Part I

§1 History, Geography & Linguistic Overview

§1.1 Linguistic and Genetic Classification

The Siwa people are a native american linguistic and genetic ethnicity. They are part of the Alopian linguistic and ethnic group, which are the native inhabitants of most of the province of Quebec and Labrador. The Alopian family contains 7 languages regrouped in three branches – Siwa and Sigori form the Forest Alopian branch; Eastern Onori and Western Onori form the Tundra Alopian branch, while Central, Costal and Southern Olma form the Costal Alopian branch. The Forest and Tundra Alopian branches are grouped together as the Inland Alopian branch. The Alopian language family is of no proven linguistic relation to any other language or language family in North America, but it shows influence from the surrounding Algonquian languages. Compared to their neighbors, the Alopian languages display a remarkably different morphology and phonology – the languages are not “typical” of the northeastern native american linguistic profile. Alopian languages show distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants; certain languages have rounded vowels; all Alopian languages have fixed initial stress, etc. On the other hand, there is much homogeneity between all Alopian languages, and even the most divergent languages (for example, both linguistically and geographically opposed Eastern Onori and Southern Olma are not as distant from each other as English and Russian – their similarities and dissimilarities are more comparable to those of English to Swedish. Physically, the Alopians are not similar to their Algonquian neighbors. Alopians are short, have large elevated cheekbones, somewhat small noses, heavy brows (but fairly little eyebrows) and dark hair. However, unlike the rest of native North Americans, Alopian people sometimes display curly hair in much lighter shades than other tribes, freckles, sometimes pale brown to green eyes and a paler complexion. Some children are born with blond or white hair. These traits most often appear all together, more often in women, and are considered beautiful. Genetically, Alopians are atypical in that they exhibit the highest rate of the X MtDNA haplogroup in the Americas, with as much as 45% of the population carrying the X haplogroup. They are followed by the Algonquian people (their neighbors to the west) with a frequency of as much as 25%. The X haplogroup is the only founding haplogroup of Native Americans (the others are A, B, C and D) which is found in Europe, specifically in Near East, Caucasus and Mediterranean Europe.

(intro, phono, nouns, pronouns, verbs,

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Map showing the summer territories of the Alopian languages.

§1.2 The Alopian Language Family

According to one fairly supported theory, the reconstructed proto-langauge, ancestor of the Alopian languages, seems to have been originally spoken somewhere in Eurasia, most likely to the west of the Ural mountains. Proto-Alopians moved westward and perhaps encountered the early Uralic or Finno-Ugric people in or east of Scandinavia and eventually Proto-Alopians traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and settled what is known today as Quebec. Although an unlikely scenario, it seems to be the most probable one in light of otherwise unexplained evidence. The evidence is composed of a few borrowings from a very early Uralic language and traits dissimilar to the native american cultures and general linguistic Sprachbund as well as also non-european mitochondrial DNA. This would make the Alopian people the only genetic and linguistic group to have settled America from the Atlantic Ocean. The earliest traces of Alopian culture in North America go back to ±4000 BCE to the south of the shores of the Saint-Lawrence River. However, it

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is not unlikely that Proto-Alopian people were in the Eastern Woodland area of North America 9000-8000 BCE. This dating, however, complicates matters as such a time depth renders any contact with Uralic people unlikely. The earliest date for a migration over the Atlantic is in the range of 10,000 to 8000 BCE. It is possible that Proto-Alopian people sailed much later on, as late as ±5000 BCE (called the Late Settlement Theory). No archeological evidence points to this being possible or impossible, such that this remains an unverifiable theory. Because of the great time depth of the Uralic languages and because reconstructed words of the Proto-Finnic, Proto-Samic and/or Proto-Finno-Permic (depending on the classification) seem to go back to the earliest stages of Proto-Uralic, it is not possible to guess at what time or in what place the Proto-Alopians would have had contacts with early Uralic people – if ever. It is quite certain, however, that Proto-Alopian people and Proto-Uralic people shared a similar Urheimat and were originally part of a similar cultural area – certain cultural terms that seem common to many Uralic languages For example, the Proto-Uralic *wä!kä (sometimes termed a Wanderwort) resembles the Proto-Alopian form *(v/m?)"ski (cf. SIWA moski ‘wild copper’). Similarly, the Proto-Uralic *yï#si ‘bow’ is similar (but not identical or regularly derivable) to the Proto-Alopian *$ks$ (cf. SIWA !ksy ‘bow’). Thus, the Proto-Alopian Urheimat is assumed to have been somewhere to the west of the Ural mountains, and Proto-Alopian tribes would have followed a migration course that would have led them the to the Baltic Sea. It is possible that Proto-Alopian people would have come in contact with a neolithic people of the comb ceramic culture in Europe, placing a Proto-Alopian presence there at ±7000 BCE. This is coherent with apparent loanwords from a Uralic language and the Late Settlement Theory. Below are words regarded to be borrowings from an early Uralic language;

*suksi ‘ski’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *süs:i-ba > SIWA sohpa ‘ski’ *suksi ‘ski’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *süs:i > SIWA syhhi ‘bent tree’ *mek%i ‘bee’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *m&%i > SIWA meihmi ‘it is pointy, it has a sharp edge’ ? *wä#e ‘brother-in-law’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *ve#e > SIWA v"e ‘male visitor who is allowed to sleep with host’s daughter’ *puwe ‘wood’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *pümi > SIWA pymi ‘unedible cambrium’ *jikä ‘age’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *j:ecæ > SIWA g#ekes ‘year’ *repä ‘fox’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *re<te>pa > SIWA retema ‘fox’ ? *tu#ke ‘push’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *to#-ka > SIWA tõkka ‘it will give birth to it (of animals)’

These correspondences are hypothetical and it cannot be asserted with any certainty whether or not these words are true borrowings or simply coincidences. Because the Alopian languages split up after the time of the borrowings, it is also impossible to prove whether or not the words are part of the Alopian vocabulary.

§1.2.1 Alopian Languages in North-America

How and when Proto-Alopians would have crossed the Atlantic is unknown, but the most likely route would have been along the southern margins of the Atlantic sea ice. An agricultural force such as the comb ceramic culture might have triggered the hunters of

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Proto-Alopian to leave in search of better territory. Most of the present Alopian territory would have been unaccessible or covered in a large lake (called the Tyrrell sea). So it is likely that Proto-Alopian people would have first settled in the eastern Woodlands and subsequently moved up into the Shield Archaic cultural region as the Laurentide Ice Sheet recessed. Unlike the Algonquian people, who are believed to have come from the West and have more or less always been part of the Shield Archaic culture, Proto-Alopians would have gone through a cultural switch, going from semi-nomadic forest hunting and light agriculture to a much more nomadic lifestyle of forest and sea hunting and a heavy dependence on caribou herding. Many terms related more or less to the lifestyle of the Shield Archaic culture found in Alopian languages are borrowed from an early Algonquian language:

*ahp ‘dark blue, bruise’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *o-"p-i > SIWA oubi ‘X gets a bruise’

*ame'kwa ‘beaver’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *meskwa > SIWA m"sko ‘beaver meat’

*a%k ‘unripe’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *(sk-ama > SIWA ohkama ‘raw’

*-axkw- ‘wood’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *-"ga- in certain tree names > SIWA serula ‘larch’ > iruoga ‘larch wood’ (cf. si#ula ‘fir’ > i#uoga ‘fir wood’ and n"pi ‘dwarf birch’ neuoga/ne$oga ‘drift wood’ (PROTO-SIWA *n)w-"ga, contaminated by ne$o ‘sand’)

*e'kwe*a ‘woman’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *iskwe > SIWA "ski ‘woman’

*ka:wa:ntakwa ‘white spruce’ > proto-alopian *kauwantak > kumora ‘white spruce’

*mahkate:w ‘black’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *m"ka-si > SIWA moasi ‘black bear (taboo word)’

*namewa ‘sturgeon’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *nomwa > SIWA novmo/n%vmo ‘sturgeon’

*na:pe:ya:kwa ‘male porcupine’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *nobeja > SIWA nobia ‘porcupine’

*oxpwa*kana ‘pipe’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *"bwa*kon > SIWA uboko ‘pipe’

*se:hse:ka:ntakwa ‘black spruce’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *sesekantak > SIWA seskora ‘tree used to find one’s way’

*we'kwani ‘his forehead’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *oskwan > SIWA oskon ‘male moose’

*wesa:w ‘yellow’ > PROTO-ALOPIAN *os+ > SIWA usu ‘smoked’ (reanalyzed as *os-u, cf. toski ‘it keeps for a long time’ from *os-k and oskima ‘durable’)

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§1.2.2 The Alopian Language Family Tree

After the arrival in Quebec, it would seem that the proto-language broke up into two groups, called here Inland Alopian and Costal Alopian. The Costal Alopian language subsequently broke up into three languages; Eastern Olma, Central Olma and Southern Olma. Inland-Alopian broke up into two branches; Tundra Alopian and Forest Alopian. Forest Alopian subsequently yielded Siwa and Sigori, while Tundra Alopian yielded Eastern Onori and Western Onori. It is thought that the initial Inland-Costal break up would have happened within the first 500 years in America, or ±5000-4500 years ago. Inland Alopians moved further north and probably stuck together as a means for survival in a new and hostile environment. Inland Alopian languages resemble each other more, contain fewer borrowings from Algonquian languages and are much more conservative grammatically than the Costal Alopian languages. Inland Alopian most likely divided into Tundra and Forest Alopian at least ±4000 years ago. Forest Alopian languages are the closest linguistically, and so it seems likely that Siwa and Sigori split up ±3500 years ago. Tundra Alopian languages are also quite close linguistically, but they still differ from Forest Alopian significantly, and the split into Eastern Onori and Western Onori is likely to have happened roughly at the same time as the split between Siwa and Sigori. The current situation of the language is set ±500 years after the split between Siwa and Sigori, placing the Siwa world somewhere about ±3000 years ago.

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Proto-Alopian

Inland Alopian

Costal Alopian

Eastern Olma Central Olma Southern Olma

Tundra Alopian Forest Alopian

Siwa SigoriEastern Onori Western Onori

Above is the Alopian Language Family tree. Below is a chart to illustrate the linguistic distance between each language, showing the assumed proto-form of each word.

Proto-Alopian Forest AlopianForest Alopian Tundra AlopianTundra Alopian Costal AlopianCostal AlopianCostal Alopian

SiwaSigori

(western/eastern)

Eastern Onori

(northern/southern)

Western Onori

Southern Olma

Central Olma

Costal Olma

fish *siro siro sino si:/si:s sinu siesu si:su siesa

berry *sudo suvo suo/suju su:j su: suoru su:ru suora

firewood *tine tinin čie/čieni čeni čini tsieni čeni čiem

honey *siwe sivi sibi še:j šie siebi si:bi šep

cedar *tsxi: tsġỉn tsuhi/tso: tsømø tši tšiše tšiši tši:š

guts *tio:di-un tįoadįun čo:čan/čo:nu čo:čunu čo:čo čuaʔnu čuoʔnu čaʔnu

snowshoes *ɟɨku-m gįykin čikom/čika čyka/kyka čykyn köka köka kaka

aspen *săl-ka solka sanaka sauk/sauka salka sauka so:ka so:ka

maple *ma:hi maihhi mauhi/ma:fi ma:š/ma:ši ma:š ma:j ma:fi ma:fi

smoke *obena obena obna/wabna

wo:na/wo:ni oʔna vuapi wapi wapin

fat *bi:li bieli bieli/biali be:w/be:j bieli pieja paja paja

fly (n.) *mɨrɨ myry mini myry/myny myry mana mana mana

forest fire *săθ-bi savpi soppi saspi/sappi saspi saumpi sampi sauppi

hunter *ta-măθ-si tamosi tamoši/

tamoš tamši tamši tama:š tamo:š tamo:š

The Alopians are organized in 3 main groups according to both a cultural and geographical separation of the groups; the nomadic caribou herders of the north (the Tundra Alopians); the semi-nomadic hunter gatherers of the Boreal Forest (the Forest Alopian speakers); and the semi-settled fishermen, farmers, traders and hunters of the southern territory (the Costal Alopial speakers). The settled Costal Alopians have been influenced by the extended North-Eastern cultural area of North-America, similar to Iroquoians. The nomadic and semi-nomadic Forest and Taiga Alopians of the North belonged to the Subarctic hunter-gatherer cultural area. Despite large cultural differences, the Alopian peoples recognize their distinct culture, ethnicity and linguistic relationship. This is supported by an intricate system of cooperation, intertribal visitations, intermarriage and trade.

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The three linguistic areas (forest, tundra and costal) sometimes overlap or come in close contact. For this reason, the Sigori and Eastern Onori languages each have 2 dialects: Western Sigori has come under the influence of Western Onori whereas Eastern Sigori has been influenced by both Eastern Onori and Central Olma. The form of certain words in the table above can be more or less attributable to contact with other languages; e.g., Western Sigori has obna [,-bn.] for ‘smoke’ which is closer to Western Onori o&na [,-/tn.] for the same word, whereas Eastern Sigori has wabna [,w.bn.], clearly a contamination from Central Olma wapi [,w.p0], where the Proto-Alopian *o often became wa-. Influences from other Alopian languages are present in all daughter languages, but they are strongest in Sigori and Eastern Onori.

§1.3 Geography

The geography of Quebec was quite different ±3000 years ago than it is today. The water levels of lakes and rivers was higher, the climate was wetter and slightly cooler than today. Flora and fauna found more to the north were common in the south of Quebec. The Boreal Forest was also found further south than it is today. Wetlands, quagmires, bogs and marshes were much more common than today. The Tundra, Open Boreal Woodland, Mid Taiga and South Taiga vegetation/climate belts would have been respectively shifted to the south, such that the Tundra belt of today would have been found where today’s Open Boreal Woodland belt is, and the Open Boreal Woodland belt would have been where the Mid Taiga belt is today, and so forth. The tundra area would have been particularly treeless, perhaps similar to northern Scandinavia.

