 11.As part of its continuing commitment to moni-toring the state of freedom of access to informa-tion and freedom of expression on the Internet,FAIFE shall be undertaking work that will lead tothe creation of a global map detailing the state ofaccess to Internet accessible resources on a globalscale. In turn, this map shall help us preparefuture World Reports and enable us to assesswhether intellectual freedom is flourishing orlanguishing around the world.

Conclusion

Freedom of access to information and freedom ofexpression on the Internet is in danger in manycountries around the world. At present, theInternet is not yet able to live up to its reputationas the killer application that will lead to a reduc-tion in gap between the world’s information richand information poor, nor is it able to prove itsworth beyond doubt as a tool of democracy.Penetration rates in many areas of the world,


28


most notably Africa and Latin America are not yethigh enough for the Internet to make a signifi-cant difference to many people’s lives. At the mostbasic level, a lack of infrastructure, education, ITexpertise and access to equipment is hinderingaccess to information on the net. Even when acorrect infrastructure is in place the costs ofconnecting, as Africa is finding out, can be highenough to severely strain developing economies.

Even in more advanced Internet countries how-ever, government imposed restrictions are hin-dering an atmosphere of free expression on theweb. As authorities in Asia most especially, andyet also in Europe, Australasia and the UnitedStates, are discovering, it is entirely possible tomake life difficult for users who use the Internetto offer viewpoints opposed to the ruling powers.Many countries around the world are guilty ofcreating an online environment where users aretracked and monitored, their freedom of access toinformation constricted in an attempt to main-tain existing power structures and regulate webuse in an age of terrorism.

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2 BBC (2002). Chinese Internet dissidents jailed[Online] Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/asia-pacific/newsid_1759000/1759815.stm[2002, Mar 25] AND Digital Freedom Network. (2002).New restrictions loom for Malaysia’s Internet [Online].Available: http://dfn.org/news/malaysia/regulating-

net.htm [2002, Feb 20] AND Sheeres, J. (2002).Group: Free Vietnam’s web critics. Wired [Online].Available: http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,51960,00.html [2002, April 18] Kalathil, S.(2001). The Internet and Asia: Broadband or broadbans? [Online]. Available: http://www.ceip.org/files/Publications/internet_asia.asp?p=5&from=pubtopic[2002, April 17].

3 Jimbonet (2001). Internet content rating system:Simply protects youth from harmful media? [Online].Available: http://base21.org/show/show/php?p_docnbr=18633 [2001, Dec 17].

4 Creed, A. (2001). Korean gay activists challenge gayweb site ban. Newsbytes [Online]. Available: http://www.newsbytes.com/news/02/173532.html [2002,Mar 20].

5 Wired. (2002) Push for privacy. Wired [Online].Available: http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,50233,00.html?tw=wn20020205 [2002, Mar 20].

6 Electronic Frontiers Australia. (2001). New SouthWales Internet Censorship Bill 2001 [Online]. Available:www.efa.org.au/Campaigns/nswbill.html [2002, Jan 14].

7 Mackenzie, K. (2002). ISPs forced to spy on email[Online]. Available: http://australianit.news.com.au/articles/0,7204,3999829%5E15306%5E%5Enbv%5E,00.html [2002, March 22].

8 Chiu, C ([email protected]). (2002, April 22). GILCAlert - New Zealand plan would mandate spywareinstallations. Email to Stuart Hamilton ([email protected]).

9 United Nations Population Division (2002). WorldPopulation Prospects Population Database [Online].Available: http://esa.un.org/unpp/ and NUA (2002).How many online? [Online]. Available: http://www.nua.com/surveys/how_many_online/n_america.htm and http://www.nua.com/surveys/how_many_online/index.html [2002, Mar 7].

10 BBC. (2002). The great African Internet robbery[Online]. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/africa/newsid_1931000/1931120.stm [2002,April 18].

11 Reporters Sans Frontiers. (2001). Enemies of theInternet [Online]. Available: www.rsf.fr/rsf/uk [2002,April 12].

12 Ibid.


29


13 Ibid.14 Sussman, L. (2000). The Internet and press freedom

2000 [Online]. Available: www.freedomhouse.org/pfs2000/sussman.html [2002, Jan 14] AND FreedomHouse. (2001). Press Freedom Survey 2001 [Online].Available: http://www.freedomhouse.org/pfs2001/pfs2001.pdf [2002, April 20].

15 Lee, J. (2001). Companies compete to provide SaudiInternet Veil. New York Times [Online]. Available:http://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/19/technology/19SAUD.html [2002, Jan 14].

16 Hammersley, B. (2002). Iran nets another revolt. TheGuardian [Online]. Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/story/0,3605,653282,00.html [2002, April 20].

17 Sussman, L. (2001). Press Freedom Survey 2001[Online]. Available: http://www.freedomhouse.org/pfs2001/pfs2001.pdf [2002, April 20].

18 NUA. (2001). Digital divide apparent in Latin America[Online]. Available: http://www.nua.com/surveys/index.cgi?f=VS&art_id=905356968&rel=true [2002,April 21].

19 NUA. (2001). Internet use in Argentina dominated byurban rich [Online]. Available: http://www.nua.com/surveys/index.cgi?f=VS&art_id=905357056&rel=true[2002, April 21].

20 Sheeres, J. (2001). Cuba not so libre with the net.Wired [Online]. Available: www.wired.com/news/print/0,1294,41940,00.html [2001. July 18].

21 Kettmann, S. (2001). Cubans embrace email, warily.Wired [Online]. Available: www.wired.com/news/print/0,1294,19402,00.html [2001, July 18].

22 Sheeres, J. (2002). Cuba bans PC sales to public.Wired [Online]. Available: http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,51270,00.html?tw=wn_ascii [March25, 2002].

23 Boas, T. and Kalathil, S., The Internet and State Controlin Authoritarian Regimes: China, Cuba, and theCounterrevolution (Carnegie Endowment, 2001), p. 12.

24 NUA. (2002). How many online? Latin America[Online]. Available: http://www.nua.com/surveys/how_many_online/index.html [2002, April 20] ANDUnited Nations. (2002). United Nations PopulationDivision [Online]. Available: http://esa.un.org/unpp/

p2k0data.asp [2002, April 23].25 Jansen, M. (2001). Internet Rights Country Report –

Germany [Online]. Available: http://rights.apc.org/europe/germany/germany.htm [2002, Jan 14].

26 Chiu, C ([email protected]). (2002, April 22). Euro-pean parliament rejects net blocking. Email to StuartHamilton ([email protected]). AND Evers, J. (2002).European parliament says no to web blocking. IDGnews [Online]. Available: http://www.indexonline.org/news/20011108_europe.shtml [2002, April 11].

27 Chiu, C ([email protected]). (2002, April 22). SpanishLSSI bill provokes net speech worries. Email to StuartHamilton ([email protected]).

28 Jayasekera, R. (2001). Bug them all and let Echelonsort them out. Index on Censorship [Online]. Avail-able: http://www.indexonline.org/news/20011108_europe.shtml [April 20, 2002].

29 Newsbytes. (2002). Global net crime treaty hurts freespeech Washington Post [Online]. Available: http://www.newsbytes.com/news/02/174285.html [Feb 6,2002].

30 Statewatch. (2002). European parliament to cave inon data retention [Online]. Available: http://www.statewatch.org/news/index.html [May 29, 2002].

31 Ibid., AND Mellor, P. (2001). European union set tovote on data law. New York Times [Online]. Available:http://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/13/technology/13NET.html [May 29, 2002].

32 Freedom House. (2001). Press Freedom Survey 2001[Online]. Available: http://www.freedomhouse.org/pfs2001/pfs2001.pdf [2002, April 20].

33 Horvath, J. (2002). Internet backdoors in Hungary[Online]. Available: http://www.heise.de/tp/english/inhalt/te/12245/1.html [April 5, 20020].

34 The first two pieces of legislation were the Communi-cations Decency Act 0f 1996 and the Children’sOnline Protection Act of 1998.

35 McCullagh, D. (2002). Google yanks anti-church sites.Wired [Online]. Available: http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,51233,00.html?tw=wn_ascii [April 20, 2002].

36 Rosenfeld, S. (2002) Goodbye digital democracy.Alternet [Online]. Available: www.alternet.org/story.html?StoryID=12281 [2002, Jan 25].


30


37 Kennedy, D. (2002) Monopoly money. Alternet[Online]. Available: www.alternet.org/story.html?StoryID=12240 [2002, Jan 25].

38 Electronic Frontier Foundation. (2001). EFF analysisof the provisions of the USA Patriot Act [Online].Available: http://www.eff.org/Privacy/Surveillance/Terrorism_militias/20011031_eff_usa_patriot_analysis.html [2002, Jan 14].

39 Freedom House. (2002). Press freedom registersslight gain despite terrorism and war [Online]. Avail-able: http://www.freedomhouse.org/media/pressrel/042202.htm [2002, April 22].

40 Gold, S. (2001). German carriers told to install cybersnooping tech. Newsbytes [Online]. Available: http://www.newsbytes.com/cgi-bin/udt/im.display.printable?client.id=newsbytes&story.id=171516[2002, Jan 14].

41 Statewatch. (2002). State agencies put protestorsunder extensive Internet surveillance [Online].Available: http://www.statewatch.org/news/2002/mar/08spain.htm [2002, April 16].

42 The International Federation of Human RightsLeagues (2002). The top 15 of liberty killers states[Online]. Available: http://www.enduring-freedoms.org/pdf/RAPPORTG.pdf [2002, April 16].

