Lecture 1 Part 2

• What is Research?• What is Research Methodology?• Why do scientists often seem tentative about

their explanations?• Finding Research Problem?• What is the difference between independent

and dependent variables?• What is a null hypothesis?

Research Workflow

OBSERVATION

Broad area of research interest

identifiedPROBLEM

DEFINITION

Research problem

delineated

PRELIMINARY DATA

GATHERING

Interviewing & Literature Survey

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Variables clearly identified and

labeled

HYPOTHESES GENERATION

DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND

INTERPRETATION

DEDUCTION

Hypotheses substantiated?

Research questions answered

SCIENTIFICRESEARCHDESIGN

Find a good theme

• 1. Find your interest ! • 2. What have the other people done about the topic ?

-literature survey• 3. What is the problem ? How is it formulated ?• 4. How did they solve the problem ?• 5. Are there unexpected results ? Why it happened ?• 6. What is your opinion ? • 1. Do you have any idea to improve the research ?• 2. Do you have different approach to solve the problem ?

What is a Variable? Simply, something that varies. Specifically, variables represent persons or objects that can be manipulated, controlled, or merely measured for the sake of research.

Independent Variables.These variables are ones that are more or less controlled. Scientists manipulate these variables as they see fit. They still vary, but the variation is relatively known or taken into account. Often there are many in a given study

Dependent variablesDependent variables are not controlled or manipulated in any way, but instead are simply measured or registered.

These vary in relation to the independent variables, and while results can be predicted, the data is always measured.

There can be any number of dependent variables, but usually there is one to isolate reason for variation.

Two basic categoriesof human reasoning

• Deduction: reasoning from general premises, which are known or presumed to be known, to more specific, certain conclusions.

• Induction: reasoning from specific cases to more general, but uncertain, conclusions.

• Both deductive and inductive arguments occur frequently and naturally…both forms of reasoning can be equally compelling and persuasive, and neither form is preferred over the other (Hollihan & Baske, 1994).

Deduction Vs. Induction

Deduction:• commonly associated

with “formal logic.”• involves reasoning from

known premises, or premises presumed to be true, to a certain conclusion.

• the conclusions reached are certain, inevitable, inescapable.

Induction• commonly known as

“informal logic,” or “everyday argument”

• involves drawing uncertain inferences, based on probabalistic reasoning.

• the conclusions reached are probable, reasonable, plausible, believable.

Inductive or deductive reasoning?

• A sample of fifty motorists who were stopped by the CHP at a sobriety checkpoint on a Saturday at midnight revealed that one in four drivers were either uninsured, intoxicated, or both. Thus, if you get involved in an accident on the freeway there is a 25% chance the other motorist will be drunk or uninsured.

• The Law of the Sea treaty states that any vessel beyond a 12 mile limit is in international waters. The treaty also states that any vessel in international waters cannot be legally stopped or boarded. Therefore, when the U.S. Coast Guard intercepts boats coming from Cuba or Haiti more than 12 miles from the U.S. coast, it is violating the Law of the Sea.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

Theory: Broad based explanation of phenomena Hypothesis : Proposed explanation for narrow

set of phenomena

Types of Research

• Applied Research: Research done with the intention of applying the results of its finding to solving specific problems currently being experienced (Real life)

• Basic Research: Research done with the intention to generate more knowledge and understanding of the phenomena that occur and to build theories based on the research results.

Both types of research follow the same steps of systematic inquiry to arrive at solutions to problems.

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Pure Research• Pure research is also know as basic or fundamental

research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness.

• It may lead to either discovery of a new theory of refinement of an existing theory.

• Pure research formed the basis for innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam engine, Machines, Telecommunications, Electronic Gadgets etc.

• Pure research offers solutions to many practical problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a practical Problem. It develops many alternative solutions.

• Example of Pure Research1. Einstein’s Theory of Relativity2. Newton’s Contributions

Applied Research

• Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision.

• It is thus problem oriented and action directed. It immediate and practical result.

• Applied research in the field of Technology, Management, Commerce, Economics.

• Applied research can contribute now facts:• It can put theory to the test• It may aid in conceptual clarification• It may integrate previously existing theories

• Example:1. Market research carried on for developing a new market.

Objectives

• Descriptive research: attempts to describe systematically a situation problem, phenomenon, service or program, or provides information live condition on community

• Correlation Research: discover or establish relationship, association, interdependence between two or more situations.

• Explanatory: Attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of situation or phenomenon.

• Exploratory: To explore an area where little is known.

• Inquiry Mode: The process being adopted to find answers

• Approaches: 1. Structured - Quantitative2. Unstructured - Qualitative

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Concentrated issue - maximum probingFree exchange of informationEasier to arrangeBest for intimate, sensitive issuesFlexibility

ExpensiveTime consumingExhausting for InterviewerInterviewer errorsRespondent bias or reliability

KEEP IN MIND THAT …

• Qualitative research generally deals in words, images and the subjective

• Quantitative research generally deals in numbers, logic and the objective

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH SURVEY

SURVEY METHOD:

• STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE

• GIVEN TO A SAMPLE OF A POPULATION

• DESIGNED TO GAIN SPECIFIC INFORMATION

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH - EXPERIMENTATION

EXPERIMENTATION METHOD:

• Scientific investigation in which

• an investigator manipulates and controls one or more independent variables and

• observes the dependent variable for variation concomitant to the manipulation of the independent variables.*

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Specific research problemClear independent and dependent variableHigh level of reliabilityMinimum personal judgement

Limited outcomes due to structured methodUnability to control the environmentExpensive(large number of respondents)

Differences between qualitative and quantitative research

• Involves unstructured interviews, observation, and content analysis.

• Subjective• Inductive• Little structure• Little manipulation of

subjects• Takes a great deal of

time to conduct• Little social distance

between researcher and subject

• Involves experiments, surveys, testing, and structured content analysis, interviews, and observation.

• Objective• Deductive• High degree of structure• Some manipulation of

subjects• May take little time to

conduct• Much social distance

between researcher and subject

The applications of research

The service provider The administratorManager and/ or

planner

The consumer The professional

To answer question such as:

How many people are using the service or the product? Why do some people use the service/ product while others do not?

To answer question such as:

What types of service/ product are needed by the community? How many service providers are needed?

To answer question such as:

Am I, as a consumer getting value for money? How good are the service providers?

To answer question such as:

Which is the most effective intervention for a particular problem? What is the relationship between X and Y?

From the viewpoint of

Characteristics of Research• Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or

observation by the researcher.

Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.

• Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a problem.

• Systematic• Procedures adopted to undertake an

investigation, follow a certain logical sequence.

oCritical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.

oMethodical. Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic method and procedures.

oReplicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results

Characteristics of Research

• Controlled• Exploring causality in relation to two variables, in a way that

minimizes the effects of other factors affecting relationship

• Rigorous• Ensuring that, the procedures followed to find answers to the

question are relevant, appropriate and justified• Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.

Characteristics of Research (Cont..)

• Valid and verifiable• Verification of the conclusion on the basis of your

findings

• Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, experimental and case study.

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References

• http://www.shoreline.edu/eng102/sampthesis.htm

• www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/000896.pdf (Research Methodology - An Introduction)

• http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2011/06/20/essential-guide-writing-good-abstracts/

• Ranjit Kumar (Research Methodology- A Step by Step guide for Beginners)