§1.3.1 Territories and Habitation

Each language area also forms a cultural area with socially organized territories which house various gathering places, trading camps, winter or summer habitation clusters, small villages, large villages and cities as well as hunting territories, so called !truma or sacred places and topographical features.

§1.3.1.1 Topography of Alopian Territories

§1.3.1.1.1 Eastern Onori

Each of the 7 territories of the Alopians are distinct. The northern-most habitated area is the tip of the Eastern Onori territory, called Kou in Siwa (from PA *ko/-u/ ‘summer-frost’) and Kokuk in Eastern Onori. All of the Tundra Alopian people venture up to Kou in various bands of caribou herders and hunters during the early months of winter. Kou is generally characterized by open tundra with few disparate winter camps around the main river of the Kou, called "atru in Siwa or Watsuk in Eastern Onori (PA *u/-àtaru/ ‘big cold’), today called Caniapiscau. Slightly to the south-west is the summer territory of the Eastern Onori, with large villages around what is called today the Caniapiscau Reservoir, a huge (the largest in Quebec) water system made up of large lakes and rivers. The area is called M!gvara in Siwa and Mikwun in Eastern Onori (from PA *mi-g-wana ‘wide spread-out stretch [of water]’).

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M1gvara is a very important fishing territory. Almost all Inland Alopian peoples travel to the territory in early spring to fish in the cold and abundant waters of the lakes and rivers. The southern most parts of the Eastern Onori Territory, called S#nsa in Siwa and Sosun in Eastern Onori (Proto-Inland-Alopian *su#sa ‘broadleaf forest’). Many summer gatherings take place in S2nsa and it has lead to the development of a few large villages there, namely Usira (Ausut in Eastern Onori, from PA *ol-si-da ‘there are no leaves’) Ts3vna (Juosta in Eastern Onori, from PA *s&#sa-mi-da ‘there is a large broadleaf forest’) which is an important trading village for birch bark, Kovna (Kwakina in Eastern Onoro, from PA *ko/-na ‘summer-dwelling’) where many fishing bands end up in late summer, Sarisanda (Sanaisinin in Eastern Onori, from PA *sara-(h)isim-ta ‘narrows-to-south’) which is the last Eastern Onori village to the south, leading to a large piece of inhabited land. The Kou landscape varies mostly in a south-north axis. The northern parts crawls up to the low-arctic permafrost tundra, with its long barren rocky stretches (bisibma ‘barren land’ PA*m)si-da-ma ‘where it is rocky’) and dwarf shrubby vegetation ($anobma ‘lichen land’ PA *"no-da-ma ‘where there is lichen’ or õki ‘id.’ PA *on-ki ‘lichen place’) and open subarctic lichen spruce forests ([ma]suokna PA *m&%-"g-na ‘needle tree place’). The middle stretch of Kou is mostly covered in evergreen forests (tsavmi/tsavma) ; black spruce (minhi), white spruce (kumora) fir (niedas), larch (serula, from PA *sero- ‘yellow’), juniper (tuobi) and basalm fir (#htakemi PA *ur(4u)-ta-ke-mi ‘he bears his cones upright’) as well as some white birch (o%ula) in the south and dwarf birch (n!pi) to the south.. Winters in the north are long, dark and cold, punctuated by aurora borealis (ts&ppema PA *tsabb-bema ‘blood north’) . Temperatures can reach lows of -30˚C. However the norm is somewhere around -10˚C. Summers are somewhat short (from June to mid August), but very hot and green, with temperatures as high as 30˚C (on average 20˚C). In the extreme North, summer nights are very short (upara, from PA *ur-ba-(ju)-da ‘when night is day’) while winter days are also short (but not quite as short) (baura, from AP *ba-ur-(ju)-da) ‘when day is night’).

§1.3.1.1.2 Western Onori

Southeast of Kou is the Western Onori territory, called K!spi in Siwa and 'i(ibi in Western Onori (from PA *ki%-be ‘lakes of the north’). K1spi is a very important fishing and hunting territory situated south of the Hudson Bay around the La Grande River, known as Chisasibi in Cree (possibly under the influence of Western Onori 5i%ibi or vice-versa), Gamoba (unknown origin) in Siwa and 'i(i in Eastern Onori (literally ‘the big lake’) and on the coasts of the James Bay. The inland and coastal Western Onori have a very developped network of trade, such that both groups are considered to be one and the same. The Western Onori language reflects this unity, especially when compared to the two dialects of Eastern Onori (northern and southern). The climate of K1spi is very similar to that of Kou, composed mainly of evergreen forests and some open subarctic lichen spruce forests (called masuokna or suokna in Siwa). The territory around the Gamoba river is fairly populous, because it is rich in game and fish, and because the forests between the rivers and the coasts are not as important to the Western Onori people - the coastal Western Onori depend on marine mammals, birds and fishing and the inland Western Onori have enough fish and game from the rivers and surrounding forests.

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The most important village or city of the northern territories (both Kou and K1spi) is found in K1spi, close to the opening of the Gamoba into the James Bay or Ohhu in Siwa (O)u in Western Onori, from PA *o/-hu ‘north-west sea’). The trading village is called Not%i (No*i in Western Onori, both meaning simply ‘sedge’). Not6i is an important trading post where inland Western Onoris come to trade, usually moose, bear or caribou furs for the coastal seal hides and fat. A large pupolous area of forest called Oskuokna (Western Onori Ukwanoga, from PA *oskwan-"ga-(na), lit. ‘(where there are) shed antlers’) is home to the large majority of the Western Onoris who do not live by the coast, in or around Not6i. Oskuokna covers a roughly 130km stretch along the heart of the Gamoba river and is composed of many smaller villages called vahna in Siwa, a borrowing from Eastern Onori wa:na (from PA *7r-na ‘side-by-side dwelling’). The social ties between vahna are kept tight through exchange, visits and festivities. The coastal Western Onori people, sometimes refered to as +hmo or +hmua in the plural in Siwa and O)mo in Western Onori (roughly meaning ‘coaster’) live surrounded by rough arctic beaches (kauda) , barren rocky stretches (bisibma) and a five islands; P&rga (Panko in Western Onori, North Twin Island, unknown origin), P!sma (Pi(ibi in Western Onori, South Twin Island, from PA *pis-ma lit. ‘it fights’ probably in reference to seals), Sabiluopa (Sa)no in Western Onori, Grey Goose Island, from PA *sabi-l"pa ‘goose island’), "inis (Wini( in Western Onori, Spencer Island, from PA *"n-is ‘little one’) and ,s (I(i( in Western Onori, Walter Island, from PA *i%-is ‘the one inbetween’). The climate of K1spi is fairly similar to that of Kou, with perhaps milder temperatures because of the James Bay.

§1.3.1.1.3 Sigori The Sigori territory, inhabited by a hyponymous Forest Alopian people, spread from east to west very much like K1spi. The Sigoris are concentrated mostly around three large areas. To the east, the present-day lake Naococane, called Nokki in Sigori and T%alama in Siwa (from PA *l"p-ki% and *k)%-lopa ‘little island big lake’), which is filled with small to medium sized islands. A great number of Sigoris have organized their social structure around these small islands, giving birth to a sort of wide spread village on islands. Sacred islands are found throughout the lake, making T6alama a sort of spiritual/religious hotspot for all of the northern territories. T6alama is home to roughly 2/4 of the Sigoris. To the west, the present-day Opinaca lake, called T#bma in Siwa and Tubuna in Sigori (from PA *tuwu-da-ma ‘where it is bent’) is also an important fishing, hunting and trading populous area for the Sigoris. T2bma is linked to the coast by today’s Eastmain River, called Hutat%i in Siwa and Huo*i (from PA *hu-ta-t& ‘mouth to the ocean’). Small villages are found all along Hutat6i, but the third largest populous area of the Sigoris is at on the coast, where Hutat6i flows into Ohhu or Ohhi/Ofi (or Obi) in Sigori (western/eastern) (James Bay). This wide area is called Ko:*ana in Sigori or Kauhhama (from PA *k7'a-da-ma ‘where there are rocky beaches’), present day Eastmain. About 30km off the coast are two inhabitated islands called 'iwabna and Denamo in Sigori, -ikobnamo and Tuobnamo in Siwa respectively (from PA *8i(k)-ob(e)na ‘west-smoke’ and *t"b-namo ‘juniper-bush island’, with non-native -namo suffix in Siwa taken from Sigori, from PA *lop- ‘island’ in both islands). The islands are important goose and seal hunting grounds.

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The vegetation of Sigori is more akin to that of present day Boreal Forest. The most common trees are jack pine (tabbikes), white spruce (kumora), black spruce (minhi), balsam fir (#htakemi), juniper (tuobi), larch (serula), balsam poplar (e.advima from PA *er-satvi-ma ‘it smells and hangs’), quaking aspen (hukkoma from PA *hu/-ko-ma ‘it talks when it is windy’), white birch (o%ula) and dwarf birch (n!pi). Because of its complex system of rivers and lakes, Sigori is sometimes called nõki (regularly derived from the Sigori borrowing noma ‘small island’ and -ki ‘place rich in X’) in Siwa, perhaps in association with the Onori territories being called õki (from ono ‘lichen’ and -ki ‘place rich in X’). Sigori is also strategically placed, having large resources of birch bark to be traded with the nearly birchless territories of the Onoris.

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§5 VERBS §5.2 Verb Structure 5

§5.2.1 Independent Verbs! 5

§5.2.2 Copulaic Verbs! 6

§5.2.3 Independent vs. Copulaic! 7

§5.3 Transitivity and Agentivity 8

§5.3.1 Transitive Agentive Verbs! 10

§5.3.2 Intransitive Agentive Verbs! 11

§5.3.3 Transitive Unagentive Verbs! 13

§5.3.4 Intransitive Unagentive Verbs! 14

§5.3.5 Translative Agentive Verbs! 17

§5.3.6 Translative Unagentive Verbs! 17

§5.3.7 Subjective Agentive Verbs! 18

§5.3.8 Subjective Unagentive Verbs! 19

§5.3.9 Ditransitive Verbs! 20

§5.3.10 Passive Verbs! 21

§5.4 Tense 23

§5.4.1 Conclusivity! 24

§5.4.2 Non-Past! 26

§5.4.2.1 Future 26

§5.4.2.2 Present Inconclusive 27

§5.4.2.3 Present Habitual Conclusive 27

§5.4.2.4 Present Habitual Inconclusive 28

§5.4.2.5 Present Perfective Conclusive 28

§5.4.2.6 Present Perfective Inconclusive 29

§5.4.3 Past! 29

§5.4.3.1 Past Conclusive 29

§5.4.3.1 Past Inconclusive 30

§5.4.3.1 Past Habitual Conclusive 30

§5.4.3.2 Past Habitual Inconclusive 31

§5.4.3.3 Past Perfective Conclusive 31

§5.4.4 Past Perfective Inconclusive 32

§5.4.5 Immidiate past 32

§5.4.6 Distant past 32

§5.4.4 Past Tense Marking! 33

§5.4.5 Irregular verbs! 38

§5.4.5.1 Present Augmented verbs 38

§5.4.5.2 Past Augmented verbs 40

§5.4.5.3 Syncoping Verbs 41

§5.4.5.4 Proper Irregular Verbs 42

§5.5 Evidentiality 44

§5.5.1 Assertive! 44

§5.5.2 Inferential! 45

§5.6 Aspect 46

§5.6.1 Inconclusive Independent! 47

§5.6.2 Habitual 48

§5.6.3 Perfective 48

§5.6.4 Conclusive! 48

§5.6.5 Inconclusive! 49

§5.6.6 Reversive! 49

§5.6.7 Semelfactive! 51

§5.6.8 Persistive! 52

§5.6.9 Frequentative! 53

§5.6.10 Inchoative! 53

§5.6.11 Subitive! 54

§5.6.12 Habilitive! 55

§5.6.13 Diminutive! 56

§5.7 Location 57

§5.1 Generalities of Siwa verbs

Verbs in Siwa are flexible - they can be modified to take on a wide variety of meanings. Many Siwa verbs correspond to English adjectives - a great deal of adjectives are in fact rendered as verbs. The verbal root can be taken from nouns or adjectives and requires very little modification, such that verbs are extremely productive and an open class. Both prefixes and suffixes are part of conjugation. Suffixes are however much common and can sometimes be 7 or more, where as the most prefixes there can be on a verb is 4. The most basic form a verb can have in any tense, mood, aspect or otherwise is equivalent to the English ‘X will Y it/him/her’ or ‘X will V’, where V stands for the action. For simplicity’s sake, these forms will be translated as ‘X verb Y’ when there is an object. Verbs are most often listed in this form in dictionaries, as it exhibits in most cases the bare stem of the verb, and the addition of -a (for transitive verbs) and -i (for intransitive verbs), for example;

keg·a v.at ʻX will hide it/him/herʼ

This shows the reader that the stem of the verb is keg-.

§5.1.1 Verb morphology

Verbs can be marked for transitivity (transitive, intransitive, translative, subjective, ditransitive and passive), tense (non-past and past), agentivity (agentive, unagentive), evidence (assertive/inferential), aspect (conclusive, inconclusive, habitual, perfective 1and secondarily reversive, semelfactive, persistive, frequentative, inchoative, subitive, habilitive and diminutive), location (cisloative, translocative and various other positions), mood (indicative, optative, conditional realis, conditional irrealis and conjunctive, as well as intentive, obligative, imperative and imperative obviative) as well as person (first, second, third animate, third inanimate and fourth person) and number (singular, plural as well as collective and distributive). Not all these markings can be present at all time, but transitivity marking as well as person/number is required for all verb forms. As it was mentioned above, the most basic form of a verb is thus the 3rd person present conclusive transitive or intransitive, which is equivalent to English ‘X will Y’. In addition, all pronouns are marked for agentivity (agentive or unagentive) and role (subject [active], direct object [patient] or indirect object [recipient]) in addition to number. Thus, the underlying form of kega ‘X will hide Y’ is;

kega[ˈcʰega]Ø-keg-a-Ø-ØTR-hide.PRES-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AG ʻX will hide Yʼ

1 The word perfective here does not refer to an actual perfective aspect (which is marked by conclusivity) but rather a perfect tense marker, which in Siwa behaves morphologically like an aspect marker but semantically like a tense marker. The actual marker is called the perfective aspectual marker, but the result is simply called the perfect.