43 Freedom House. (2002). Press freedom registersslight gain despite terrorism and war [Online]. Avail-able: http://www.freedomhouse.org/media/pressrel/042202.htm [2002, April 22].

44 Ibid.45 Reporters sans Frontiers. (2001). Asia - India - The

law against terrorism threatens press freedom [On-line]. Available: www.rsf.fr/rk/home.html [2002, Jan 14].

46 BBC News. (2001). US shuts down Somalia Internet

[Online]. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/africa/newsid_1672000/1672220.stm [2002,Jan 14].

47 BBC News. (2002). US Tightens controls on websites[Online]. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_1888000/1888387.stm [2002, March 22].

48 OMB Watch. (2002). Access to government informa-tion post September 11th [Online]. Available: http://www.ombwatch.org/article/articleview/213/1/1/ [2002,April 16].

49 Kline, G. (2002). Information at risk. The NewsGazette Online [Online]. Available: http://www.news-gazette.com/ngsearch/story.cfm?number=10892[2002, April 16] and Radcliffe, J. and Woolfolk, J.(2001). Orders to purge records have librariansworried. Star-telegram [Online]. Available: http://web.star-telegram.com/content/fortworth/2001/12/08/topstory/fw010102-1208-XA001-security.htm [2002,Jan 14] and Ombwatch. (2001). The post-September11th environment: Access to government information[Online]. Available: http://www.ombwatch.org/article/articleview/213/1/1/ [2002, Jan 14].

50 Electronic Frontier Foundation. (2002). Chilling effectsof anti-terrorism [Online]. Available: http://www.eff.org/Privacy/Surveillance/Terrorism_militias/antiterrorism_chill.html [2002, April 16].

51 Associated Press. (2002). Fed sites told to seal info.Wired [Online]. Available: http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,51236,00.html?tw=wn_ascii [2002,March 21].

52 American Library Association. (2002). ALA raises redflag on recent Bush executive order [Online]. Avail-able: http://www.ala.org/news/v8n3/executiveorder.html [2002, March 1].


31

The Internet: The Information Tool of the 21st Century

The Internet

The Internet: The InformationTool of the 21st Century

The global rise of the Internet

According to statistics produced by NUA.com, whoare an online source for information on Internetdemographics and trends, the number of Internetusers worldwide continues to grow at an amazingpace. When judging the following figures, it isinstructive to remember that in 1988 only sevencountries - Canada, Denmark, Finland, France,Iceland, Norway and Sweden - were connected tothe National Science Foundation Internet back-bone developed in the US. Ten years later, accord-ing to the International TelecommunicationUnion, over 200 countries were connected1.

In their most recent figures, NUA suggest thatthere are now over 544 million Internet usersworldwide, a 19.4% increase on user figures from12 months before and a figure that equals 8.99%of the world’s population. Since their surveysbegan in 1995 the number of worldwide users ofthe Internet has increased by over 2000%2.

These users are spread unevenly around the globe,with the majority of users based in North America,followed by Europe, Asia, Latin America, theMiddle East and Africa. Growth rates in all regionsof the world continue to rise, although vastswathes of the world’s population miss out onaccess due to infrastructure difficulties and theeconomic costs of wiring countries for the Internet.

Consider the scarcity of telephone lines in Africa,approximately 18 million phone lines for the entirecontinent, or one for every 50 people. OutsideNorth Africa and South Africa, there is only oneline for every 200 people3. Telecommunicationsinfrastructure deficiencies such as this mean thatonly 4.15 million - 0.5% of the population - peopleuse the Internet in Africa. Contrast this with theUnited States, where in January 2002 it wasestimated that 166.14 million people, or 59.75%of the population, currently use the Internet4.

Table 1 illustrates how the world’s regions comparein terms of user numbers and Internet penetration.

Stuart Hamilton & Alex Byrne & Susanne Seidelin


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This table is based on statistics produced byNUA.com, up to and including January 2002, andpopulation figures from the United Nationspopulation database, based on 2000 estimates5.

User gender

In a 2001 survey, Internet statisticians Neilsen/NetRatings produced results that showed maleusers are currently dominating the Internet6. Withthe exception of Canada and the United States,men outnumber women online. The strongshowing in North America may reflect the rela-tively long existence of Internet access in thesecountries and, more especially, the availability ofthe Internet in the home where women accountfor 52% of users7. Women have made inroads intothe e-commerce sector in the US and Canada,with strong use of sites such as Amazon.com, butin other areas of the world there is a still a long

Table 1: Internet users by region, in millions, and as % of population

Region Numbers of Population % of PopulationUsers (Millions) (Millions)

United States and Canada* 181.23 314.057 57.71

Europe** 171.35 727.360 23.56

Asia/Pacific 157.49 3528.800 4.46

Latin America 25.33 518.809 4.88

Middle-East 4.65 174.063 2.67

Africa 4.15 793.627 0.52

Total (Global) 544.20 6056.716 8.99*Including Bermuda and Saint Pierre and Miquelon

** Including Greenland

way to go at all levels before Internet use meas-ures up to the proportions expected along popu-lation lines8. However, global user demographicinformation is hard to come by due to the infancyof the Internet and the scale of the researchinvolved, and this should be remembered whenlooking at any figures splitting Internet use alonggender or age group lines.

Access points

Internet users log on in four locations: at home,at an educational establishment, at work or at afurther location offering free or paid access suchas a library or an Internet café. Home use iscontinuing to grow across North America, Europeand the Asia/Pacific region, and it is also increas-ing at a slower rate across the rest of the world. InEurope, for example, home Internet take upincreased from 18% in March 2000 to 38% in


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December 2001, although the European commis-sion predicts this growth to be easing up a little9.In China, there are now 56.6 million homeInternet users according to market researchersAC Nielsen, making China the country with thesecond highest number of home users after theUS10. Compare these figures with South Africa,the most notably wired country in Africa, whereonly 6% of homes have Internet access and theevidence of a digital divide begins to grow11.

Internet access at work is also growing. 19.6% ofthe US population, or 51.9 million people, usethe Internet at work and in Europe the Internet isnow present in 90% of European companies withten employees or more12. Access to the businesspotential of the Internet is not available to allhowever - in Uganda only a third of firms had awebsite up and running last year13. Unless thelack of online representation for developingworld firms is addressed some economies arelikely to be left behind over the coming years.

Libraries around the world, in their role as afurther location for Internet access, continue toexpand their computer facilities for public access.Initiatives such as the People’s Network in theUK, which aims to have all public libraries con-nected to the Internet by 2005, are representativeof continuing efforts by libraries to bring theInternet into the community14. In the US, a recentreport suggests that 10% of total Internet users,often those with lower incomes, have connectedto the web at the local library15. However, initia-tives taken in the leading Internet countries of the

world should not blind us to the fact that manylibrary services around the world are as yetunable to offer Internet access to their patrons.

Type of use

A recent study from the US, suggests that theInternet is beginning to be used for more variedactivities than in previous years16. Over half ofthose surveyed use the Internet to check emailand to keep in touch with friends and relatives.Following email use, the next most popularactivity is to search for information, be it onproducts or services, personal interest, or govern-ment information. One third of users surveyedused the Internet for this activity or to check thenews and sports reports. After these activitiescomes online shopping, followed by job searchingand making phone calls.

We should not be too quick to take this survey asglobally representative, but is fair to say that thefirst use of the Internet is email and communica-tion, followed by information searching in itsvarious guises. Incredibly popular over the lastyear has been the growth of file-sharing technol-ogy, which has led to users all over the worlddownloading music and video files, in the vastmajority of cases illegally and free of charge, andswapping these files with each other over theInternet. Also growing, though perhaps slowerthan hoped for, is e-commerce.

Information searching, however, is increasing onthe web. Whether this is information relating to


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hobbies, financial information, travel arrange-ments or searching for old friends, the number ofpeople online at work, in the home or in thelibrary searching for information is increasing aspeople become more proficient and confident atfinding what they want17.

Future developments

While current trends suggest that global Internetuse will continue to grow, albeit at a slower ratethan previously, we must think beyond this andassess the quality of this use18. Quality of accesswill become more and more important whenconsidering freedom of access to information,and there are two factors to consider. First, thosenations who lead the way in Internet accessaround the world - the US, the major Europeancountries, some nations in the far east such asSouth Korea and Singapore - are committed tothe installation of broadband networks that willfacilitate faster Internet access. Take up ofBroadband services is slow at present in Europeand the US (e.g. only 16% of US homes havebroadband access, and only 1% in the UK19) butin Singapore, for example one in three Internetusers have used broadband services, and the Asia/Pacific region accounts for 44% of broadbandusers worldwide20.

These moves towards fast access further isolateAfrican countries without even modem dial-upaccess. There is a real danger of a two-tierInternet springing into existence even as effortsare made to connect poorer and more remote

regions of the world. Those with broadbandaccess stand on the verge of fast all-media infor-mation delivery while those without are left witha slow, dated service that cannot facilitate accessto the types of content - video, audio - that willcome to dominate the web in the near future.

We must also consider another factor that willaffect the quality of information available on theInternet. Since the dot.com bubble burst at theend of the 1990s more online enterprises havebeen forced to return to the bottom line ofshowing a profit from their Internet activities.There are the stirrings of a growing trend towardspayware over freeware. Online news services arebeginning to find they have to charge for content,with the New York Times, the Wall Street Journaland the Financial Times offering premiumservices in exchange for payment21. More intrigu-ingly, especially in terms of the digital divide andaccess to information in less developed countries,the Times of London has declared it will becharging overseas users to access its site in future,and the BBC is considering doing the same22.

If, as the two trends outlined above suggest, weare moving towards a situation where the qualityof access and quality of information availabledepend on a country or individual’s ability to pay,then this has serious implications for freedom ofaccess to information on the Internet. Theseeconomic restrictions on information accessexacerbate conditions outlined above relating togovernmental interference in citizens’ Internetuse, creating an atmosphere where the Informa-


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tion superhighway effectively has several blockedlanes. Internet use may be increasing around theworld, but this does not guarantee free, equal andunhampered access for all.

The digital divide

On the basis of the statistics discussed in thischapter, there is reason to state a strongly feltconcern about the inequality in access to theInternet between developed and developingcountries. The slower rate of the growth of Inter-net use is mainly due to the economic situation inthe information poor countries underlining theoverall difficulties with regards to lack of electric-ity supply and telephones lines - e.g. in Africawhere only 0.5% of the population are online.Although the figures of Asia, Latin America andthe Middle East are a little better, the differencebetween the rich and poor is sadly obvious andreflects the overall economic and infrastructuralproblems of the regions leaving the vast majorityof the world’s population far behind on theinformation highway.

The role of libraries as providers of Internet accessseems at present almost impossible to fulfil. Ontop, many of the libraries that can provide Inter-net access may face difficulties regarding freedomof access to the information on the Internet ofpolitical, religious or other reasons. Though theyshare these problems with some developedcountries as well, the fact remains that, while therest of the world is discussing how best to developand refine Internet use and provide broadband

services and file-sharing technology, the libraryand information communities in many countriesin the regions in question do not have computersat all.

Information on the Internet is seldom communi-cated in the many languages and dialects repre-sented in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Ap-proximately, two-thirds23 of the informationavailable is in English and most of the rest is inEuropean language, although content in someAsian languages is growing rapidly. Despite thegrowing usage of other languages, and early signsof the potential of the Internet to strengthensome languages by connecting virtual languagecommunities, language barriers form a criticalelement of the digital divide.

In addition the growing proportion of informa-tion published only on the Internet is inaccessibleto many people. Likewise, the expansion of thenumber of services which require paymentincreases not only the digital divide but also theinformation gap in general. Thus at the beginningof the century, it is questionable whether theInternet can be defined as the information tool ofthe 21st century for the majority of the world’spopulation.

The problems concerning the digital divide arefundamentally economic and cannot be solved bythe international library community alone.However, we can help keep the focus on theglobal role of libraries as providers of Internetaccessible information. Thus the IFLA Internet


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Manifesto is stating the principles regardingInternet, the IFLA/FAIFE PhD project will mapthe digital divide with regards to libraries andbecome an important information source on thistopic, and future IFLA/FAIFE World Reportsshall include specific information on Internet usein each country report.

References

1 International Telecommunication Union. (2000). ITUTelecommunication Indicators Update [Online].Available: http://www.itu.int/journal/200102/E/html/indicat.htm [2002, April 24].

2 NUA (2001). How many online? [Online]. Available:http://www.nua.com/surveys/how_many_online/world.html [2002, Jan 14].

3 NUA (2002). Africa goes mobile [Online]. Available:http://www.nua.ie/surveys/analysis/weekly_editorial/archives/issue1no216.html [2002, Mar 4].

4 United Nations Population Division (2002). WorldPopulation Prospects Population Database [Online].Available: http://esa.un.org/unpp/ and NUA (2002).How many online? [Online]. Available: http://www.nua.com/surveys/how_many_online/n_america.htm and http://www.nua.com/surveys/how_many_online/index.html [2002, Mar 7].

5 Ibid.6 Cyberatlas. (2002). Men still dominate Internet use

[Online]. Available: http://cyberatlas.internet.com/big_picture/demographics/article/0,,5901_959421,00.html [Jan 22, 2002].

7 Ibid.8 Regan, K. (2002). Report: Global Internet is male

dominated [Online]. Available: http://www.ecommercetimes.com/perl/story/15875.html[Jan 18,2002] and Netstatistica. (2002). Internet inEurope [Online]. Available: http://www.netstatistica.com/reports/europe/demographics/may2002/index.html [May 15, 2002].

9 eEurope. (2002). EEurope: Taking stock of results

and setting priorities for the Barcelona EuropeanCouncil [Online]. Available: http://europa.eu.int/rapid/start/cgi/guesten.ksh?p_action.gettxt=gt&doc=IP/02/225|0|RAPID&lg=EN&display= [2002, Feb 12].

10 Nua. (2002). China number 2 in home net usage[Online]. Available: http://www.nua.com/surveys/index.cgi?f=VS&art_id=905357873&rel=true [2002,April 22].

11 Stones, L. (2002). Only 6% of South African homeshave Internet access [Online]. Available: http://allafrica.com/stories/200204110216.html [2002, April11].

12 U.S. Department of Commerce. (2002). A nationonline [Online]. Available: http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/dn/html/Chapter4.htm [2002, Feb 20] ANDThe Register. (2002). Europe not sold on Internet athome [Online]. Available: http://www.theregister.co.uk/content/6/24025.html [2002, Feb 12].

13 NUA. (2001). Only a third of Ugandan firms online[Online]. Available: http://www.nua.com/surveys/index.cgi?f=VS&art_id=905357189&rel=true [2001,Sept 12].

14 The People’s Network. (2002). About us [Online].Available: http://www.peoplesnetwork.gov.uk/about/index.asp [2002, April 24].

15 U.S. Department of Commerce. (2002). A nationonline [Online]. Available: http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/dn/html/Chapter4.htm [2002, Feb 20].

16 Ibid.17 Pew Internet Project. (2002). Transactions and other

activities online [Online]. Available: http://www.pewinternet.org/reports/reports.asp?Report=55&Section= ReportLevel1&Field=Level1ID&ID=245[2002, March 3].

18 International Telecommunication Union. (2000). ITUTelecommunication Indicators Update [Online].Available: http://www.itu.int/journal/200102/E/html/indicat.htm [2002, April 24].

19 Nua. (2002). US net users lukewarm towardsbroadband [Online]. Available: http://www.nua.com/surveys/?f=VS&art_id=905357880&rel=true [2002,April 23] AND BBC. (2002). The Internet in 2002[Online]. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_1750000/1750580.stm [2002, Jan 9].


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20 Nua. (2002). Internet users in Singapore go forbroadband [Online]. Available: http://www.nua.com/surveys/index.cgi?f=VS&art_id=905357878&rel=true[2002, April 23] AND Nua. (2002). Nearly half ofworld’s DSL users in Asia-Pacific [Online]. Available:http://www.nua.com/surveys/index.cgi?f=VS&art_id=905357871&rel=true [2002, April 22].

21 Gibson, O. (2002). Times to charge for Internetservices. The Guardian [Online]. Available: http://media.guardian.co.uk/newmedia/story/0,7496,669507,00.html [2002, Mar 20] and Hollands,

M. (2002). Charging into the unknown. Australian IT[Online]. Available: http://australianit.news.com.au/articles/0,7204,3797878%5E15388%5E%5Enbv%5E,00.html [2002, Mar 20].

22 Gibson, O. (2002). Times to charge for Internetservices. The Guardian [Online]. Available: http://media.guardian.co.uk/newmedia/story/0,7496,669507,00.html [2002, Mar 20].

23 http://www.worldlingo.com/resources/language_statistics.html


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39

Libraries and Conflicts



Introduction

The world is continuously confronted withconflicts; some seem incidental, others have theirroots way back in history. As a consequencehuman lives are at stake and human rights areviolated. Conflicts affect people, and also librariesand librarians. Libraries continue to be damagedand destroyed, their collections purged and looted,and their staff dismissed, or even imprisoned andmurdered. Clients are left without services orprohibited from using services. Together withother public institutions and private property,libraries are vulnerable to damage and destruc-tion in times of conflict. While such damageobviously occurs during aerial or other bombard-ment and other military action, it can also occurthrough less dramatic but nonetheless seriousmeans. In recent times they have included:

• Attacks by armed gangs of veterans (Zimbabwe)• Attacks by military and para-military groups

(East Timor)

Alex Byrne & Susanne Seidelin

• Attacks and damage by zealots (Afghanistan)• ‘Cultural cleansing’ of staff and collections by

library staff (Kosovo)• Destruction of libraries (Bosnia and Croatia)• Terrorist destruction of libraries (New York)• Reported destruction of libraries (Afghanistan)• Reported destruction of libraries and cultural

heritage documents (Palestine - currentlyunder the investigation of IFLA/FAIFE)

Such physical attacks on libraries are often accom-panied by looting or purging of library collections,intimidation and worse of library staff members,threats against clients (or subgroups of clients).Sometimes these measures are taken withoutphysical attack. The range of such threats isillustrated in the brief bibliography appended inthe end of this chapter.

In 1996, IFLA collaborated with Unesco in theproduction of a record of the sorry history ofsuch destruction in the twentieth century . At theend of that century and the beginning of the


40


present, the destruction continues. IFLA is in-volved in many ways, including:

Blue Shield

IFLA joined with the International Council onArchives, International Council of Museums andthe International Council of Monuments andSites to establish the International Committee ofthe Blue Shield (ICBS - see http://www.ifla.org/VI/4/admin/protect.htm) in 1996.ICBS aims to:• Facilitate international responses to threats or

emergencies threatening cultural property• Encourage safeguarding and respect for

cultural property especially by promoting riskpreparedness

• Train experts at national and regional level toprevent, control and recover from disasters

• Act in an advisory capacity for the protectionof endangered heritage

• Consult and co-operate with other bodiesincluding UNESCO, ICCROM and theInternational Committee of the Red Cross(ICRC).