Siwa is a VOS language. The object can sometimes precede the verb, in which case VOS becomes OVS, which leaves one of few absolutes about word order in Siwa: the subject of a phrase is always the last element to verbs and objects. However, because pronominal subjects and objects are incorporated in the noun, this is not always true. Take a look at the following similar sentences, both VOS but showing freestanding and incorporated subjects and objects.

anokkaġaįani [ɑˈnɔʔkɑɣɑjɑni]a-nokka-g-a-ja-Ø-niTR-call-PAST-CONC.ASS.TR-3P.PL.DO-3P.AG.SB-CISL

ʻHe called them overʼcf.

anokkani tṡegmia anarokusi[ɑˈnɔʔkɑni ˈʨegmia ɑˈnɑrogusi]a-nokka-g-a-ni tįeg-ma-a an=aroku=siTR-call-PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-CISL child-DAT-PL teach=er.ACTʻThe teacher called the children overʼ

§5.2 Verb Structure

The structure of the Siwa verbs can be devided in two kinds; independent verbs and copulaic constructions. Verbs normally assume both forms, depending on their syntatical role and the phrase construction. Independent verbs carry all the information, where as copulaic verbs have both the copula and the verb carrying bits of information. Most commonly, verbs are copulaic in relative clauses and subclauses as well as in the inconclusive, except impersonal verbs, which have a special inconclusive marker and a few verbs, such as tat- ‘to think’ (tabmimi/tabmami ‘I think/I am thinking’) and det- ‘to feel like, want’ (debmami ‘I feel like X’). Verbal adjectives also use the independent inconclusive.

§5.2.1 Independent Verbs

Independent verbs are so called because all they are not disjointed or cleaved like the copulaic verbs. Independent verbs are made up of a stem, which is surrounded by affixes, which are placed in so-called slots. Each slot is numbered from the stem, and each slot houses affixes. The minimal form of the verb always has at least one used slot. The order of the slots never changes after the stem, but there exists two variations for prefixes - one is used with verbs who start with a vowel, and the other for verbs who start with a consonant.

Verbs starting with a consonantconjunctive > realis > unagentive subject > transitivity > stem = tense > subclause marker > aspect I > mood I = evidentiality > aspect II > mood II > aspect III > locative > indirect object > direct object > agentive subject

Verbs starting with a vowelconjunctive > realis > transitivity > unagentive subject > stem = tense > subclause marker > aspect I > mood I = evidentiality > aspect II > mood II > aspect III > locative > indirect object > direct object > agentive subject

Aspect I contains markings for conclusivity; conclusive or inconclusive. Mood I contains one marking for both evidence (assertive or inferential) and mood (indicative, optative, conditional realis and irrealis). Note that conditional realis is actually circumfixed, with the realis marking as a prefix and the conditional marking as a suffix.

Aspect II contains markings for habitual. Mood II contains markings for other moods; intentional, obligative, imperative and imperative obviative. Certain slots are mutually exclusive - for example, there cannot be both an agentive and an unagentive subject. Sometimes, mood II > aspect III may be reversed, in which case both are possible and accepted and often carry a slight nuance, e.g.;

nokkamustana = nokkastamuna [ˈnɔʔkɑmʊstɑna] [ˈnɔʔkastɑmuna]&Ø-nokka-Ø-mu-sta-Ø-na = nokka-Ø-sta-mu-na&TR-call-ASS.TR.CONCL-OBLIG-PERSI-3P.PAT-2P.ACT.AG.SG=TR-call-ASS.TR.CONCL-PERSI-OBLIG-3P.PAT-2P.ACT.AG.SG &ʻYou must keep calling himʼ = ʻYou must keep calling himʼ

The only difference is that the sequence -musta- stresses the obligative, whereas -stamu- stresses the persistive. Aspect III contains markings for reversive, semelfactive, persistive, frequentative, inchoative, subitive, habilitive and inchoative-habilitive. In c e r t a i n cases, these aspectual markers are actually directly next to the stem a n d o f t e n assimilate to it. Such verbs are considered independent and treated as such. For example, the verb n!kka ‘X will call Y’ is actually derived from enokia ‘X will call it Z’ with the help of the semelfactive derivative suffix -ga, which became assimilated to the root (*nok-ga > nokka ‘X gives a call, summons Y’).

§5.2.2 Copulaic Verbs

Copulaic verbs are those who require the auxiliary copula in order to be complete and grammatical. Various things can cause a verb to be copulaic, and most verbs can be copulaic. The inconclusive aspect (but not of impersonal verbs), relative clauses, certain fixed expressions and other types of sentences require the verb to be copulaic. Copulaic are organized as such: Verb Shows marking for both pre- and postverb vowels (transitivity and mood). Tense is not marked on the verb. The verb may be marked by a link enclitic to form relative clauses of time, reason, goal, etc. The verb comes before the copula.

transitivity > stem > evidence > link

Copula Shows tense and aspect, pronouns, and relativity. The copula follows the verb and its attributes.

realis > relative > copula (tense, aspect) > subclause marker > mood / evidence > aspect > locative > indirect object > relative > subject pronouns

The direct relative/conjunctive slot in the copula is occupied by the relative marker o- and is the most commonly used way to link relative clauses to the main clause.

§5.2.3 Independent vs. Copulaic

As it was mentioned above, the copulaic verb construction is used with the inconclusive and in relative clauses and subclauses, whereas the independent are used with the conclusive (as well as habitual and perfective). Compare the sentences below:

conclusive inconclusive

independent copulaic

nenimi neįa[ˈnenimi ˈneja] Ø-nen-i-mi ne=įaITR-sit-ASS.ITR.CONCL-1P.ACT.AG.SG hereʻI will sit here

neni neįa nami[ˈneni ˈneja ˈnɑmi] Ø-nen-i ne=įa n-a-miITR-sit-ITR here COP-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI am sitting hereʼ

amottu tẻrri[ɑˈmɔʔtu ˈtʰe:r:i]a-mott-u tẻr=riTRANSL-set-ASS.TRANSL.CONCL sun.STATʻthe sun will setʼ

amottu tẻrri na[ɑˈmɔʔtu ˈtʰe:r:i na]a-mott-u tẻr=ri n-aTRANSL-set-ASS.TRANSL.INCONCL sun.STAT COP.INCONCL-ASS-INDICʻthe sun is settingʼ

soaksa tiogi kįuhkua [ˈsɔaksa ˈtʰiɔji cʰʊhkua]Ø-soak-s-a tiogi-Ø kįuhko-a-ØTR-build-HAB-ASS.TR.CONCL dam-DAT beaver-PL-ACTʻbeavers build damsʼ

soaka tioųid ma kįuhkua[ˈsɔɑga ˈtʰiɔwɪʥ ma ˈcʰʊhkua]Ø-soak-a tįo<Ø>i-d m-a kįuhko-aTR-build-ASS.TR.INCONCL dam-STAT COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDICʻthe beavers are building a damʼ

mahhakini ukęvma tasehteki saroska[ˈmɑh:ɑɟini ˈucæma ˈtʰɑsɛhteɟi ˈsɑrɔska]Ø-mahh-a-ki-ni ukęvma sater=teki saro-s-kaTR-hunt-ASS.TR.CONCL-TRANSLO-3P.ACT.AG.PL tomorrow south.east=towards deer-STAT-PLʻtomorrow they are going towards the south-east to hunt deerʼ

mahha ukęvma kerreįa saroska nani[ˈmɑh:ɑ ˈucæma ˈcʰer:eja ˈsɑrɔska ˈnɑni]Ø-mahh-a ukęvma ker=re-ia saro-s-ka n-a-ki-niTR-hunt-ASS.TR.INCONCL tomorrow south.east=INESS deer-STAT-PL COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.PLʻtomorrow they are going to be in the south-east hunting deerʼ

regular clause relative or subclause

independent copulaic

ṡivsi nỉndia somi[ˈɕis:i ˈni:nʥia ˈsɔmi]Ø-ṡiv-s-i n<ỉ>n=di=a somi-ØITR-stay-HAB-ASS.ITR.CONCL hut=INESS man-ACTʻthe man stays in a hutʼ

somi ṡivi nỉndia osa[ˈsɔmi ˈɕivi ˈni:nʥia ɔˈsa]somi-Ø ṡiv-i n<ỉ>n=di=a o-s-a-Øman-ACT stay-ITR.REL hut=INESS REL-COP.HAB-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻthe man who stays in a hutʼ

ukettaka de nỉndia-mo[uˈcʰɛʔtɑga deˈni:nʥiamɔ]u-ke<tt>-a-ka de n<ỉ>n=di=a–moPASS-bear.PAST-TR-1P.PAT.SG this.INA huT=INESS–this.INAʻI was born in this hutʼ

nidna uketsa ogaįaka [ˈnɪʔtna uˈcʰetsa ɔˈgɑjɑga]nidna-Ø u-kets-a o-g-a-įa-kahut-ACT PASS-bear-TR.REL REL-COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-INESS-1P.PAT.SGʻthe hut I was born itʼ

suvnumi sakkia na ỉski[ˈsun:ˈumi ˈsaʔcia na ˈi:sci]Ø-sun=num-i sa=kk=ia n-a ỉski-ØTR-berry=gather-INCONCL.ITR berry.field-INESS COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC woman-ACTʻthe woman is gathering berries in the field ʼ

ỉski suvnumi oįa[ˈi:sci ˈsun:umi ɔˈja]ỉski-Ø sun=num-i o-į-a-Øwoman-ACT berry=gather-ITR.REL REL-cop.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻthe woman gathering berriesʼorʻthe woman who is gathering berriesʼ

numi sakkia sủ pildi ma ỉski [ˈnumi ˈsaʔcia ˈsu: ˈpʰɪlʥi ma ˈi:sci]Ø-num-i sa=kk=ia s=ủ pil-di m-a ỉski-ØITR-gather-ITR.INCONCL berry.field-INESS berry.STAT red.ATTR-STAT COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC woman-ACTʻthe woman was gathering red berries in the fieldʼ

ỉski kautsġa suvua pila ogakomi[ˈi:sci ˈkʰaʊtsχa ˈsuvua ˈpʰila ɔˈgɑkomi]ỉski-Ø kautsġ-a suvo-Ø-a pila-Ø o-g-a-ko-miwoman-ACT make.jam-TR.REL berry-DAT-PL red-DAT REL-COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-REL.GEN-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻthe woman whose red berries I turned into jamʼ

§5.3 Transitivity and Agentivity

Siwa verbs are either transitive (the verb has an object, e.g. I hid it), intransitive (the verb has no object, e.g. I hid), translative (the verb has no object and the verb denotes a change of state), subjective (the subject and the object are the same, or the object is an unalienable possession of the subject, e.g. I hid my face), ditransitive (the verb has both a direct and indirect object, e.g. I hid it from you) or passive (the topic of the verb is the object, which is then treated as a subject, e.g. I was hidden [by X]) and agentive (the subject is a conscious and/or willing agent or doer, e.g. I threw myself on the ground) or unagentive (the subject is an unconscious and/or unwilling agent or doer, e.g. I fell down on the ground). Although most verbs have one assigned transitivity, verbs are flexible in changing their transitivity. It remains, however, always clearly marked. Transitivity is not marked through a preverb vowel in transitive and intransitive verbs; only subjective, ditransitive and passive verbs have their transitivity shown with a preverb vowel. Further more, there is a second-level transitivity marking on all verbs found as a postverb vowel. This postverb vowel also shows evidenciality and mood.

preverb vowel postverb vowelpostverb vowelpostverb vowelpostverb vowelpostverb vowelpostverb vowelpostverb vowelpostverb vowel

assertiveassertiveassertiveassertive inferentialinferentialinferentialinferential

indicative conditionalconditional optative indicative conditionalconditional optative

non-past realis irrealis realis irrealis

transitive Ø- / a(n)- -a d-Ø-a -ia -ua -e d-Ø-e -ie -ue

intransitive Ø- / a(n)- -i d-Ø-i -iu -ųi -u d-Ø-u -įoi -uo

translative a(n)- -u d-a-Ø-u -iu -ųu -u d-a-Ø-u -įoi -uo

subjective o(ų)- -i d-o-Ø-i -iu -ųi -u d-o-Ø-u -įoi -uo

ditransitive i(į)- -a d-i-Ø-a -ia -ua -e d-i-Ø-e -ie -ue

passive u(ų)- -i d-u-Ø-i -iu -ųi -u d-u-Ø-u -įoi -uo

passive agentive u- -a d-u-Ø-a -ia -ua -e d-u-Ø-e -ie -ue

Transitive and intransitive verbs have Ø- in the conditional irrealis and optative present, assertive and inferential, but take a- in the past in all moods except with impersonal verbs. Compare the following examples:

dįata [ˈʥɑta] Ø-dįat-a-Ø-ØTR-mourn-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will mourn Yʼ

adįadde[ɑˈʥat:e] a-dįa-<dd>-e-Ø-ØTR-mourn.PAST-INFE.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX apparently mourned Yʼ

moġa[ˈmɔɣa] moġ-a-Ø-Ødrink-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will drink Yʼ (also modia)

amġe [ɑˈmɣe]a-mo<st>-e-Ø-ØTR-drink.past-INFER.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX apparently drank Yʼ

sahha [ˈsɑh:a] Ø-sahh-a-Ø-ØTR-burn-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will burn Yʼ

dasahhi[dɑˈsɑh:i] d-a-sahh-i-Øcond.real-TR-burn-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AGʻif X burnsʼ

§5.3.1 Transitive Agentive Verbs

Transitive agentive verbs are those whose agent is willingly or consciously doing something onto an object. This class contains a large number of verbs. Logically, these include all verbs with a conscious agent and an object. Transitive agentive verbs end in -a in their most basic form, i.e. indicative present assertive. The object, when 3rd person unagentive, has no marking (-Ø), and neither does the subject oragent (-Ø). Translative agentive verbs have the infinitive -mi.