Recognition in the Second Protocol to the HagueConvention , agreed in April 1999 by 84 countries,has given ICBS a new role, to advise the inter-governmental Committee for Protection ofCultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.

CLM

The IFLA Committee on Legal and other Matters

(CLM) has decided that its main program atGlasgow should be on the Repatriation of LibraryMaterials. The proposed program includespresentations on the concept of the repatriationof cultural materials and the current internationallegal framework for repatriation, a series of threecase studies, which focus on library materials, anda concluding presentation on the role of IFLA.

IFLA/FAIFE

Threats to libraries and actions against them alsocome within the purview of IFLA/FAIFE throughits mandate which is described in the Introduc-tion to this Report.

IFLA/FAIFE’s responsibilities extend beyond thethreats and damage caused through armedconflict to those posed by governments and byextra-legal forces (as in Zimbabwe). However, adiscussion of the different roles of IFLA andIFLA/FAIFE with regards to libraries and conflictswould be useful. When does FAIFE’s engagementend and that of other elements of IFLA begin?FAIFE responds to violations and destruction. Itundertakes preliminary investigations, raisesmatters with relevant authorities and informscolleagues in libraries and other organisationsconcerned with human rights and intellectualfreedom. Other elements of IFLA such as PAC,Blue Shield and ALP take carriage as opportunitiesarise to address the consequences of the conflictand to advise on the reconstruction of librariesand information services. We need to develop an‘investigation and coordination’ capacity within


41


IFLA/FAIFE to enable us to promptly respond toconflicts and to stimulate responses by interna-tional agencies, governments and private donors.This will need dedicated staff together with anincome stream to support their activities.

PAC

One of the objectives the IFLA Core Programmefor Preservation and Conservation (PAC) is toraise awareness of the principle that each countrymust accept responsibility for the preservation ofits own imprints and for the preservation of theother archives and library materials of its owncivilisation and culture.

Role of the international librarycommunity

Responding to an initiative of IFLA/FAIFE, theIFLA Governing Board noted in March 2002 theneed to give special priority to the issues relatingto ‘libraries and conflicts’. This very encouragingstep will raise the awareness of the internationallibrary community and focus on the importanceof responding to the destruction of librariesfollowing in the wake of conflicts and wars.

For the libraries immediately affected by a conflict,the loss of buildings, stock and cultural identity isobvious. They can no longer provide services orfulfil their cultural and educational role on localor national level. However, the loss of culturalheritage documents - or buildings - is one of thesevere consequences that not only affect the

countries directly involved but the internationalcommunity in general.

The question is, how can we actually help andthrough which channels? Although there arerelevant international conventions relating tocultural property as well as the human rights toinformation and expression, we have not beenwell equipped to deal with the library relatedconsequences of conflict.

For that reason - and as a starting point for theclarification - this IFLA/FAIFE Summary Report2002 and the open session ‘Libraries and conflicts’at the 2002 IFLA conference in Glasgow will discusswhat the international library community can doto support library associations and their mem-bers to continue to provide access to informationfor all citizens, and which concrete approaches wecould take with regards to conflicts, terroristattacks and the destruction of cultural heritage.

The development of an IFLA action manual onhow to respond to the destruction of librariesmight be considered. The manual should outlinethe roles and involvement of IFLA and its variousbodies, the cooperation with external partnersand funding agencies, bearing in mind that IFLAdoes not have the necessary means to fund aidprogrammes. However, IFLA must consider howit could facilitate an approach by donors, includ-ing UNESCO, to addressing the effects of wars onthe libraries of all affected countries. IFLA has arole in assessing needs and facilitating proactiveapproaches to the issue, at least through advocacy.


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Recent destruction of libraries

Though libraries have been destroyed in countriesall over the world eg in specific African countriessuch as Angola, Cape Verde, Rwanda, and DRC,to mention a few, this section will focus on thedestruction of libraries in Afghanistan, TimorLoro’sae, and North Caucasus and Chechnya.

Afghanistan

Apart from our overall concern for the people ofAfghanistan in the wake of recent and pastconflicts, IFLA and IFLA/FAIFE are naturallyconcerned about the situation in the country withregards to intellectual freedom, library servicesand the whereabouts of our Afghan colleagues.Consequently, from mid December 2001 IFLA/FAIFE contacted a number of internationalbodies, partners and colleagues to gather as muchinformation as possible right after the change ofgovernment. Contacts were made with organisa-tions such as the American Library Association,Amnesty International, British Council, Interna-tional Freedom of Expression Exchange, theLibrary Association of Pakistan, and the Morten-son Center for International Programs, IllinoisUSA, and UNESCO. Most of the organisationshad little concrete information to offer, or plansof actions.

Mortenson Center project proposal

However, the Mortenson Center was investigatingthe possibilities of undertaking a library project

in Afghanistan in cooperation with two otherpartners. The status in May 2002 was that twoproject proposals have been developed, one ofwhich is a short-term project that “would identifysome civic and cultural leaders, including somelibrarians from around the country, to participatein a Libraries at the Heart of the Communityprogram in the United States. The participantswould spend 3-6 weeks in the United States at theUniversity of Illinois and the Queens BoroughPublic Library learning to design, maintain, andpromote libraries that support a civil society.During their stay, the participants would developa strategic plan for the development of librariesin Afghanistan, with the assistance of a group ofexperts from the Mortenson Center, QueensBorough Public Library, and other organizationsas appropriate”.

The other proposal is “based on the first idea, butmore fully developed into a comprehensive,three-year project with three stages: Learningabout community libraries; library development;and professional staff development”.1

Media Center for Afghanistan

At a later stage in the research IFLA/FAIFEcontacted the Bertelsmann Foundation in Ger-many and learned of a ‘Media Center for Af-ghanistan’ project: “The Media Center for Af-ghanistan (MCA)2, is a non-profit, non-govern-mental organization founded in 1993 throughthe joint efforts of Afghans and Germans residingin Germany, and seeks to engage its efforts and


43


resources for the future of education and grass-roots projects aimed at improving the livelihoodof the Afghan population through: media collec-tions, Afghan research projects, school projectsand reconstruction. The MCA presently houses alarge and extensive collection of literary andmedia works related to Afghanistan. The collec-tion was built up to salvage the country’s literaryand academic works in the aftermath of theSoviet-Afghan war. The decade long struggle ledto the destruction of the country’s educationalinstitutions and libraries. The MCA collectionembraces diverse traditions of Afghanistan’sintellectual and cultural heritage. Many of theliterary contributions are from Afghan scientists,journalists, writers and artists. The MCA’s origi-nal goal remains to eventually transfer the collec-tion to a peaceful and stable environment insidethe country. The collection is intended to servethe long-term educational needs of the Afghanpopulace and to provide them with the resourcesthat would have otherwise been lost forever. TheMCA has a library branch in Peshawar, Pakistanand in Jaji province of Paktia in Afghanistan.Highly qualified local employees and Afghanexperts are tasked with purchasing rare Afghanbooks and media-related material for the library’sarchives. The MCA’s Peshawar branch also servesas an important meeting and exchange forum forAfghan refugees interested in academic researchon Afghanistan”.

Currently, MCA are supporting some schools andComputer/English classes in Afghanistan as wellas a small library in Peshawar. Furthermore, MCA

is developing a project establishing “communityforums” with library, computer, and seminarfacilities for Kabul and other places in order toprovide freedom of access to information and theexchange of ideas.3

The Bertelsmann Foundation is continuouslyresearching issues regarding Afghanistan.

Possible UNESCO and IFLA/FAIFE libraryproject

In January 2002, the UNESCO Culture Sector/Information Society Division approached IFLAon a joint library project in Afghanistan. IFLA/FAIFE was involved in developing the projectproposal from the very beginning and based theproposal on the experiences of the IFLA/FAIFEKosovo project.

Some 354 projects were prepared for the recon-struction of Afghanistan, and at a head of agencymeeting in Kabul on 14 February it was decidedthat over 300 should go forward, among whichwas the proposal on public, school and universitylibraries. From the UNESCO Culture Sector atotal of 4-5 projects were submitted on librariesand media. The final list of approved projects forfunding was expected to be published early Marchby a United Nations delegation and the govern-ment in Kabul.

On this basis, a UNESCO mission to the countrywas scheduled for mid March with participationof two IFLA/FAIFE experts. Unfortunately, there


44


has been little progress since then other than aslight re-formulation of the project made byUNESCO. By end of May 2002, many of the projectproposals - including ours - are still awaiting thefinal approval and funding possibilities.

The IFLA/UNESCO proposal concerns thereconstruction of library services:4 ‘Library Servicesin Afghanistan: The Rehabilitation of University,School and Public Libraries’

The project is based on the values and principlesof the ‘UNESCO/IFLA School Library Manifesto’and the ‘Public Library Manifesto’ and thus thevalues of free access to information and freedomof expression. The development and implemen-tation of services in university, school and publiclibraries will support all education and literacyprogrammes and also the rural and urban illit-eracy campaigns paying special attention towomen’s needs.

The project proposal contains, among otherelements, of the following:

1 Legislation and administration programme2 Mobile library service and mobile Internet

access programme3 Reconstruction programme4 Book and reading programme5 Information Technology programme6 Professional training and development

programme7 Cultural heritage programme8 Women, children and youth programme

9 Open access programme10 Initiative Support Programme11 Twinning Programme

Timor Loro’sae

Just after the IFLA Conference in Bangkok, thepeople of East Timor were subjected to violentattacks by militia supported by Indonesianmilitary forces. In a well-planned attack manypeople were murdered, injured or raped. Publicinfrastructure including roads, bridges andschools were destroyed. That destruction in-cluded the small school libraries established byIndonesian educational authorities and the moresubstantial libraries of Universitas Timor Timurand the Dili Polytechnic.

Since then, the country has been stabilised andcelebrated its inauguration as an independentnation, the first of the 21st Century, on May 20,2002. It is a country of some 600,000 inhabitantswho will need to educate their young, train theirprofessionals, develop their infrastructure andcelebrate their culture.

To achieve all of this they will need good libraries.The Xanana Gusmao Reading Room has beenestablished but other libraries are in a parlous state.The best resourced at the time of writing is theLibrary of Universidad Nacional Timor Loro’sae.It is in a building, which has been reroofed withthe assistance of USAID and has received text-books funded by the Asia Foundation and otherdonations of books. Its staff members have been


45


assisted by volunteer librarians from Australia andit has received some donations of software andhardware. But its collections are tiny, its furnitureis scanty and fragile, its building is not weatherproof(especially in the torrential rain of the tropicalwet season), and its staff members desperatelyneed training. Its needs are great but there hasbeen little interest from international agencies.

Other libraries have received even less support.There is an urgent need to develop a model for anational library system and a plan for its develop-ment. IFLA/FAIFE is seeking to pursue this withthe new government of the new nation.

North Caucasus and Chechnya

By E.Y. Genieva

The library is a place of public information, aspecialized institution, the work of which isdesigned for the conditions of peacetime. Thecity of Grozny, capital of Chechnya, now lies inruins. In the immediate area of conflict librariesare in a difficult situation. Before the militaryconflict, the Chechen Republic was one of thebiggest research centers of the North Caucasus.The republic had unique library and archive funds,now destroyed by the war. National TchekhovLibrary and the library of the Scientific andResearch Institute of Humanities kept uniquecopies of books published in the North Caucasusin the end of the 19th /early 20th century. TheRussian public has made a great effort to restorethe library’s funds. In particular, in February 2001

the Foundation of Humanitarian Assistance tothe Chechen Republic organised a large-scalecampaign in Moscow to collect scientific andfiction books for the restoration of the libraryfunds in Chechnya. A list of those who contributedtheir books to the libraries in Chechnya includesmore than 100 official institutions and individuals.

Of course a lot will be done thanks to suchmassive efforts. We should not forget, however,that today explosions are still heard in the NorthCaucasus. Hundreds of refugees from Chechnyafind shelter in tent camps in the neighboringrepublics of Ingushetia and Daghestan. Peopleare dying, and books are dying. How shouldlibraries work in this situation? What kind ofassistance can they offer in the conflict zone?

A broader view on access to information in thecontext of Article 19 of the Universal Declarationof Human Rights brings us to the question: howdo people get information in conflict zones? Thetraditional information channels have beendestroyed. The mass media practically does notexist; the existing media is engaged and notobjective. Broadcast and electronic media - TVand Internet - are not available for the majorityof the population. On the one hand, the societyhas no access to information; on the other, thereis no objective information on the situation inthe conflict zone. The conflict zone practicallybecomes an information enclave.

Currently in Chechnya there is a situation thatmay be defined as an information blockade


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where the common information space, formedduring peacetime, is under attack. Mechanismsneed to be developed to influence this informa-tion space. One such mechanism, which may befacilitated by libraries, among other institutions,is contained in the Moltinsky’s order No. 80 onthe procedures for ‘zachistka’ (‘clean-out’ militaryoperations). The fact this order exists demon-strates a huge positive move in providing theright to information in the conflict zones. Therole of mass media in the conflict zones goesdown. The role of libraries as open informationsites considerably increases. Libraries become akey resource for guaranteeing the right to freedomof access to information. Parallel to the bookcollecting and compiling, another function oflibraries comes to the fore - to become centers ofcivil activity, to attract socially active forces.

Libraries and refugees

On the territory of Ingushetia and Daghestanthere are dozens of tent camps, where refugeeshave lived for a few years. Their movement on theterritory of Chechnya and border areas is difficult.The corruption at the military block posts makesvisits to libraries, usually located in the districtcenters, practically impossible for many people.Mobile libraries need to be created in the campsto support refugee camp schools. There aresuccessful examples of such mobile libraries.Their compilation should be entrusted to anindependent library network.

People’s library

Traditionally a library is a resource for educatedpeople. A person gets additional knowledge there.In the current and potential conflict zones librar-ies should serve another need - to become acenter of public life. Libraries must becomeavailable for all; they should go beyond theirpremises and broaden their audience. This can bedone through a library branch network.

Institute and school libraries

A more active participation of libraries in societyshould involve the institute libraries. Students inGrozny pass exams under bombs. Students inGrozny get killed. For a student in Grozny aninstitute is a way to run the blockade, to escapefrom the fighting in Chechnya and achieve apeaceful profession. It is an opportunity to serveChechnya in peacetime. The library communityshould pay more attention to the institute librar-ies in Chechnya.

Giving libraries a status of social and civil centersmeans working for the future of the region.Libraries are the places to fight for the ‘lostgeneration’, for the young people who are forcedto live and grow in the tent camps and ruinedcities, without any information about the world.

What needs to be done?

Libraries in the conflict zones must be suppliedwith information, reflecting reaction in the world


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to the situation in the regions. First of all theyrequire periodicals, independent mass media and‘thick’ magazines. It is important to combineRussian and foreign sources. It is essential toprovide information about those who are notindifferent to the problems in Chechnya becauseChechnya is not only part of Russia; it is also apart of the world. The libraries should alsocontain human rights literature. This also con-cerns smaller libraries, including the ones in thetent camps.

In our considerations we must not limit ourselvesto the areas of direct conflict. The conflict inChechnya is on much larger scale, and the numberof participants and victims is enormous. One cansay that ‘we are all victims’. The local populationsupports the policy of Tkachev, Governor of theKrasnodar krai. To a great extent this is the resultof information influencing the population, whichbecomes a passive consumer of one-sided opin-ions. The problem of manipulating variousethnic groups through information channels isvery acute. The situation with the Prigorodnydistrict of North Ossetia and Ingushetia is oneillustration of the above, and unfortunately thelist can be continued. The North Caucasus carriesthe burden of the totalitarian policy of Stalin’stime when whole nations were resettled and theircenturies-old traditions were destroyed. Inter-ethnictension is easy to provoke. Libraries as centers ofsocial life may become centers of peacekeepingefforts, through the organization of roundtables,exhibitions, and youth contests. Moreover theseactivities must be organized throughout the

North Caucasus. The best practices and modelsin this field have been developed by the NorthCaucasus libraries in cooperation with the HotSpots Program of the Open Society Institute.

Information and conflicts

Let us recall how often books have burned in fire.And wherever we are - in the memorial place inBerlin where fascists burned the ‘resisting’ books,or in Chechnya where books burned in the firesof war - we must keep in mind that book burningis always an indication that the right to access toinformation and freedom of expression is beingdenied. Legally, freedom of access to informationshould have no geopolitical borders. It is equallyimportant for all of us to remember this, whetherthis right is violated in Chechnya, Yugoslavia orby the totalitarian regimes in Central Asia, where- like in fascist Germany - books are burned andhuman rights activists are executed in the squares.

Freedom of access to the information of theworld is universal and indivisible. Libraries playan important role, providing the integrity of theinformation space. In areas of conflicts especially,the role of libraries as human resources is veryimportant as well. Libraries are created anddeveloped by people who are deeply involved inculture striving to make the world better by themeans of their profession. To help libraries inChechnya, Ingushetia and Daghestan todaymeans to make your contribution in the fight forthe lost generation, whom we have no right tolose in the modern world.


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Conclusion

This brief summary indicates the destructionexperienced by libraries today in time of conflictwhether that be civil war, militia action or inter-national attacks. Coupled with campaigns of‘cultural cleansing’ (as in Kosovo), neglect, fa-vouritism and lack of vision, that destructionposes a tremendous challenge to the internationallibrary community. It is up to us to secure inter-national attention to this issue and to seek whole-hearted aid for the protection of libraries andinformation services in times of conflict and theirreconstruction if damaged.