ala[ˈɑla]Ø-al-a-Ø-ØTR-tan- ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will tan Yʼ

avla [ˈɑl:a] Ø-avl-a-Ø-ØTR-have.time-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will have time for Yʼ

ha [ˈhɑ] Ø-h-a-Ø-Ø TR-eat-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will eat Yʼ

ihha [ˈih:a]Ø-ihh-a-ØTR-climb-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will climb Yʼ

ỉskua [ˈi:skʊɑ] Ø-isko-a-Ø-ØTR-clean-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will clean Yʼ

keda[ˈcʰeda]Ø-ked-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will carry Yʼ

luhha [ˈluh:a] Ø-luhh-a-Ø-ØTR-boil-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will boil Yʼ

mahha [ˈmɑh:a] Ø-mahh-a-Ø-ØTR-follow-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will hunt/follow Yʼ

nuįa[ˈnuja] Ø-nuį-a-Ø-ØTR-see-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will see Yʼ

sanka[ˈsaŋ:ka]Ø-sank-a-Ø-ØTR-scratch-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AG ʻX will scratch Yʼ

tįipra [ˈʨipχa]Ø-tṡipr-a-Ø-ØTR-write-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will write Yʼ

§5.3.2 Intransitive Agentive Verbs

Intransitive agentive verbs are those whose agent is willingly or consciously doing something which has no object. Intransitive agentive verbs end in -i in their most basic form, i.e. indicative present assertive. Intransitive agentive verbs have the infinitive -sa.

dỉ [ˈdi:]Ø-di-i-ØITR-walk-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will walkʼ

eri [ˈeri] Ø-er-i-ØITR-be.careful-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will be carefulʼ

įairi[ˈjɑɪri]Ø-įair-i-ØITR-row-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will rowʼ

keųi [ˈcʰewi] Ø-keų-i-ØITR-rise-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will stand up/riseʼ

hõhhi [ˈhɔ̃h:i] Ø-hõhh-i-ØITR-jump-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will jumpʼ

mani [ˈmɑni] Ø-ma=n-i-ØITR-go=CISLO-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AG

ʻX will comeʼ

maki [ˈmɑci] Ø-ma=k-i-ØITR-go=TRANSLO- ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will goʼ

saṡi or sahhįi[ˈsɑɕ:i] or [ˈsɑh:ji]Ø-saṡ-i-ØITR-talk-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will talkʼ

tahhi [ˈtʰɑh:i] Ø-tahh-i-ØITR-leave-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will leaveʼ

tuvi [ˈtʰuvi] Ø-tuv-i-ØITR-turn- ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will turnʼ

poski [ˈpʰɔsci] Ø-pohhį=k-i-ØITR-sleep=TRANSLO-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will go to sleepʼ

Certain verbs can be both transitive agentive and intransitive agentive. In some cases, additional marking is needed, but in other cases, a simple change of vowel is enough. Changes in the meaning of the verb are not uncommon, e.g.;

dỉ [ˈdi:]Ø-di-i-ØITR-walk-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will walkʼ

dia [ˈdɪɑ] Ø-di-a-Ø-ØTR-walk-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will walk Yʼ

hõhhi [ˈhɔ̃h:i] Ø-hõhh-i-ØITR-jump-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will jumpʼ

hõhha[ˈhɔ̃h:a]Ø-hõhh-a-Ø-ØTR-jump-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will wade Yʼ

tuvi [ˈtʰuvi] Ø-tuv-i-ØITR-turn- ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will turnʼ

tuva[ˈtʰuva]Ø-tuv-a-Ø-ØTR-turn-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will bend Yʼ

tahhi [ˈtʰɑh:i] Ø-tahh-i-ØITR-leave-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will leaveʼ

buttảhka [ˈtʰæ:hka] Ø-tahh=k-a-ØTR-leave=CAUS-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will leave Yʼ

itahra oakiska [iˈtʰahra ˈɔɑɟɪska]i-tah<r>-a-Ø oak-iskaDIT-leave.PAST- TR.CONCL-3P.AG home-ABLʻX left (from) homeʼ (see ditransitives)

itahra oakiska [iˈtʰahra ˈɔɑɟɪska]i-tah<r>-a-Ø oak-iskaDIT-leave.PAST- TR.CONCL-3P.AG home-ABLʻX left (from) homeʼ (see ditransitives)

Certain semantically transitive verbs are syntactically intransitive, in which case they use nominal incorporation. Nominal incorporation is fairly straight forward, and it comes directly before the verb stem. Historically, this is due to habitual objects (in the accusative) preceded (and still do) the verb, and came to be re-analyzed as a verb constituant. Incorporating verbs are most often verbs depicting repetitive actions whose object is tightly associated with the action. The incorporated noun is not always a direct equivalent of its actual object - the object may be the bare stem common to a variety of words. For example, the verb ‘to cut boughs’ is rendered not as bough-cut but fir-cut. Many incorporating verbs have a transitive equivalent. The difference in meaning is often slight. Incorporating verbs tend to refer to tasks and therefor are nearly always found in the inconclusive, whereas their non-incorporating equivalents are found in the conclusive. It is not a rule however, that all accusative nouns are incorporated into inconclusive verbs.

akakimi iįumu [ˈɑkɑɟimi ˈijumu] Ø-ak-a-ki-mi iįumu-ØTR-cut-ASS.CONCL.TR-TRANSLO-1P.ACT.AG.SG bough-DATʻI will go cut the boughsʼ

iįuaki nami [ˈijuˈɑci ˈnɑmi]Ø-iįu=ak-i n-a-miITR-fir.INCORP=cut-ASS.ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI am cutting boughsʼ

kidaki ubmami[cʰidˈɑci ˈʊʔpmɑmi] Ø-kid=ak-i ITR-wood.INCORP=cut-ASS.ITR COP.OBL.INCONCL.PAST-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI had to cut woodʼ / ʻI was responsible for cutting woodʼ

kidaki ubmami[cʰidˈɑci ˈʊʔpmɑmi] Ø-kid=ak-i ITR-wood.INCORP=cut-ASS.ITR COP.OBL.INCONCL.PAST-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI had to cut woodʼ / ʻI was responsible for cutting woodʼ

luhhami vảlha [ˈluh:ɑmi ˈvælha]Ø-luhh-a-mi ųalo-hhaTR-boil-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.ACT.AG.SG tea-GENʻI will make teaʼ (lit. I will boil tea)

ovluhha mami[oˈl:uh:a ˈmɑmi] Ø-ol=luhh-a m-a-miTR-leaf.INCORP=boil-TR COP.INCONCL.PAST-ASS.INCID-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI was making teaʼ (lit. I was leaf-boiling)

Predicting how a word appears when incorporated is difficult, but as a general rule the bare stem is stripped of all its elements. In irregular stems with interior changes, it is often the genitive that is considered to be the bare stem (for example, kili ‘wood’ has irregular genitive kidli and the incorporated noun is kid- in the second example above). In the third example, the stem for leaf ol- (leaf is !lmo) is found incorporated (ol-luhh-) but the word "alo ‘tea’ is used in the non-incorporating example. The word "alo is a derivative of the stem ol- (Proto-Alopian *"l-o) with vowel lengthening (and an irregular form v#lha in the genitive)

§5.3.3 Transitive Unagentive Verbs

Like transitive agentive verbs, transitive unagentive verbs have a subject who acts onto an object. However, all unagentive verbs describe an agent who is not in control, not consciously or not willingly acting. This includes most verbs of emotion, sensation, all involuntary processes, etc. The topic of many transitive unagentive verbs is often the object, in which case the subject is also marked as unagentive. This is the same process that is seen in the passive, but they are marked differently (passive verbs have the transitivity vowel u- while these transitive verbs have the transitive vowel a-, which is missing in the indicative present of the previous examples). Passive verbs have their topic as the object, whereas transitive unagentive verbs have their topic as the subject.In the examples below, the subject is always marked by t- and is always the topic (i.e. an active pronoun). Furthermore, because the object is not marked, a verb marked with t-(a)-Ø-a gives no indication as to whether the subject and the object are animate or inanimate. Transitive unagentive verbs have the infinitive -mu.

sę tavla [sæ ˈtʰɑl:a] sę t-Ø-avl-a-Ønot 3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR- have.time- ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will not have time for Yʼ

taiha [ˈtʰɑɪʔa]t-Ø-aih-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-make.dizzy- ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will make Y dizzyʼ

tirra [ˈtʰir:a] t-Ø-irr-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-pierce- ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will go through Yʼ

titka[ˈtʰitka] t-Ø-itk-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-melt-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will melt/digest Yʼ

tiba [ˈtʰiba] t-Ø-iu-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-freeze- ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will freeze Yʼ

takida [tʰɑˈcʰida] ta-Ø-kid-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-dream- ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will dream about Yʼ

tamauhka [tʰɑˈmaʊhka]ta-mauh=k-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-fill=CAUS- ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will satisfy Yʼ

tasusa [tʰɑˈsusa] ta-sus-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-sad- ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will sadden Yʼ

tatįiba [tʰɑˈʨiba]ta-tįib-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-mean- ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will signify Yʼ

tatįiba [tʰɑˈʨiba]ta-tįib-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-mean- ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX will signify Yʼ

§5.3.4 Intransitive Unagentive Verbs

Intransitive unagentive verbs are those whose agent is not in control, not consciously or not willingly acting. This includes most verbs of emotion, sensation, all involuntary processes, stative verbs (adjectival verbs), etc. Intransitive unagentive verbs also include many verbs who take no personal marking, so called impersonal verbs. These depict actions who have no apparent agent, such as weather, for example. Impersonal verbs do not require a copulaic construction like all other verbs – instead they use the fixed inconclusive marker -m-. Intransitive unagenitve verbs have the infinitive -su.With pronoun:

tabeųilki [tʰɑˈbewɪlci]t-a-b<eųi>lk-i3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-ITR-vomit-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻX vomitedʼ

eli nata [ˈeli ˈnɑta]Ø-el-i n-a-taITR-grow-ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX is growingʼ

huhhi nata [ˈhuh:i ˈnɑta]Ø-huhh-i n-a-taITR-bright-ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX is shiningʼ

idi nata[ˈidi ˈnɑta]Ø-id-i n-a-taTR-fall-ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX is fallingʼ

oįui mata [ˈɔjui ˈmɑta]Ø-oįu-i m-a-taITR-cry-ITR COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX was cryingʼ

pohhįi nata[ˈpʰɔh:ji ˈnɑta]Ø-pohhį-i n-a-taITR-sleep-ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX is sleepingʼ

sahhi nata[ˈsɑh:i ˈnɑta]Ø-sahh-i n-a-taITR-burn-ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX is burningʼ

tsảbbi mata[ˈtsæ:p:i ˈmɑta]Ø-tsabb-iITR-blood-ITR COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX was bleedingʼ

tsoġmori nata[ˈtsɔχmɔri ˈnɑta]Ø-tsoġmor-i n-a-taITR-be.wrong-ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX is wrongʼ

tsoġmori nata[ˈtsɔχmɔri ˈnɑta]Ø-tsoġmor-i n-a-taITR-be.wrong-ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX is wrongʼ

Impersonal:

hehmi [ˈhɛhmi]Ø-her-m-iITR-cold-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is coldʼ

huhmi [ˈhʊhmi]Ø-huh-m-iITR-bright-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is brightʼ

hủvmi[ˈhu:m:i]Ø-hun-m-iITR-wind-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is windyʼ

kủsmi [ˈkʰu:smi]Ø-kuvs-m-iITR-dusk-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is dusk/twilightʼ

nįorgami[ˈɲɔrɣɑmi]Ø-nįorg-am-iITR-duck-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is duck seasonʼ

sġatemi [ˈsχɑtemi]Ø-sġate-m-iITR-dark-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is darkʼ

sihmi [ˈsihmi]Ø-sihh-m-iITR-rain-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is rainingʼ

termi [ˈtʰɛrmi] Ø-ter-m-iITR-sun-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is sunnyʼ

ulmi [ˈʊlmi]Ø-ul-m-iITR-night-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is nightʼ

komi[ˈkʰomi]Ø-ko-m-iitr-summer-inconcl-ass.itrʻit is summerʼ

heįemi[ˈhejemi]Ø-heįe-m-iitr-winter-inconcl-ass.itrʻit is winterʼ

heįemi[ˈhejemi]Ø-heįe-m-iitr-winter-inconcl-ass.itrʻit is winterʼ

There are very many impersonal verbs, and because it is an open and entirely productive class, one can create impersonal verbs from virtually any noun. These verbs often carry the meaning that what the verb refers to is happening or is in season. For example, one can take any plant or animal name and make a verb out of it meaning ‘it is X time/season’;

saparimi[ˈsɑpɑrimi]Ø-sapari-m-iITR-lilly-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻIt is lilly seasonʼ

Note that in impersonal verbs (all of the above are inconclusive), the conclusive version often translates as a inchoative, i.e. the verb does not necessarily only show future (in the present) but also a change of state and may still maintain an inconclusive aspect, e.g.

heri [ˈheri]Ø-her-iITR-cold-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻit is getting coldʼ

kuvsi [ˈkʰus:i]Ø-kuvs-iITR-dusk-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻit is about to duskʼ

sġategi [ˈsχɑteji]Ø-sate-iITR-dark-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻit is about to get darkʼ

sihhi [ˈsih:i]Ø-sihh-iITR-rain-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻit is about to rainʼ

teri[ˈtʰeri]Ø-ter-iITR-sun-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻthe sun will come upʼ

uli[ˈuli]Ø-ul-iITR-night-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻnight is fallingʼ

The inchoative with impersonal verbs is more commonly expressed through the auxiliary verb da with an infinitive marker -te added to the verb (see sections below) and the auxiliary verb in the subitive. This is especially true of younger generations and relaxed speech.