References

1 Source: director Ms Marianna Tax Choldin, theMortonson Center for International Programmes

2 http://www.medio-afghanistan.de3 Source: Dr Almut Wieland-Karimi, Friedrich Ebert

Stiftung, Berlin4 http://www.unesco.org

Bibliography

Diallo, I. (1999), Suddenly last summer, Index onCensorship, 28(2), pp. 81-82.Frederiksen, C. and Bakken, F. (2000), Libraries inKosova / Kosovo, IFLA/FAIFE, Copenhagen, pp. http://www.faife.dk/Frederiksen, C. and Bakken, F. (2001), Allegeddestructions of books in Serbian in Mitrovice/KosovskaMitrovica, IFLA/FAIFE, Copenhagen, pp. http://www.faife.dk/mitrorep.htmFustukjian, S. (1984), American University of Beirut,

College and Research Libraries News, 45(4), pp. 172-174.Gordimer, N. (1999), Morning in the library: 1975, Indexon Censorship, 28(2), pp. 84-87.Klima, I. (1999), A benefactor of the library, Index onCensorship, 28(2), pp. 39-45.Kroller, F. and Reinitzer, S. (1992), Kriegseinwithungenauf kroatische Bibliotheken im Jahre 1991. The effects ofwar on Croatian libraries in 1991, ABI Technik, 12(3), pp.219-222, 224.Mackenzie, G. P. (2000), Working for the protection ofthe world’s cultural heritage: the International Committeeof the Blue Shield, Journal of the Society of Archivists,21(1), pp. 5-10.Manguel, A. (1999), Libraries and their ashes, Index onCensorship, 28(2), pp. 32-44.Margaronis, M. (1999), Purgation and liberation, Indexon Censorship, 28(2), pp. 147-149.Owen, U. (1999), Word power: issue on libraries, Indexon Censorship, 28(2).Peic, S. (1998), The destruction of a nation’s literaryheritage: libraries in Bosnia and Hercegovina, withspecial reference to the National and University Library,Alexandria, 10(1), pp. 77-84.Sable, M. H. (1985), Warfare and the library: aninternational bibliography, Library and Archival Security,7(1), pp. 25-97.Sturges, P. and Rosenberg, D. (Eds.) (1999), Disasterand after: the practicalities of information service in timesof war and other catastrophes. Proceedings of aninternational conference sponsored by IGLA (TheInternational Group of the Library Association),University of Bristol, UK, 4-6 September 1998. TaylorGraham, London.Tesanovic, J. (1999), Secrets and lies, Index onCensorship, 28(2), pp. 152-156.United Nations (1954), Hague Convention for theProtection of Cultural Property in the Event of ArmedConflict.van der Hoeven, H. and van Albada, J. (1996), Memoryof the world: lost memory - libraries and archivesdestroyed in the twentieth century, Unesco, Paris.


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Learning from History - Beacon for Freedom of Expression

Learning from H

istory

Learning from History‘Beacon for Freedom of Expression’

Hege Newth Nouri

“The history of literature is the history of censor-ship,” said the German novelist and Nobel Prizewinner Günther Grass, in 2001. Most visible isthe censorship inflicted on political, religious ormoral grounds. In over 100 countries the right tofreely express thoughts and opinions is stillcontrolled by ruling authorities, in some countriesmore strictly than others. Authors, journalists,editors and publishers are the first victims ofcensorship. In that regard, 2001 was a sombre year,according to reports from international freedomof expression organisations. 31 journalists werekilled, as in 2000, but the number of arrestedjournalists rose with 50 % to 489, the highestfigure since 1995, and the number of attacks rose40 % to 716.

Entering a new millennium with the aims offostering a spirit of openness, exploring the fieldof knowledge and making it accessible, the newBibliotheca Alexandrina will carry on the proudtraditions of this once important library. It willbecome the world library for human rights and

humanism. In celebration of the revival ofBibliotheca Alexandrina, the Norwegian Forumfor Freedom of Expression (NFFE) (1995–2001)has developed an international database contain-ing bibliographic information - historical andcurrent - on censorship of books newspapers, andliterature on freedom of expression. Since theautumn of 2001, the Norwegian Library Associa-tion, the Institute of Human Rights at the Univer-sity of Oslo, and the Faculty of Journalism, Libraryand Information Science at the Oslo College havebeen the new proprietors of the database project,and constitute the Norwegian Steering Committee.In order to secure the continued development ofthe database, an international Steering Commit-tee and administration was established in 2001.The Committee consists of representativesappointed by International Freedom of Expres-sion Exchange Clearing House (IFEX), Interna-tional Federation of Library Associations andInstitutions, Committee on Freedom of Access toInformation and Freedom of Expression (IFLA/FAIFE) and the Norwegian Steering Committee.


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In this expert network of co-operation, the leader-ship of Bibliotheca Alexandrina have a key role toplay. The database Beacon for Freedom ofExpression has been funded by the NorwegianMinistry of Culture, representing a gift from Nor-way to be presented to Bibliotheca Alexandrina bythe Norwegian Minister of Cultural and ChurchAffairs in 2002.

The basis for Beacon for Freedom of Expressionis a worldwide survey conducted in 1997, aimedat mapping existing resources and determiningthe need for a bibliographical database on censor-ship and freedom of expression. The surveyincluded Internet, national libraries, internationalnon-governmental organisations, institutions forresearch and culture, government bodies andinternational institutions. The survey confirmedthe need to gather in one database the vast selec-tion of information on censorship past andpresent held by a great variety of sources. Of noless importance was to make available the hugeamounts of information still only accessible innational paper archives.

Initially more than 300 national and internationalorganisations and institutions were invited toparticipate in the database project. Based on thelarge network of contacts and sources, closer co-operation was established with selected nationallibraries on all continents. We, the proprietors,regard this co-operation as vitally important, notonly to ensure the professional quality of infor-mation, but also to establish partnerships withthose libraries that hold national archives on past

censorship. Amongst the libraries, which havecontributed with material on censored publica-tions, we wish to thank specially The NationalLibrary of Lithuania, the National Library ofRussia in St Petersburg, the Russian State Libraryin Moscow, Jacobsens Publishers in South Africaand the National Library of South Africa. However,other libraries that do not keep information oncensored publications, such as the British Libraryand the Library of Congress in Washington D.C,also represent invaluable contributors to theproject, as their online catalogues represent themost comprehensive sources accessible of litera-ture on freedom of expression and censorship.

An information bank on censorship andfreedom of expression is needed

The proprietors’ main objective has been todesign a model, both regarding the content of thedatabase and the co-operation between differentfields of expertise. Accordingly, the NorwegianSteering Committee represents various profes-sional fields, with the Norwegian National Libraryacting as the professional advisor. To ensure highprofessional technical quality and compatibility,the database was produced in collaboration withtutors and more than 20 students at the Facultyof Journalism, Library and Information Scienceat the Oslo University College.

Beacon for Freedom of Expression, updatedthrough 2001, contains more than 50,000 itemsof bibliographic information on:


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• Publications on freedom of expression fromavailable sources worldwide. Publicationsinclude current reports and books, as well aspublications out of print.

• Censorship of books and newspapers worldwide during the last decade

• Bibliographical data on current and historiccensorship of books and newspapers fromselected historical periods and countries on allcontinents. Data on censored items before1900 may remain incomplete. After 1900,sources allow for a considerably more compre-hensive registration of data.

Thematically, NFFE has chosen as a first prioritythe most outstanding periods of censorship inWestern history, such as that of the RomanCatholic Church, the former Soviet Union or NaziGermany during World War II. These periodswere selected due to their transnational reach andthe duration of the devastation they caused.

The criteria of selection are based on the commondefinition of censorship, especially related togovernment and the rule of law. The grounds forcensorship constitute a major criterion for theinclusion of bibliographic information of itemsin the database. Entries are restricted to thoseitems that have been censored on political, reli-gious or moral grounds. A second criterion is thecensoring body. Only items censored by state orgoverning bodies or state related bodies areentered. Entries are made according to the defini-tion of censorship in each country.

Censorship in libraries - the benevolentpublic concern for morality

Although government-instituted censorship hadapparently been abandoned in most westerncountries during the 19th and most of the 20th

century, public concern regarding offensiveliterature did not subside. Surprisingly, in liberalminded countries such as Sweden and Norway,boasting the earliest laws on press freedom,surveillance of public and school libraries re-mained a concern to authors and publishers eventowards the end of the twentieth century. No lesssurprising is the die-hard tradition of surveillanceof books in schools and libraries in the UnitedStates. In spite of the Library Bill of Rights andthe library profession’s interpretation of the FirstAmendment of the US Constitution, public andschool libraries in the US are still subject topressure from groups claiming to represent theinterests of parents or religious moral codes, andface demands to remove books of “questionablecontent”. However, this practice has not remainedunchallenged by the libraries themselves. TheAmerican Library Association Office of Intellec-tual Freedom (ALAOIF) maintains statistics onattempts to censor libraries in various states, andregularly publishes lists of challenged books.

Censorship of libraries is far from a recent prac-tice. On the contrary, libraries have been thetargets of censorship since ancient times. Historyis littered with the destruction of library collec-tions, and libraries themselves becoming flamingpyres on all continents, the deliberate burning of


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a library recorded in China as early as in 221 BC.Although the destruction by fire of 400,000 rollsin the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in 47 BC was byall accounts accidental, the burning of the entirecollection of the University of Oxford library in1683 was on direct orders from the king. Even inthe 20th century, the burning and destruction oflibraries has been extensively applied by rulingauthorities as a warning to subversives and amethod of purging ethnic languages, as was thecase in Sarajevo and Kosova. In 1991 the Serbiangovernment banned Albanian as a language ofinstruction at all levels of education. During theperiod 1990-99, all the libraries in Kosova weresubjected to the burning or destruction of theAlbanian–language collections, according toreports from the joint UNESCO, Council ofEurope and IFLA/FAIFE Kosova Library Missionin 2000. The Serbian governments deliberatecultural ethnic cleansing on the brink of a newmillennium will stand as a distressing monumentto the enduring tradition of destructive censorship.

Our knowledge of the past, is our key tounderstanding the present

Beacon for Freedom of Expression is aimed atcontributing to greater public awareness of theimportance of a free press, access to informationand open debate. We, the proprietors, believe thatfreedom of expression is the best defence againstsuppression. It represents the cornerstone ofdemocracy.