sihri[ˈsɪhri]Ø-si<hr>-iITR-rain.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻit started rainingʼ or ʻit rainedʼ

vs. sihrite datta[ˈsɪhride ˈdaʔta]Ø-si<hr>-i-te d-a-ttaITR-rain.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-LINK be-ASS.TR-SUBITʻit started rainingʼ

§5.3.5 Translative Agentive Verbs

Translative agentive verbs are a subset of intransitive agentive verbs - they differ from them only by the preverb vowel a- which is always present in translative verbs. Translative agentive verbs have no object and denote a change of state into another. This is often equivalent to verbs such as ‘become’ ‘turn into’ or ‘get’. Many basic nouns (non-derivated) go through a vowel change when forming translative verbs. Most basic nouns with a simple vowel in the stem see their vowel raised. Impersonal verbs, as will be explained below, have no translative form and instead use the conclusive aspect to express this distinction. Translative agentive verbs, like all agentive verbs, imply a conscious agent. It is perhaps in the nature of translativity that rather few translative verbs are agentive. Translative agentive vebrs have the infinitive -la or -ora. Here are some examples, however;

anupru[ɑˈnupχu]a-nup<r>-u-Ø(TRANSL-angry.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL-3P.ACT.AGʻX got angryʼ

abetiusin[ɑˈbetɪusɪn]a-beti-u-si-nTRANSL-bee-ASS.CONCL-TRANSL-NEG-IMP.2P.SGʻdonʼt start bugging meʼ (lit. donʼt turn into a bee)

asimun[ɑˈsimʊn]a-s<i>m-u-nTRANSL-man-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL-IIMP.2P.SGʻman up!ʼ(cf. somi ʻmanʼ > -simi-)

asimun[ɑˈsimʊn]a-s<i>m-u-nTRANSL-man-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL-IIMP.2P.SGʻman up!ʼ(cf. somi ʻmanʼ > -simi-)

§5.3.6 Translative Unagentive Verbs

Translative unagentive verbs are a subset of intransitive agentive verbs - they differ from them only by the preverb vowel a- (an- before vowels) which is always present in translative verbs. Translative unagentive verbs have no object and denote an uncontrolled or unconscious change of state into another. This is often equivalent to verbs such as ‘become’ ‘turn into’ or ‘get’. Many basic nouns (non-derivated) go through a vowel change when forming translative verbs. Most basic nouns with a simple vowel in the stem see their vowel raised. Impersonal verbs, as will be explained below, have no translative form and instead use the conclusive aspect to express this distinction. Translative unagentive verbs, like all agentive verbs, imply an unconscious or unwilling agent. Sometimes, translative unagentive verbs may have a dummy subject (marked onto the verb but it does not refer to any pronoun or noun in the phrase). Translative unagentive verbs have the infinitive -lu or -oru.

anibmu mutįoma[ɑˈniʔpmu ˈmuʨɔma]an-<i<b>m-u mutįo-maTRANSL-snow.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL food.hut-GENʻthe food hut got snowed inʼ(cf. omi ʻsnowʼ)

taivvu voavvibma [ˈtʰɑɪw:u ˈvɔɑw:ɪʔpma]t-a-i<vv>-u-Ø voa<vv>-ibma3P.ACT.UNAG-TRANSL-freeze.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL * lake.GEN-ALLATʻthe lake froze (over)ʼ(lit. X froze over the lake)

asġu kidli[aˈsχu ˈcʰɪtɬi]a-s<Ø>hh-u ki<d>liTRANSL-burn-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL wood.STATʻthe wood got burntʼ (lit. became burnt)

asġu kidli[aˈsχu ˈcʰɪtɬi]a-s<Ø>hh-u ki<d>liTRANSL-burn-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL wood.STATʻthe wood got burntʼ (lit. became burnt)

kisine atįiru iruohdi savi oįuohdi [ˈcʰisine ɑˈʨiru ˈirʊɔhʥi sɑvi ojʊɔhʥi]kis-ine a-<tįir>-u iru=og-di savi oįu=og-diquick-ADV.COMP TRANSL-rot-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL fir=wood-stat than birch=wood-STATʻfir wood will rot more quickly than birch woodʼ(cf. kįori - rotten wood)

kisine atįiru iruohdi savi oįuohdi [ˈcʰisine ɑˈʨiru ˈirʊɔhʥi sɑvi ojʊɔhʥi]kis-ine a-<tįir>-u iru=og-di savi oįu=og-diquick-ADV.COMP TRANSL-rot-ASS.CONCL.TRANSL fir=wood-stat than birch=wood-STATʻfir wood will rot more quickly than birch woodʼ(cf. kįori - rotten wood)

Some inconclusive verbs have a change in meaning when they are used in the translative inconclusive (i.e. with the copula):

tsảbmi nata[tsæʔpmi nɑta]Ø-tsảbm-i n-a-taITR-bleed-ITR COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.PAT.SGʻX is bleedingʼ

vs. tsảbmi duta[tsæʔpmi duta]Ø-tsảbm-i d-u-taITR-bleed-ITR COP.CONCL-TRANSL.ASS.-3P.ACT.PAT.SGʻX is starting her periodʼ

tatůrůmi [tɑʰˈtørømi]ta-Ø-tůrů-m-i3P.ACT.PAT.SG-ITR-furry-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻX is furry/hairyʼ

vs. tůrůi dudnata[tʰørøi ˈdʊʔtnɑda]Ø-tůrů-i d-u-dna-taITR-fur-ITR COP.CONCL-TRANSL.ASS-3P.ACT.PAT.SGʻX is shedding furʼ(lit. ʻX is starting to “de-fur”)

§5.3.7 Subjective Agentive Verbs

Subjective agentive verbs are verbs whose subject and object are the same or closely related, i.e. unalienable possessions. Subjective agentive verbs are used, for example, when the subject acts upon itself or its body for its own benefit. As with all agentive verbs, the subject is consciously, willingly or knowingly acting upon the subject. Unlike transitive or intransitive verbs, where the transitivity vowel (-a-) is sometimes not present, the subjective vowel (-o-) is always present, and is augmented to o#- before other vowels. Subjective agentive verbs have the infinitive -na.

oųetimi hide [ɔwˈetimi ˈhide]o-et-i-mi hide-ØSUBJ-cut-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.ACT.AG.SG hair-DATʻI will cut my hairʼ

etasami hide-ha [ˈetɑsɑmi ˈhideɑ]Ø-et-a-sa-mi hide-Ø—haTR-cut-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.PAT.SG=1P.ACT.AG.SGhair-DAT—POSSʻI will cut your hairʼ (lit. I will cut you your hair)

oųovluhhimi[ɔwoˈl:uh:imi]o-ol=luhh-i-miSUBJ-leaf=boil-ASS.CONCL.ITR-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI will boil tea for myselfʼ

oųỉgi tatatta kevta [ɔwˈi:ji ˈtʰɑtaʔta ˈcʰeð:a]oų-ỉ<g>-i-Ø tata-tta kevtasubj-change.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AG wolf-GEN into.the.formʻX turned into a woflʼ

The subjective agentive verbs may also denote a rough, impolite or rude action, especially with the use of the semelfactive, e.g.

omi siehhõdi [ɔˈmi ˈsɪɛh:ɔ̃ʥi]o-m-i-Ø siehhum-diSUBJ-eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SEMELF-3P.ACT.AG . dried.meat- GENʻX ate him/her/itself a piece of dried meatʼ

ama siehhõdi [ɑˈma ˈsɪɛh:ɔ̃ʥi]a-m-a-Ø siehhum-diTR-eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.ACT.AG dried.meat-GENʻX had himself a small piece of dried meatʼ

§5.3.8 Subjective Unagentive Verbs

Like subjective agentive verbs, subject unagentive verbs have a subject who acts upon itself or something closely related to itself (unalienable possessions, body parts). There are not many subjective unagentive verbs - they are perhaps the least common class of verbs. Most subjective unagentive verbs denote an accident, for example breaking, cutting, bruising, hurting or burning oneself. Subject unagentive verbs have their -o- ending after the unagentive active pronouns. Subjective unagentive verb have the infinitive -nu.

motįipri [mɔˈʨipχi]m-o-tįip<r>-i1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-cut.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻI cut myselfʼ

mosavvi [mɔˈsaw:i]m-o-sa<vv>-i1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-burn.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻI burnt myselfʼ

soketsodįi [sɔˈcʰɛˈtsoʥi]s-o-ket=so<dį>-i2P.ACT.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-arm=break.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻyou broke your armʼ

torettuvvi [tʰɔrɛˈʔtuw:i]t-o-rev=tu<vv>-i3P.ACT.UNAG-SUBJ-ankle=turn.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻX twisted his/her/its ankeʼ (rettuvi- ʻtwist Xʼs ankleʼ)

And compare the two examples below:

manỉddi [ˈmɑni:t:i]m-an-ỉ<dd>-i1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-ITR-fall.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻI fellʼ

moųỉddiga [mɔˈwi:t:iɣa]m-oų-ỉ<dd>-i-ga1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-fall.past-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SEMELFʻI took a bad fallʼ

Subjective unagentive verbs may also be ditransitive, in which case the owner of the unalianable possession is in its recipient form (for nouns, the locative) and the possession is the unagentive subject. This construction is especially used when body parts are affected, e.g.

osỉlka mepri nasi[ɔˈsi:lka ˈmepχi ˈnɑsi]o-sỉlk-a mebb-ri n-a-siSUBJ-swell-INCONCL-TR.ASS knee-STAT COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-2P.PAT.SGʻyour knee is swellingʼ

§5.3.9 Ditransitive Verbs

Ditransitive verbs are verbs who have both a patient and a recipient, only a recipient, or for verbs of motion, a destination (expressed with locative cases). Because of motion verbs, this class of verbs is sometimes referred to as ditransitive-distinative. It is important to understand that the role of the recipient in Siwa differs in a number of ways from the traditional function of the indirect object, which ditransitive verbs usually have. The Siwa recipient is both the indirect object and also the beneficiary of an action, or the literal recipient, i.e. that to/into/onto which the action is directed. Because the recipient in Siwa is in the locative and the personal pronouns also exhibit this locative ending (-is), the meaning of recipient is thus also associated with locative and the cases formed on its basis, i.e. inessive, illative and elative as well as adessive, allative and ablative. In other words, when a verb governs an ‘indirect object’ which is in fact in the cases listed above, it appears in the ditransitive, which has the preverb vowel -i- or -$- before other vowels. Ditransitive verbs may be agentive or unagentive. Verbs with a movement but without a destination do not appear in the ditransitive form. Only destination requires the ditransitive (excluding verbs showing provenance). Ditransitive verbs may describe verbs who have an object and a a recipient of the form ‘X did Y to Z’ or ‘X did Y into/onto/from/off Z’. Ditransitive agenitve verbs have the infinitive -nin, whereas ditransitive unagentive verbs have -non.

inanabe [iˈnɑnɑbe]i-nan-a-be-ØDIT-tell.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.REC.PL.INCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX told Y to usʼ

isetami ảtta [iˈsetɑmi æ:ʔta]i-set-a-Ø-mi ảd-taDIT-place-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.ACT.AG.SG 3P.INA.GEN-ILLATʻI will put Y into itʼ

isotatimi[iˈsɔtɑʨimi]i-sot-a-Ø-ti-miDIT-give-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-3P.REC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI will give Y to Zʼ

isotakin! [iˈsɔtɑɟin]i-sot-a-ki-nDIT-give-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.REC.SG-2P.IMP.SGʻgive Y to me!ʼ

But compare:

astaki [ɑˈstɑɟi]a-<st>-a-kiTR-give.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-TRANSLO)ʻX gave Y awayʼ

Ditransitive verbs may only have a recipient, or may have a direct object. This includes all verbs of motion with a destination.

itahra tsamṡita[iˈtʰahra ˈtsamɕida]i-tah<r>-a-Ø tsa<m>ġ-i-taDIT-leave.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AG forest.GEN-ILLATʻX left into the forestʼ

ihảbmaga kyndita-ha hemi [iˈhæ:ʔpmɑɣa ˈcʰœnʥidawˈhemi]i-hảbm-ag-a kyn-di-ta–ha hemi-Ø DIT-fly-PAST- ASS.CONCL.TR nest-GEN-ILLAT–POSS bird-ACTʻthe bird flew into its nestʼ

itįitta samuita [iˈʨiʔta ˈsɑmʊɪda]i-tįi<tt>-a-Ø sa<m>u-itaDIT-crawl.PAST-CONCL.ASS.TR-3P.ACT.AG tent.GEN-ILLATʻX crawled into the tentʼ

itįitta samuita [iˈʨiʔta ˈsɑmʊɪda]i-tįi<tt>-a-Ø sa<m>u-itaDIT-crawl.PAST-CONCL.ASS.TR-3P.ACT.AG tent.GEN-ILLATʻX crawled into the tentʼ

§5.3.10 Passive Verbs

Passive verbs are verbs whose topic is the patient and are usually void of subjects (coded here as null subject or 0SUBJ-). There may also be a subject (transitive or intransitive), in which case it is found in the obviative. The marking for the passive is the preverb vowel -u- or -v/#- before vowels. Generally, passive verbs are in the conclusive when the meaning is ‘X is Y-ed’. When a passive verb is in the inconclusive, it may also be understood to mean ‘one/we/unspecified agent is X-ing Y’. The topic of passive verbs are always considered unagentive. Passive agentive verbs have the infinitive -mona, whereas unagentive have -monu.