The database Beacon for Freedom of Expressionwill simultaneously be launched as a dedicatedwebsite, and will be publicly available when thegift has been presented to the Library of Alexan-dria. Thus, the lists of banned literature willconstitute a monument to the countless authorsand journalists that throughout history have beensilenced, their works in many cases now lostforever.


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How to Respond when the Intellectual Freedoms are at Stake?

How

to Respond

How to Respond when theIntellectual Freedoms are at Stake?

Robert Wallace Vaagan

Libraries and the new millennium

On the threshold of the new millennium it istempting from the vantage point of a library andinformation science educator to conceive of thefuture in terms of challenges, and less in terms ofpotential conflict areas. Yet it would be naive tobelieve that issues such as globalisation, digitisation,digital literacy, the digital gap between the infor-mation rich and poor, commodification ofinformation, privacy, authenticity, confidentiality,censorship, copyright, intellectual property rights,grey literature, electronic filters, the consequencesof GATS (the General Agreement on Trade inServices) will be resolved without at least somelevel of conflict on certain issues. If we add to thislist post-September 11, 2001, anti-terroristlegislation, which may negatively affect freedomof access to information and freedom of expres-sion also for all of us who are not terrorists, thereare definitely reasons for concern.

Reaffirmation of values and ethics

To many globalisation remains associated withsomething uncontrollable, which engulfs nations,institutions and individuals in an informationand communication technologies-induced waveof transnational homogenisation. Librarianshipand the entire library and information sciencefield are being reshaped, to the extent that severallibrary and information science authors such asM.Gorman and R. McCabe over the last yearshave reaffirmed the traditional values of librar-ianship.1 Based on UNESCO’s planned globalinfoethics code to be launched in 2003, and theincreasing relevance of infoethics,2 it is reasonableto posit that ethics will form part of the trafficrules that will apply to what some have describedas the global information superhighway of thenew millennium.3

Limitless freedom of expression?

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,


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Article 19, which forms a basis for the core valuesof IFLA and the activities of FAIFE, states that

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinionand expression; this right includes freedom tohold opinions without interference and toseek, receive and impart information and ideasthrough any media and regardless of frontiers.

In the post-war atmosphere of 1948 when theUDHR was formulated, freedom of expressionapparently had no downside. But in today’sinformation age the controversy over the Chil-dren’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA) shows thatunbridled freedom of expression for all also has adownside, and that many are willing to acceptcertain forms of media censorship. Both TheAmerican Library Association (ALA) and manyprivacy and free-speech organizations protestedin vain against the Act, which was passed by theUS Congress in December 2000. Earlier, in 1996,ALA had taken the Clinton Administration’sCommunications Decency Act (CDA) thatattempted to introduce Internet filtering, to thecourts, and in 1997 The Supreme Court ruledthat most of the CDA was an “unconstitutionalviolation of free-speech rights”.4

The idealistic principles of Article 19 have beenmodified in subsequent developments in interna-tional law and national legislatures. The Interna-tional Covenant on Civil and Political Rights(ICCPR) from 1966 was ratified by a large major-ity of states in the world and entered into force in1976.5 Article 19 of the ICCPR concerns Freedom

of Opinion, Expression and Information. Itrepeats the UDHR formulations, and specifiesthat information and ideas can be oral, in writingor in print, in the form of art, or through anyother media of choice. Yet the exercise of theserights carries with it special duties and responsi-bilities and may therefore be subject to certainrestrictions such as respect of the rights andreputations of others, the protection of nationalsecurity or of public order or of public health ormorals.6

Similarly, in The European Convention for theProtection of Human Rights and FundamentalFreedoms from 1950, Article 10 (Freedom ofexpression) reads as follows:

1 Everyone has the right to freedom of expression.This right shall include freedom to holdopinions and to receive and impart informa-tion and ideas without interference by publicauthority and regardless of frontiers. Thisarticle shall not prevent States from requiringthe licensing of broadcasting, television orcinema enterprises.

2 The exercise of these freedoms, since it carrieswith it duties and responsibilities, may besubject to such formalities, conditions, restric-tions or penalties as are prescribed by law andare necessary in a democratic society, in theinterests of national security, territorial integ-rity or public safety, for the prevention ofdisorder or crime, for the protection of healthor morals, for the protection of the reputationor rights of others, for preventing the disclosure


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of information received in confidence, or formaintaining the authority and impartiality ofthe judiciary.

Clearly, freedom of access to information and thefreedom of expression remains an ideal, certainlyan extremely important ideal, but which undercertain conditions, e.g. times of crisis or war, canbe legally proscribed. Whereas laws focus on whatis legal, core values and codes of ethics primarilyaddress the issue of legitimacy. Laws and ethicsneed not always harmonize, as civil disobedienceis a reminder of. A potential conflict area, there-fore, in the new millennium for libraries, librar-ians and information specialists is the possibledivergence between professional ethical valuessuch as unrestricted freedom of access to infor-mation and to freedom of expression, and aspectsof existing or new legislation, especially new anti-terrorist legislation.

Libraries and the response to terrorism

In the wake of the tragic events of September 11,2001 in New York and Washington, legislationwas passed in the US and in many other countriesdesigned to prevent international terrorism.While the intention is to restrain only thosesuspected of or proven to be linked with terroristactivities, there is concern also within the libraryand information science field that the conse-quences could reach much wider. If, as it has beensuggested, some hijackers have communicatedthrough Internet services at public libraries,should e.g. librarians and information specialists

be more alert to possible terrorist plotting, oreven ordinary crime, among users and in conse-quence less adverse to waiving or violating userprivacy and confidentiality? In a press release ofOctober4, 2001 (“Terrorism, the Internet, andFree Access to Information”) IFLA emphasizedthe positive side of freedom of access to informa-tion: the greatly increased use of Internet duringand after the attacks by affected families, friendsand the general public. On this basis IFLA urgedthe library community to redouble its efforts forfreedom of access to information and freedom ofexpression worldwide. Yet national anti-terroristlegislation may in certain cases oblige the librar-ian and library to rescind on these high profes-sional principles.

A related potential conflict area is library em-ployee freedom of speech on professional andpolicy issues, which remains a moot point inmost codes of ethics in the library and informationscience field. UCLA librarian J.Hargis receiveddisciplinary action for criticizing the US adminis-tration in the immediate aftermath of September11. The publication of a report entitled ‘Defend-ing Civilization: How Our Universities AreFailing America and What Can Be Done About It’by ACTA (The American Council for Trusteesand Alumni) have led to accusations from uni-versity employees of McCarthyism. It remains tobe seen how libraries, librarians and informationspecialists in the US and in other countries willhandle these potentially difficult topics. What isfairly obvious is that library and informationscience core values and ethics will be more in


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focus than before. The reaffirmation of valuesand ethics referred to initially is therefore aphenomenon to which IFLA and FAIFE aredevoting considerable attention.

IFLA/FAIFE and codes of ethics

2002 is not only the threshold to the new millen-nium and the challenges outlined above. Thisyear also marks the 75th anniversary of IFLA andis therefore an appropriate occasion to reflect onthe 5 core values that all IFLA member associa-tions remain committed to, also after September11, 2001:

• We believe that people, communities andorganizations need for their physical, mental,democratic and economic well-being, freeaccess to information, ideas and works ofimagination

• We believe that the provision and delivery ofhigh quality library and information serviceshelp guarantee that access

• We are committed to enabling library associa-tions and institutions throughout the world,and their staff, to participate in the work of theFederation regardless of geographical location

• We support and promote the principles offreedom of access to information ideas andworks of imagination embodied in Article 19of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

• We recognize the rights of all members toengage in, and benefit from, its activities with-out regard to citizenship, ethnic origin, gender,language, political philosophy, race or religion.

The first IFLA/FAIFE World Report launched in2001 confirmed a readiness to monitor the stateof intellectual freedom within the global librarycommunity, to support IFLA policy developmentand cooperation with other international humanrights organisations, and to respond to violationsof freedom of access to information and freedomof expression.

The adoption by many library associations ofcodes of ethics or conduct is an important indi-cation of the level of local commitment in differ-ent countries to the core values of IFLA and tothe activities of FAIFE. Currently the FAIFEWebsite lists a selection of 27 countries with suchcodes, and the intention is to expand the list toinclude all countries with similar codes. None ofthese codes are identical and several, e.g. those forThai Library Professionals (adopted 1978) andfor Swedish librarians (adopted 1992, revised1998), omit explicit references to electronic ordigital information access and sources. Nationallibrary association codes are a potentially impor-tant instrument for IFLA/FAIFE monitoring. Yetthere is a need to know more about each nationalassociation code, e.g. the historical background,the library and information structure, libraryassociations and the impact of the informationage. With this in mind, IFLA in 2002 plans topublish in its Saur series a book entitled ‘TheEthics of Librarianship: An International Survey’,edited by Dr. Robert Vaagan with a foreword byAlex Byrne, chairman of FAIFE. The book willcontain articles by 17 library practitioners, schol-ars and library and information science educators


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from all over the world, and will address ethicalchallenges in librarianship in the information age.Hopefully, this type of book will prove helpful inpromoting both IFLA core values and the workof FAIFE in monitoring the state of intellectualfreedom within the global library community,and in supporting IFLA policy development andco-operation with other international humanrights organisations.

In addition, the book may also facilitate a discus-sion of possible harmonization of national codes,to the extent that this is desirable and possible:While some variation in substance and detail indifferent national codes is natural as a result ofseparate historical, cultural and political contexts,the issue of code harmonization e.g. based on the5 IFLA core values is clearly a field that is worthfurther exploration. Here IFLA/FAIFE would beprepared to establish a system of in-house con-sultancy services possibly reinforced by an inter-national expert panel, which can be made avail-able to members wishing to develop ethicalguidelines, or have them independently assessed.

Ethical accountancy and auditing

In order to pursue the objectives noted aboveIFLA/FAIFE is considering several other concretemeasures in addition to its policy papers andstatements. Among these is the advocacy of asystem of ethical accountancy and auditing inwhich members would be encouraged to introduceannual (alternatively bi-annual or tri-annual)ethical accountancy and audits. A possible strategy

would be that in countries with national ethicalguidelines, each library would first assess theextent to which formulated ethical guidelines havebeen complied with, and further assess reasonsfor possible discrepancies between performanceand guidelines. Secondly, national library associa-tions would compile aggregate figures for alllibraries in their respective countries. Thirdly,IFLA/FAIFE at the international level wouldcompile an international index for all memberassociations. The system would be meaningfulnot only to countries and institutions operatingin adherence with adopted ethical guidelines, butwould represent a reference point also to othercountries and institutions wanting to adoptsimilar guidelines. A parallel to this is the humandevelopment index of the UNDP, which hasgathered considerable international attention andrespect. The system could initially be tried out insome countries on a test basis, and if by commonagreement proven successful, it could be spread toother countries. If IFLA/FAIFE were to implementthis practice the material would provide invalu-able background information for the functionsand responsibilities already undertaken by IFLA/FAIFE, facilitate IFLA/FAIFE co-operation withfree speech and human rights organizations andstrengthen the position of IFLA/FAIFE interna-tionally.

Library and information science educa-tion

Another field where there is further scope forstrengthening the understanding of IFLA/FAIFE


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core values and policy goals is library and infor-mation science education, which is currentlyundergoing reshaping in many countries. Somelibrary and information science authors haveobserved that the theme of survival appearsrepeatedly in the library and information scienceeducation literature.7 Certainly, as noted by theseauthors, advances in technology and telecommu-nications and the increasing strategic importanceof information have engendered a strugglebetween library and information science andother professions and academic disciplines. Thestruggle is both for jurisdiction over functionsthat have traditionally been library and informa-tion science turf, and for emerging informationand communication technologies-inducedinformation functions. While some authorsrecommend that librarians and libraries adoptnew roles and acquire new skills, others urge theformation of new professional identities. Underpressure from commercialisation and privatisa-tion, a loss of public-service ethic and the possi-bility of de-professionalization are noticeable alsoin librarianship. A new discourse around theprofession supports privatisation of informationand repackaging of the skills of the librarians intothose of ‘infopreneurs’ (ibid.). But if we take theanalysis a step further, we need to ask whetherthis is all that library and information scienceeducation is to be about? If intellectual freedom isat stake should not library and information scienceeducation take due note of this and adapt? Onemajor conclusion we may draw from the booksof Gorman and McCabe referred to above, is thatethical or moral values should be accorded a

stronger role in library and information scienceeducation. In Europe, it is interesting to note thatin Denmark a recent study of 411 Danish publiclibraries shows that a clear majority of leaders ofDanish public libraries do not have - and want toacquire - skills in VBL (Value-Based Leadership),such as ethical accounting.8

Presently there is considerable variation in theplace and importance accorded to ethics inlibrary and information science education. A fairsupposition is that ethics is primarily taught incountries where ethical codes of librarianship havebeen adopted. Such is the case e.g. in Lithuania.By identifying and reflecting on ethical standardsof excellence in areas such as dealing with infor-mation users, conducting professional relation-ships, and providing high-quality documentationand information services, librarianship ethics andinfoethics essentially provide value-based land-marks and navigation skills in the agitated,globalized sea of the information age. As suchthese topics deserve to be compulsory in libraryand information science curricula, particularly incountries where national codes have been adopted.In this way young library and information sciencegraduates commencing their careers will bring tothe profession a heightened ethical awarenesscoupled by new skills which will make younglibrary and information science professionalsbetter equipped and motivated to meet thechallenges of the new millennium, especially thethreats to intellectual freedom.


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Concrete responses to issues of concern

By Susanne Seidelin

When intellectual freedoms are at stake withregard to library services, IFLA and IFLA/FAIFEreact in various ways according to the specificmatter at hand. Cases in individual countrieswould often be addressed with letters to theauthorities or governments, whereas publishedstatements, declarations, or manifestos all addressthe more general difficulties and challenges theinternational library and information communityare facing. In other cases, IFLA/FAIFE initiatesprojects related to specific countries or regions ofconcern, publishing reports on the results ofinvestigations, eg the Kosovo Report and reportson library services in Cuba. The current focus ona possible project on the re-building and develop-ment of library services in Afghanistan in coop-eration with UNESCO is another example of ouractivities. In 2001 we responded to reported casesin e.g. South Africa, Zimbabwe, East Timor,France, and currently we are investigating reportson the destruction of libraries and Arab culturalheritage documents in Palestine.

To verify and further investigate reported inci-dents, we cooperate closely with IFLA Headquar-ters, other IFLA bodies, library organisations andNGO’s such as independent human rights or-ganisations, or the organisations of the press. Itshould be stated here that IFLA/FAIFE does nottake a political stand neither with regards toconflicts nor to reported incidents. We act solely

in the interest of promoting the principles offreedom of access to information as defined inour objectives. For the sake of our credibility thisindependent status is important to uphold. Tofurther develop our professional approach, we arecurrently developing an alert manual that willidentify the nature of the cases we respond to andwhich cases we would recommend directing toother organisations. The manual will, step bystep, describe the working process of IFLA/FAIFEwhen responding to reported incidents, and willhopefully be published by end of this year.

As part of the celebration activities of the 75th

anniversary of IFLA, IFLA/FAIFE last year sug-gested developing an IFLA declaration for theadoption by IFLA Council at the Glasgow confer-ence. The draft version was approved by theGoverning Board in March 2002 and translatedinto the official IFLA languages. The declarationproclaims its support for fundamental humanrights and intellectual freedoms, including theright of freedom of access to information, andaffirms the objectives of the library and informa-tion services connected herewith. It will beknown as the Glasgow Declaration on Libraries,Information Services and Intellectual Freedom.

Another example of an IFLA/FAIFE initiativerelating to IFLA policy development is the IFLAInternet Manifesto published on IFLANET onMarch 1, 20029. As the Internet becomes morewidely adopted as a major medium for communi-cation and accessing information it becomes evermore important that we should ensure that it is


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an open medium through which information, ideasand opinions may be freely expressed and sought.Thus the manifesto supports the principle of free-dom of access to all Internet accessible informationand rejects controls such as filtering. To implementthe manifesto IFLA/FAIFE plans to hold work-shops - if we can find sponsors willing to host theevents. The workshops will address the challengesof implementation of principles and best practiceguidelines in various regions of the world.

The decision of developing the manifesto wastaken before September 11, 2001. In the wake ofthe terrible events of that day, so-called ‘terroristacts’ have passed parliaments in several countries,underlining the relevance of this initiative. It isour hope and expectation that the InternetManifesto will be as influential as the PublicLibrary and the School Library Manifestos, whichhave been adopted previously by UNESCO.

To further the IFLA/FAIFE initiatives on issuesregarding the Internet and bridging the digitaldivide, the PhD scholarship was initiated inNovember 2001. The project, taken on by MrStuart Hamilton of the UK, is focusing on free-dom of access to Internet accessible informationfrom a global perspective. Interim reports on theresults shall be published regularly together withreports on meetings and workshops relevant tothe studies of the topic.

These initiatives are examples of how the interna-tional library community, through IFLA, can

react collectively to help safeguard freedom ofaccess to information for the sake of the world-wide development of libraries and professionalservices. Likewise, the manifestos and declara-tions also function as practical tools supportingthe daily work in libraries around the world.

References

1 Michael Gorman (2000). Our Enduring Values.Librarianship in the 21st Century, Chicago:AmericanLibrary Association; Ronald B. McCabe (2001). CivicLibrarianship. Renewing the Social Mission of thePublic Library. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press.

2 Martha Smith (2001). “Information Ethics”, in:F.C.Lynden (2001) Advances in Librarianship, Vol. 25,San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 29-66.

3 Manuel Castells (1997). The Information Age:Economy Society and Culture, Vol. III, p. 373.

4 C.Oppenheim, N.Pollecutt (2000). “ProfessionalAssociations and Ethical Issues in LIS”, Journal ofLibrarianship and Information Science, Vol. 32, No.4,December 2000, pp.187-203.

5 Human Rights Law Journal, Vol. 20, No.1-3, 1999,p.120.

6 J. Korteinnen et al. (1999). ”Article 19” in: G.Alfredson& A.Eide (eds.) The Universal Declaration of HumanRights. A Common Standard of Achievement,Nijhoff:The Hague, p.404.

7 Roma Harris, Margaret Ann Wilkinson (2001).“(Re)Positioning Librarians: How Young People Viewthe Information Sector”, Journal of Education forLibrary and Information Science, Vol.42, No.4, Fall2001, pp.289-307.

8 Nils Ole Pors, Carl Gustav Johannsen (2001).“Mellem New Public Management og værdiledelse.Bibliotekledelse under krydspres”, Proceedings,Nordic Seminar on Public Library Research, 10-11December 2001, Copenhagen:Royal School ofLibrary and Information Science, pp.159-169.

9 http://ifla.org


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