Compare the examples below:

usahhi kidli [uˈsɑh:i ˈcʰɪtɬi]Ø-u-sahh-i ki<d>li0SUBJ-PASS-burn-CONCL.ASS.ITr wood.GENʻthe wood is burntʼ

usahhi kidli na[uˈsɑh:i ˈcʰɪtɬi na]Ø-u-sahh-i ki<d>li0SUBJ-PASS-burn-ASS.ITR wood.GEN COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDICʻwe are burning the wood, the wood is being 'burnt, the wood is burningʼ

sahhi kidli na[ˈsɑh:i ˈcʰɪtɬi na]Ø-sahh-m-i- ki<d>liITR-burn-ASS.ITR wood.STAT COP.INCONCL.ASS.INDICʻthe wood is burning (by itself)ʼ

sahhi kidli na[ˈsɑh:i ˈcʰɪtɬi na]Ø-sahh-m-i- ki<d>liITR-burn-ASS.ITR wood.STAT COP.INCONCL.ASS.INDICʻthe wood is burning (by itself)ʼ

The difference between usahhi kidli na and sahhi kidli na is that in the former, there is an unspecified agent acting upon the patient, whereas in the latter the wood is burning by itself. Compare the examples below. The first example has no subject, and the second one has a subject in the active (this is always the case). The third example is not using a passive construction at all and uses instead intransitive unagentive verb:

uįuvvi narmahta sỉhdi [uˈjuw:i ˈnarmahta ˈsi:hʥi]u-įuvv-i narma-g-ta sir=diPASS-catch.with.net.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR net-GEN-ILLAT fish.STATʻthe fish was caught into the netʼ

uįuvva narmahta sỉhdi kori [uˈjuw:a ˈnarmahta ˈsihʥi ˈkʰori]u-įuvv-i narma-g-ta sir=di o-kori-PASS-catch.with.net.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR net-GEN-ILLAT fish.STAT boy-ACTʻthe fish was caught into the net by the boyʼ

aįuvvi narmahta sỉhdi [ɑˈjuw:i ˈnarmahta ˈsi:hʥi]a-įuvv-i narma-g-ta sir=diITR-catch.with.net.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR net-GEN-ILLAT fish.STATʻthe fish got caught into the netʼ

aįuvvi narmahta sỉhdi [ɑˈjuw:i ˈnarmahta ˈsi:hʥi]a-įuvv-i narma-g-ta sir=diITR-catch.with.net.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR net-GEN-ILLAT fish.STATʻthe fish got caught into the netʼ

The passive participles, called patientive participles in Siwa, are equivalent to English ‘X is V-ed’. Patientive participles are usually found in the past with the meaning ‘V-ed’, whereas aa present patientive participle is translated as ‘which must/is to/is about/may be V-ed’.

kili sastu[ˈcʰili ˈsastu]kili-Ø sa<st>-uwood-ACT burn.PAST-PAT.PART.ACT.SGʻburnt woodʼ(lit. wood which is burnt)

kili sahhu[ˈcʰili sɑh:u]kili-Ø sahh-uwood-ACT burn-PAT.PART.ACT.SGʻwood to be burnt, wood about to be burnt, wood for burningʼ

§5.4 Tense

Siwa verbs has two tenses: non-past and past. Only the past tense is overtly marked. The combination of tense and aspect yields 12 primary tenses; future, present inconclusive, present habitual conclusive, present habitual inconclusive, prefect conclusive and inconclusive in the non-past and past conclusive, past inconclusive, past habitual conclusive and inconclusive and past pluperfect conclusive and inconclusive in the past. In addition to these 12 primary tenses, the copula combines the perfective and inconclusive to form the perfect inconclusive non-past or past. Copulaic constructions are also used to show an immediate past by using the subitive on the non-finite verb, and a distant past which is used in certain narrative styles, realized by using the habitual on the non-finite verb. The chart below shows how tense and aspect combine to produce the 14 verb-marked tenses of Siwa.

non-past past

conclusive

future past conclusive

conclusive

keda[ˈcʰeda]Ø-ked-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will carry Yʼ

akedda[ɑˈcʰɛt:a]a-ke<dd>-a-Ø-ØTR-carry.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX carried Yʼ

inconclusive

present inconclusive past inconclusive

inconclusive

keda na[ˈcʰeda ˈna]Ø-ked-a n-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR COP.INCCONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX is carrying Yʼ

keda ma[ˈcʰeda ˈma]Ø-ked-a m-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR COP.PAST.INCCONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX was carrying Yʼ

habitual conclusive

present habitual conclusive past habitual conclusive

habitual conclusive

ketsa[ˈcʰetsa]Ø-ked-s-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-HAB-ASS.TR-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX (usually) carries Yʼ

akeddasa[ɑˈcʰɛt:ɑsa]a-ke<dd>-a-sa-Ø-ØTR-carry.PAST-ASS.TR.-HAB-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX (usually) carried Yʼ

habitual inconclusive

present habitual inconclusive past habitual inconclusive

habitual inconclusive

keda sa[ˈcʰeda ˈsa]Ø-ked-a s-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR COP.HAB.INCCONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX is (usually) carrying Yʼ

keda sġa[ˈcʰeda ˈsχa]Ø-ked-a sġ-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR COP.PAST.HAB.INCCONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX was (usually) carrying Yʼ

non-past past

perfect conclusive

perfect conclusive pluperfect conclusive

perfect conclusive

kedla[ˈcʰetɬa]Ø-ked-l-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-PERF-ASS.TR-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX has carried Yʼ

akeddala[ɑˈcʰɛt:ɑla]a-ke<dd>-a-la-Ø-ØTR-carry.PAST-ASS.TR.-PERF-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX had carried Yʼ

perfect inconclusive

perfect inconclusive pluperfect inconclusive

perfect inconclusive

keda odįa[ˈcʰeda ˈɔʥa]Ø-ked-a odį-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR COP.PERF.INCCONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX is carrying Yʼ

keda olma[ˈcʰeda ˈɔlma]Ø-ked-a olm-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR COP.PAST.PERF.INCCONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX was carrying Yʼ

pastpast

immediate

kedatta ga[ˈcʰedaʔta ˈga]Ø-ked-a-tta g-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR-SUBIT COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX just carried Yʼ

kedatta ga[ˈcʰedaʔta ˈga]Ø-ked-a-tta g-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR-SUBIT COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX just carried Yʼ

distant

kedas ga[ˈcʰedas ˈga]Ø-ked-a-s g-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR-HAB COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX carried Y (a long time ago)ʼ

kedas ga[ˈcʰedas ˈga]Ø-ked-a-s g-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-TR-HAB COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS-INDIC-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX carried Y (a long time ago)ʼ

§5.4.1 Conclusivity

Conclusivity is overtly marked on verbs. The result are the 12 tenses mentioned above. Conclusivity shows whether or not a verb reaches an endpoint or a conclusion. For instance, the English phrase I am helping you would be inconclusive (as most progressive English phrases are) because one cannot deduce when the speaker of the sentence will no longer help. Naturally, the present conclusive must be in the future, as an action cannot reach its endpoint if it is also in the present. Conclusivity is semantically very similar to the perfective or imperfective aspect of certain languages, but it has broader function, namely to show whether a goal was achieved or not. However, conclusivity is also marked indirectly through cases on the objects of verbs. A dative object shows a conclusive aspect and a genitive object shows an inconclusive aspect. Thus, a verb can have a conclusive aspect but still have an inconclusive object. Generally, an inconclusive object will be considered to be partitive (the action only affects part of the object) or translative (the action changes the state of the object). This leads to an interplay between verb-marked conclusivity and object-marked conclusivity.

The result are two extra tenses which can only be expressed with an object. The tenses are the future inconclusive (future tense with an inconclusive object) and the past-future conclusive (past inconclusive with a conclusive object). Conclusivity effects the definiteness of the object. The translative nearly always adds definiteness to the object (often translated with a definite article in English or all of or a whole, etc. especially with an inconclusive verb). The partitive may indicate lack of definitiness of the object (often translated with an indefinite article for countable nouns or some or nothing for uncountable nouns). However, in the future inconclusive, the partitive may indicate both definiteness or lack thereof. The table below illustrates the interplay between verb and object conclusivity, definiteness and the two tenses, future inconclusive and past-future conclusive.

translative-dative partitive-genitive

conclusive

present

future conclusive future inconclusive

conclusive

present

ikeda kili oakibma[iˈcʰeda ˈcʰili ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma]i-ked-a-Ø kili-Ø oak=ibmaDIT-carry-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AG wood-DAT home-ALLATʻX will carry the wood homeʼ

ikeda kidli oakibma[iˈcʰeda ˈcʰɪtɬi ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma]i-ked-a-Ø ki<d>li oak=ibmaDIT-carry-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AG wood.GEN home-ALLATʻX will carry (some) wood homeʼorʻX will be carrying (some/the) wood homeʼconclusive

past

past conclusive past inconclusive

conclusive

past

ikedda kili oakibma[iˈcʰɛt:a ˈcʰili ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma]i-ke<dd>-a-Ø kili-Ø oak=ibmaDIT-carry.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AG wood-DAT home-ALLATʻX carried the wood homeʼ

ikedda kidli oakibma[iˈcʰɛt:a ˈcʰɪtɬi ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma]i-ke<dd>-a-Ø ki<d>li oak=ibmaDIT-carry.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AG wood.GEN home-ALLATʻX carried (some) wood homeʼ

inconclusive

present

present conclusive present inconclusive

inconclusive

present

keda kili oakibma na[iˈcʰeda ˈcʰili ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma na]i-ked-a- kili oak=ibma n-a-ØDIT-carry-TR wood-GEN home-ALLAT COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX is carrying (the/all the) wood homeʼ

ikeda kidli oakibma na[iˈcʰeda ˈcʰɪtɬi ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma na]i-ked-a- ki<d>li oak=ibma n-a-ØDIT-carry-TR wood.GEN home-ALLAT COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX is carrying (some) wood homeʼ

inconclusive

past

past conclusive past inconclusiveinconclusive

past

ikeda kili oakibma ma[iˈcʰeda ˈcʰili ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma ma]i-ked-a- kili oak=ibma m-a-ØDIT-carry-TR wood-GEN home-ALLAT COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX was carrying the wood homeʼorʻX was going to carry the wood homeʼ

ikeda kidli oakibma ma[iˈcʰeda ˈcʰɪtɬi ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma ma]i-ked-a- ki<d>li oak=ibma m-a-ØDIT-carry-TR wood.GEN home-ALLAT COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX was carrying (some) wood homeʼ

§5.4.2 Non-Past

The non-past is used to express the present tense in all aspects except the conclusive and the perfective. In the conclusive, the non-past expressed future (except with impersonal verbs, in which case it shows present inchoative), whereas the perfective shows the perfect tense.

§5.4.2.1 Future

The future tense in Siwa shows that an action has yet to happen. This applies to actions in a relative past and present, meaning that Siwa allows for the future tense to be used in a past context. Phrases such as I knew that you would help me would have the second verb, would help me, in the future (inferential) in Siwa. As it was mentioned above, the future inconclusive is often equivalent to the English will be -ing. Technically, the Siwa future is actually a present conclusive, which means that the object of the verb will often be found in the dative.

Future conclusive:

eita kehkįu matsi[ˈeida ˈcɛhcu ˈmɑtsi]Ø-eit-a kehkįu-Ø m=atsi-ØTR-build-ASS.CONCL.TR canoe-DAT my.father-ACTʻmy father will build a/the canoeʼ

siįu iramuna kansika tõkka odata[ˈsiju ˈirɑmuna ˈkʰansiga ˈtʰɔ̃ʔka ɔˈdɑta]siįu Ø-ira-mu-na kansi-ka tõkk-a o-d-a-tanever TR-kill-OBL-2P.ACT.AG.SG female.moose-GEN give.birth-TR REL-COP.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.UNAG.SGʻyou must never kill a female moose which is about (lit. will) give birthʼ

Future inconclusive:

eita kehkįume matsi[ˈeida ˈcɛhcume ˈmɑtsi]Ø-eit-a kehkįu-me m=atsi-ØTR-build-ASS.CONCL.TR canoe-GEN my.father-ACTʻmy father will be building a canoeʼ

miegįa salakka somia [ˈmiej:a ˈsɑlaʔka ˈsɔmia]Ø-miegį-a salam-ka somi-aTR-herd-ASS.CONCL.TR antler-GEN men-PL.ACTʻthe men will be herding the caribou (lit. antlers)ʼorʻthe men will herd caribouʼ

Future in the past:

aneddami opa odekana[ɑˈnɛt:ɑmi ˈɔpa ɔˈdekɑna]a-ne<dd>-a-mi op-a o-d-e-ka-naTR-know.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR help-TR REL-COP.CONCL-INFER.INDIC-1P.PAT.SG-2P.ACT.AG.SGʻI knew that you would help meʼ

noairi opotemusami[ˈnɔɑiri ˈɔpɔdemusɑmi]Ø-noa-i-ri op-ot-e-mu-sa-miITR-say-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AG.PL help-COMPL-CONCL.INFER-OBLI-2P.PAT.SG-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻthey said that I would have to help youʼ

bauvlatįu seųis dủ geri osoakuri sasame rỷhhibma[ˈbɑul:aʨu ˈsewɪs du: ˈɟeri ɔˈsɔɑguri ˈsɑsɑme ˈry:h:ɪʔpma]bauvl-a-tįu seųis-Ø dủ g-e-ri o-soak-u-ri sasame-Ø ro<Ø>u=hi-bmawade-TR-LINK.TEMP small.river-DAT after COP.PAST.CONCL-INFER.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.PL SUBJ-build.house-INFER.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AG.PL tipi.DAT shore-ALLAT ʻafter they waded the river, they were going to build themselves a tipi onto the shoreʼ

bauvlatįu seųis dủ geri osoakuri sasame rỷhhibma[ˈbɑul:aʨu ˈsewɪs du: ˈɟeri ɔˈsɔɑguri ˈsɑsɑme ˈry:h:ɪʔpma]bauvl-a-tįu seųis-Ø dủ g-e-ri o-soak-u-ri sasame-Ø ro<Ø>u=hi-bmawade-TR-LINK.TEMP small.river-DAT after COP.PAST.CONCL-INFER.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.PL SUBJ-build.house-INFER.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AG.PL tipi.DAT shore-ALLAT ʻafter they waded the river, they were going to build themselves a tipi onto the shoreʼ

§5.4.2.2 Present Inconclusive

The present inconclusive is used for present actions lacking an end point or lacking a conclusion. This is very often similar to the English present progressive. If the object is found in the dative, then it is usually the whole of the object which is affected.

gỉkkįa ỉhpid nami[ˈgi:ʔca ˈi:hpɪʥ ˈnɑmi]Ø-gỉkkį-a ỉhpi-d n-a-miTR-sharpen-TR arrow.head-GEN COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI am sharpening the arrowheadʼ

nodi muohkima na tataras[ˈnɔdi ˈmuɔhcima na ˈtʰɑtɑras]Ø-nod-i muor-k=ima n-a tataras-ØTR-sing-TR twiglight-adess COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC loon-ACTʻthe loon is singing in the/during twilightʼ

notsa kůnůma helvaika na dida[ˈnɔtsa ˈcʰønøma ˈhɛlvɑiga na dida]Ø-nots-a kůnů-ma helva=ika n-a dida-ØTR-take-TR milk-GEN female.caribou-ELAT COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC young.woman-ACTʻthe young woman is milking the female caribouʼ (lit. taking milk from)

notsa kůnůma helvaika na dida[ˈnɔtsa ˈcʰønøma ˈhɛlvɑiga na dida]Ø-nots-a kůnů-ma helva=ika n-a dida-ØTR-take-TR milk-GEN female.caribou-ELAT COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC young.woman-ACTʻthe young woman is milking the female caribouʼ (lit. taking milk from)

butbut

ha delba nami[ˈha ˈdɛlba ˈnɑmi]Ø-h-a delba-Ø n-a-miTR-eat-TR food-DAT COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI am eating all the foodʼ

ha delba nami[ˈha ˈdɛlba ˈnɑmi]Ø-h-a delba-Ø n-a-miTR-eat-TR food-DAT COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI am eating all the foodʼ

§5.4.2.3 Present Habitual Conclusive

The present habitual conclusive shows the reoccurive aspect of a conclusive verb. It can also be used in gnomic statements, reflective general truths or facts about a conclusive verb.

ukęvma saskismi [ˈucæm:a ˈsascɪsmi]ukęvma Ø-sask-i-s-miin.morning ITR-wake.up-ASS.ITR-HAB-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻin the morning I wake upʼ

uųuvsi mavvu sidnineta oskike seta[uwˈus:i ˈmɑw:u ˈsɪʔtnineda ˈɔsciɟe ˈseta]uų-us-s-i mavvu-Ø sidn-ine-ta osk-i-ke s-e-taPASS-smoke-HAB-ASS.CONCL.ITR meat-DAT long-COMP.ADV-ILLAT last-ITR-LINK.GOAL COP.HAB.CONCL-INFER.INDIC-3P.ACT.UNAG.SGʻthe meat is smoked so that it will keep longerʼ

usotsi tonta osomu te iįuri eukake ẻgika haįa se[uˈsɔtsi ˈtʰɔnta ˈɔsɔmu de ˈijuri ˈeugaɟe ˈe:jiga ˈhɑja ˈse]u-sot-s-i tom=ta osomu-Ø te iįuri-Ø euk-a-ke ẻgi=ka hai-a s-ePASS-give-HAB-ASS.CONCL.TR together ash-DAT and spruce.pitch-DAT produce-TR-LINK.GOAL 3P.PRON.PL=ELAT glue-GEN COP.HAB.CONCL-INFER.INDICʻash and spruce pitch are mixed together to produce glue/gumʼ (lit. ash and spruce pitch are given together so that/to produce out of them gum)

hami mảhraga daita etsatįu dủ sa tįipsamuįo nuppiu[ˈhɑmi ˈmæhrɑɣa ˈdɑida-Ø ˈetsɑʨu du: sa ˈʨɪpsɑmujɔ ˈnʊʔpiu]Ø-h-a-mi mảhra-ga d-a-ita ets-a-tįu dủ s-a-Ø Ø-tįip-s-a-mu-įo nuppiu-ØTR-eat-TR-INFI.AG.TR bear-GEN COP.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ILLAT begin-TR-LINK.TEMP BEFORE COP.HAB.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SG TR-cut-HAB-ASS.CONCL.TR-OBLI-4P.ACT.AG snout-DATʻbefore one usually begins to eat the bear, one has to cut the snoutʼ

§5.4.2.4 Present Habitual Inconclusive

The present habitual inconclusive shows the reoccuring aspect of an inconclusive verb. It is also used in gnomic statements, reflective general truths or facts about an inconclusive verb (i.e. the verb does not specify whether or not the goal is reached).

ųitsa narmaga sa [ˈwitsa ˈnarmɑɣa sa]Ø-ųits-a narma-ga s-aTR-fix-TR fish.net-GEN COP.HAB.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX fixes fishing netʼ

aiska isekid sa ỉskia[ˈaɪska ˈiseɟɪʥ sa ˈi:scia]Ø-aisk-a iseki-d s-a ỉski-Ø-aTR-sow-TR clothes-GEN COP.HAB.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC woman-ACT-PLʻthe women sow (the) clothesʼ

§5.4.2.5 Present Perfective Conclusive

The present perfective conclusive is equivalent to the perfect tense with a conclusive aspect. The present perfective conclusive shows that the action was completed prior to the present. Often where English would use the perfect in phrases such as I have seen it before, Siwa would simply use the perfect, without before.

keslana įolmi tįęvmia daita[ˈcʰɛslɑna ˈjɔlmi ˈʨæm:ia ˈdɑida]Ø-kes-l-a-na įol-mi tįęvmi-a d-a-itaTR-learn-PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.ACT.AG.SG read-INF.ACT.AG animal.trace-DAT.PL COP.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ILLATʻyou have learned to read animal traces (already/before)ʼ

so nįavlana mỉhna a?[sɔ ˈɲɑl:ɑna ˈmi:hna ʔa]so Ø-nįal-l-a-na mỉhna-Ø aINTERO TR-taste-PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.ACT.AG.SG mỉhna-DAT INTEROʻhave you tasted mỉhna (before/ever)?ʼ

ỏdna ỉtkila õkko [ˈʊʔtna ˈi:tcila ˈɔ̃ʔko]ỏdna Ø-ỉtk-i-la om-konow ITR-melt-ASS.ITR-PERF snow-STATʻnow the snow has meltedʼ

ỏdna ỉtkila õkko [ˈʊʔtna ˈi:tcila ˈɔ̃ʔko]ỏdna Ø-ỉtk-i-la om-konow ITR-melt-ASS.ITR-PERF snow-STATʻnow the snow has meltedʼ

§5.4.2.6 Present Perfective Inconclusive

Like its conclusive counterpart, the present perfective inconclusive is similar to the perfect tense of English However, because it is inconclusive, it may often carry a meaning similar to a progressive perfect tense in English; it refers to an ongoing or incompleted action whose startpoint is in the past. Because it is in the present, it usually has a relevence to the present tense, such that it may equal the progressive perfect of English (i.e. X has been Ø-ing).

kesa įolmi tįęvme daita odįana[ˈcʰesɑ ˈjɔlmi ˈʨæm:e ˈdɑida ˈɔʥɑna]kes-a įol-mi tįęvmi-e d-a-ita odį-a-nalearn-TR animal.trace-GEN COP.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ILLAT COP.PERF.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-2P.ACT.AG.SGʻyou have been learning to read animal tracesʼ

ṡivi heįeri tuma ủra muvma odįa tobori[ˈɕivi ˈhejeri ˈtʰuma ˈu:ra ˈmum:a ˈɔʥa ˈtʰɔbɔri]ṡiv-i heįe-ri tu=ma ủra mu=vma odį-a tobori-Østay-TR winter-GEN one.GEN 1P.PRON.PL.GEN amongst.INESS COP.PERF.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC 3P.PRON.FEMʻshe/the woman has been staying with us for one winterʼ

§5.4.3 Past

The past is used to express the past tense in all aspects. In addition, the past also has two copulaic constructions; the immediate past and the distant past.

§5.4.3.1 Past Conclusive

The past conclusive shows that the action was performed to its endpoint or conclusion in the past. This often equivalent to the English simple past tense or preterite.

aneterra sỉhpi [ɑnˈeter:a ˈsi:hpi]an-ete<rr>-a-Ø sỉhpi-ØTR-spear.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.ACT.AG.SG whale-DATʻX speared a whale (and killed it)ʼ

aįủtta almi daika[ɑˈju:ʔta ˈalmi dɑiga ]a-įủ<tt>-a-Ø al-mi d-a-ikaTR-finish-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.ACT.AG tan-INFI.AG.TR COP.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ELATʻX finished the tanningʼ

§5.4.3.1 Past Inconclusive

The past inconclusive, like its conclusive counterpart, shows that the action was performed in the past, without however reaching its endpoint or conclusion. If the object is found in the dative, then the past inconclusive may be interpreted as a past-future conclusive.

Past inconclusive:

odena keltari mami[ˈɔdena ˈcʰɛltɑri ˈmɑmi]Ø-oden-a kelta-ri m-a-miTR-look-TR ground-GEN COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI was looking at the groundʼ

ha delbari mami[ˈha ˈdɛlbɑri ˈnɑmi]Ø-h-a delba-ri m-a-miTR-eat-TR food-GEN COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI was eating foodʼ

tsoali ủkima ma terhuhmatta[ˈtsɔɑli ˈu:ɟima ma ˈtʰɛrhʊhmaʔta]Ø-tsoal-i ủki-ma m-a ter=huh-ma-ttaITR-shimmer-ITR water-ADESS COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC sun=bright-PRES.UNAG.PART-STATʻthe sunlight was shimmering on the waterʼ

tsoali ủkima ma terhuhmatta[ˈtsɔɑli ˈu:ɟima ma ˈtʰɛrhʊhmaʔta]Ø-tsoal-i ủki-ma m-a ter=huh-ma-ttaITR-shimmer-ITR water-ADESS COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC sun=bright-PRES.UNAG.PART-STATʻthe sunlight was shimmering on the waterʼ

Past-future conclusive:

ha delba mami[ˈha ˈdɛlba ˈmɑmi]Ø-h-a delba-Ø m-a-miTR-eat-TR food-DAT COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI was eating (all the) foodʼorʻI was going to eat the foodʼ

oriutsi ảli mami[ɔˈriutsi ˈæ:li ˈmɑmi]o-riuts-a ảli-Ø m-a-miSUBJ-care/treat-ITR wound-DAT COP.PAST.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI was treating my (whole) woundʼorʻI was going to treat my woundʼ

§5.4.3.1 Past Habitual Conclusive

The past habitual conclusive shows the reoccurive aspect of a conclusive verb. It can also be used in gnomic statements, reflective general truths or facts about a conclusive verb.

uųuḥis mavvu sidnineta oskike sġeta[uwˈuʔɪs ˈmɑw:u ˈsɪʔtnineda ˈɔsciɟe ˈsχeta]uų-u<ḥ>-i- mavvu-Ø sidn-ine-ta osk-i-ke sġ-e-taPASS-smoke-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB meat-DAT long-COMP.ADV-ILLAT last-ITR-LINK.GOAL COP.PAST.HAB.CONCL-INFER.INDIC-3P.ACT.UNAG.SGʻthe meat was smoked so that it would keep longerʼ

otugis ihha dahpika-ha evka opua[ɔˈtʰujɪs ih:a ˈdahpiga: ˈɛðga ˈɔpua]o-tu-g-i-s ihha dahp-ika–ha evka opo-Ø-aSUBJ-pair.up-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-HAB only clan-ELAT–POSS outside.ELAT PERSON-ACT-PLʻpeople used to only pair up from outside their own clanʼ

tohhitįu mama totįa asuvnumavviskigga[ˈtʰɔh:iʨu mɑma ˈtʰɔʨa ɑˈsʊn:ˈumɑw:ɪscik:a]tohh-i-tįu d-a-ma totįa a-suv=num-avv-i-s-ki-kayoung-ITR-TEMP.LINK COP.PAST.INCONCL-TR-1P.ACT.UNAG.SG together TR-berry=gather-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR- HAB-TRANSLO-1P.ACT.AG.PL.EXCLʻwhen I was young, we used to go berry picking togetherʼ

§5.4.3.2 Past Habitual Inconclusive

The past habitual inconclusive shows the reoccuring aspect of an inconclusive verb. It is also used in gnomic statements, reflective general truths or facts about an inconclusive verb (i.e. the verb does not specify whether or not the goal is reached). It can often, but not necessarily, translate into English as used to.

ųitsa narmaga sġa [ˈwitsa ˈnarmɑɣa sχa]Ø-ųits-a narma-ga sġ-aTR-fix-TR fish.net-GEN COP.PAST.HAB.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX fixed/used to fix fishing netʼ

aiska isekid sġa ỉskia[ˈaɪska ˈiseɟɪʥ sχa ˈi:scia]Ø-aisk-a iseki-d sġ-a ỉski-Ø-aTR-sow-TR clothes-GEN COP.PAST.HAB.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC woman-ACT-PLʻthe women sowed/used to sow (the) clothesʼ

§5.4.3.3 Past Perfective Conclusive

The past perfective conclusive is equivalent to the pluperfect tense with a conclusive aspect. The past perfective conclusive shows that the action was completed prior to a past action.

akedlana įolmi tįęvmia daita[ɑˈcʰetɬɑna ˈjɔlmi ˈʨæm:ia ˈdɑida]a-ke<ḥ>-l-a-na įol-mi tįęvmi-a d-a-itaTR-learn.PAST-PERF-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.ACT.AG.SG read-INF.ACT.AG animal.trace-DAT.PL COP.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ILLATʻyou had learned to read animal traces (already/before)ʼ

soa aįủttalari sitru kiritįu gadnana a?[ˈsɔa ɑˈju:ʔtɑlɑri ˈsɪtχu ˈcʰiriʨu ˈgaʔtnɑna:]s-oa a-įủ<tt>-a-la-ri sitru-Ø kir-i-tįuQUESTION-already TR-finish.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-PERF-3P.ACT.AG.PL soup-DAT arrive-ITR-LINK.TEMP COP.PAST-ASS.INDIC-REVERS-2P.ACT.AG.SG QUESTIONʻhad they already finished the soup when you arrived (back)?ʼ

oa ikirralana oakibma sihhitįu dủ gatta[ɔɑ iˈcʰir:ɑlɑna ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma ˈsih:iʨu du: gaʔta]oa i-ki<rr>a-la-na oa-k=ibma sihh-i-tįu dủ d-a- tta*already DIT-return.PAST-ASS.TR-PERF-2P.ACT.AG.SG home-ALLAT rain-ITR-TEMP.LINK before COP.PAST-ASS.INDIC-SUBITʻyou had already returned home before it started rainingʼ

oa ikirralana oakibma sihhitįu dủ gatta[ɔɑ iˈcʰir:ɑlɑna ˈɔɑɟɪʔpma ˈsih:iʨu du: gaʔta]oa i-ki<rr>a-la-na oa-k=ibma sihh-i-tįu dủ d-a- tta*already DIT-return.PAST-ASS.TR-PERF-2P.ACT.AG.SG home-ALLAT rain-ITR-TEMP.LINK before COP.PAST-ASS.INDIC-SUBITʻyou had already returned home before it started rainingʼ

§5.4.4 Past Perfective Inconclusive

Like its conclusive counterpart, the past perfective inconclusive is similar to the pluperfect tense of English However, because it is inconclusive, it may often carry a meaning similar to a progressive pluperfect tense in English; it refers to an ongoing or incompleted action whose startpoint is prior to the past.

kesa įolmi tįęvme daita olmana[ˈcʰesɑ ˈjɔlmi ˈʨæm:e ˈdɑida ˈɔʥɑna]kes-a įol-mi tįęvmi-e d-a-ita olm-a-nalearn-TR animal.trace-GEN COP.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ILLAT COP.PAST.PERF.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-2P.ACT.AG.SGʻyou had been learning to read animal tracesʼ

ṡivi heįeri tuma ủra muvma olma tobori[ˈɕivi ˈhejeri ˈtʰuma ˈu:ra ˈmum:a ˈɔlma ˈtʰɔbɔri]ṡiv-i heįe-ri tu=ma ủra mu=vma olm-a tobori-Østay-TR winter-GEN one.GEN 1P.PRON.PL.GEN amongst.INESS COP.PAST.PERF.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC 3P.PRON.FEMʻshe/the woman has been staying with us for one winterʼ

§5.4.5 Immidiate past

The immidiate past is marked through a copulaic construction. The copula is generally conclusive. The main verb is marked with the subitive. Immidiate past refers to an action that only just happen. The actual relative time may be a few days or a few seconds.

dę!, uratta gakis[dæ uˈraʔta ˈgacɪs]dę u-r-a-tta g-a-kisEXCL.PARTICL PASS-bite-TR-SUBIT COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.RECI.SGʻOh, I just got a bite (on the fishing rod)ʼ

neįatta baskika nỏ bavtika ỏdni ubma miebṡiṡi gami [ˈnejaʔta ˈbasciga nɔh ˈbɑð:ika ʊ:ʔtni ˈʊʔpma ˈmɪɛpɕiɕi ˈgɑmi ]neį-a-tta ba=skika nỏ ba=vtika ỏdni u=bma miebṡi=ṡi-Ø g-a-misee-TR-SUB day-ELAT or other-ELAT now to fat.neck=old-DAT COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI saw the old bear (lit. old fat neck) just a day or two agoʼ (lit. I just saw the old fat neck a day or two to nowʼ)

§5.4.6 Distant past

The distant past is marked through a copulaic construction. The copula is generally conclusive. The main verb is marked with the habitual. Distant past refers to an action that happened a long time ago. It is also used in a special construction similar in meaning to English it’s been X since or X hasn’t done Y in Z time. It is made up of the distant past construction and the negative particle s$ before the time phrase, or in some cases hyphened to the front of the time postposition. The distant past can also mark a nostalgia or melancholy with certain expressions such as baht!u … o- or b" -t!u...o- ‘oh, …(when reminissing)’.

tovsitįu tõdi osi osġama[ˈtʰos:iʨɪs ˈtʰɔ̃ʥi ˈɔsi ɔˈsχɑma]tohhį-s-i-tįu tom=te osi o-sġ-a-mayoung-HAB-ITR-LINK.TEMP same-as 2P.PRON.LOC REL-COP.PAST.HAB.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.UNAG.SGʻback when I was the same age as youʼ

netas koaheįeri suųa gasami[ˈnetas ˈkʰwaˈhejeri ˈsuwa ˈgɑsɑmi]net-a-s koa=heįe-ri s-u=ųa g-a-sa-misee-TR-HAB summer=winter-GEN NEG-for COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-2P.PAT.SG-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI havenʼt seen you for summers and winters (i.e. a very long time)ʼ

bả tovsitįu tõdi osi osġama[bæ: ˈtʰos:iʨɪs ˈtʰɔ̃ʥi ˈɔsi ɔˈsχɑma]bả tohhį-s-i-tįu tom=te osi o-sġ-a-maoh young-HAB-ITR-LINK.TEMP same-as 2P.PRON.LOC REL-COP.PAST.HAB.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.UNAG.SGʻoh, back when I was the same age as you...ʼ

bahtįu onetas tuokkįu ogadįika[ˈbahʨu ɔˈnetas ˈtʰʊɔʔcu ɔˈgɑʥiga]bahtįu o-net-a-s tuo-kk-įu o-g-a-dįi-kaoh SUBJ-know-TR-HAB first-GEN-TEMPO.ADV REL-COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-REFL.ACT-1P.ACT.AG.SG.PL.EXCLʻoh, when we met for the first time...ʼ

§5.4.4 Past Tense Marking

Past is marked onto the stem of the verb through a modification of the final sound and in cases where in applies, a preverb a- in all moods and aspects in the intransitive and transitive verbs, but not impersonal verbs. The past stem marking depends on the final sound of the stem and the following vowel. When the following vowel is " or $, it often disappears in the past, being absorbed into the preceding consonant. When a verb’s stem ends in a consonant cluster not listed below, the preceding vowel is duplicated and inserted after the stem. There are four patterns; simple athematic stem (ending in one of the consonants listed below), complex athematic stem (ending in a consonant cluster not listed below), thematic stem (ending in a vowel) and copulaic verbs, which is not concerned with the past as the copula has irregular past forms.

-a -e -i -o -u -ų -į

-a- / -oa- / -au- / -ai-

-ga -ri

-vvi -vvo -vvu-mu -m-

-gį-

-e- / -ę- / -ei- / -ay- / -ie- / -eu-

-ga -ri-gi

-go -gu -vv-

-gį--i- / -ia- / -iu- -ga -ri-gi

-go -gu -vv-

-gį-

-o- / -ou- / -oi-

-ga -ri-gi

-vvo

-vvu-mu

-m-

-gį-

-u- / -ui-

-ga -ri-gi

-vvo-mu

-m-

-gį-

-y- / -ů- / -ůi-

-ga -ri-gi

-vvo-mu

-m-

-gį-

-a -e -i -o -u -ų -į

-m -bma -bme -bmi -bmo -bmu -vm- -mį-

-p-pra -pre -psi -pro -pru -bb- -bb-

-b-pra -pre -psi -pro -pru -bb- -bb-

-dn / -bm -nda -nde -ndi -ndo -ndu -dd- -ddį-

-v / -ų -vva -vve -vvi -vvo -vvu -vv- -vv-

-n -tta -tte -di -tto -ttu -dd- -ddį-

-kn -tta -tte -di -tto -ttu -dd- -ddį-

-ts -tta -tte -tti -tto -ttu -dd- -ddį-

-t-dda -dde -ddi -ddo -ddu -dd- -ddį-

-d-dda -dde -ddi -ddo -ddu -dd- -ddį-

-vt -kka -kke -kki -kko -kku -gg- -kkį-

-vk -gga -gge -ggi -ggo -ggu -gg- -gį-

-vp -ppa -ppe -ppi -ppo -ppu -bb- -pį-

-s -ḥa -ḥe -ḥi -ḥo -ḥu -ḥų- -ḥį-

-ṡ

-dįa -dįe -di -dįo -dįu -dv- -dį--tį -dįa -dįe -di -dįo -dįu -dv- -dį-

-dį

-dįa -dįe -di -dįo -dįu -dv- -dį-

-r -rra -rre -rri -rro -rru -hv- -hį-

-l-vla -vle -vli -vlo -vlu -vl- -vlį-

-dl-vla -vle -vli -vlo -vlu -vl- -vlį-

-lį -vlįa -vlįe -vlįi -vlįo -vlįu -vlį- -vlį-

-ng -ngaga -ngari -ngavvi -ngavvo-ngavvu-ngamu-ngaru

-ngam- -ngagį-

-a -e -i -o -u -ų -į

-nk -nkaga -nkari -nkavvi -nkavvo-nkavvu-nkamu-nkaru

-nkam- -nkagį-

-nį -vnįa -vnįe -vnįi -vnįo -vnįu -vnį- -vnį-

-k -vka -vke -vki -vko -vku-gg-

-vkį-

-g -gga -gge -ggi -ggo -ggu-gg-

-gį-

-kį -vkįa -vkįe -vki -vkįo -vkįu -vkį- -vkį-

-gį / -į -dįa -dįe -gįi -dįo -dįu -gį- -gį-

-ġ / -g-sta -ste -sti -sto -stu -ht- -htį-

-h / -ḥ-sta -ste -sti -sto -stu -ht- -htį-

-hh -hra -hri -vvi -vvo -vvu -hm- -hhį-

Here are examples:

non-past past

simple athematic stemsimple athematic stem

kega[ˈcʰega]Ø-keg-a-Ø-ØTR-hide- ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will hide Yʼ

akegga[ɑˈcʰɛk:a] a-ke<gg>-a-Ø-ØTR-hide.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX hid Yʼ

keda[ˈcʰeda]Ø-ked-a-Ø-ØTR-carry-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will carry Yʼ

akedda[ɑˈcʰɛt:a]a-ke<dd>-a-Ø-ØTR-carry.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX carried Yʼ

mahha [ˈmɑh:a] Ø-mahh-a-Ø-ØTR-follow-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will hunt/follow Yʼ

amahra[ɑˈmahra] a-ma<hr>-a-Ø-ØTR-follow.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX hunted/followed Yʼ

hủvmi[ˈhu:m:i]Ø-hun-m-iITR-wind-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit is windyʼ

hủbmi[ˈhu:ʔpm:i]Ø-hu<d>-m-iITR-wind.PAST-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻit was windyʼ

maiṡus[ˈmɑiɕʊs]m-a-iṡ-u-s1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TRANSL-old-ASS.TRANSL-HABʻI am getting oldʼ

maidįu[ˈmɑiʥu]m-a-i<dį>-u1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TRANSL-old.past-ASS.TRANSLʻI am getting oldʼ

datanattu[dɑtɑˈnaʔtu]d-a-ta-na<tt>-uCOND.REAL-TRANSL-3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-break.PAST-ASS.TRANSLʻif X brokeʼ

tanaddįoi[dɑtɑˈnaʥ:ɔi]t-a-na<dd>-įoi3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TRANSL-break.PAST-INFER.TRANSL.COND.IRREALʻif X were to apparently breakʼ

keųi [ˈcʰewi] Ø-keų-i-ØITR-rise-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will stand up/riseʼ

akevvi [ɑˈcʰew:i] a-ke<vv>-i-ØITR-rise.PAST-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will stand up/riseʼ

tįini retema[ˈʨini ˈretema]Ø-tįin-i retema-ØITR-leave.traces-ASS.CONCL.ITR fox-ACTʻthe fox will leave tracesʼ

atįidi retema[ɑˈʨidi ˈretema]a-tįi<d>-i retema-ØITR-leave.traces.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR fox-ACTʻthe fox left tracesʼ

complex athematic stemcomplex athematic stem

ukęvma saskismi [ˈucæm:a ˈsascɪsmi]ukęvma Ø-sask-i-s-miin.morning ITR-wake.up-ASS.ITR-HAB-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻin the morning I wake upʼ

ukęvma asaskavvismi [ˈucæm:a ɑˈsaskɑw:ɪsmi]ukęvma a-sask-avv-i-s-miin.morning ITR-wake.up-PAST-ASS.ITR-HAB-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻin the morning I woke upʼ

ẻhka įủtsukka osiska naṡimi[ˈe:hka ˈju:tsʊʔka ˈɔsɪska ˈnɑɕimi]ẻhk-a įủtsum-ka osi=ska n-a-ṡi-mismell-TR fear-GEN 2P.SG.ABLA COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-HABI-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI can smell your fearʼ

ẻhkegiaṡimi įủtsukka osiska[ˈe:hcejiaɕimi ˈju:tsʊʔka ˈɔsɪska]ẻhk=e-g-ia-ṡi-mi įủtsum-ka osi=skasmell-PAST-COND.IRREAL-HABI-1P.ACT.AG.SG fear-GEN 2P.SG.ABLAʻif I would have been able smell your fearʼ

thematic stemthematic stem

ỉskua [ˈi:skʊɑ] Ø-isko-a-Ø-ØTR-clean-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will clean Yʼ

anỉskoga[ɑnˈi:skɔɣa] an-isko-g-a-Ø-ØTR-clean-PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX cleaned Yʼ

toįuis dasỉubmis[ˈtʰɔjʊɪs dɑˈsi:ʊʔpmɪs]t-Ø-oįu-i-s d-a-sỉut-m-i-s 3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-ITR-cry-ASS.ITR-HAB COND.REAL-ITR-hungry-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-HABʻX usually cries if X is hungryʼ

toįugis dasỉuddimas[ˈtʰɔjujɪs dɑˈsi:ʊt:imas]t-Ø-oįu-g-i-s d-a-sỉu<dd>-i-ma-s3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-ITR-cry-PAST-ASS.ITR-HAB COND.REAL-ITR-hungry.PAST-ASS.ITR-INCONCL-HABʻX usually cried if X was hungryʼ

ruoįu satosana ruovti[ˈruɔju ˈsɑtɔsɑnɑ ruɔð:i]ruo=įu Ø-sato-s-a-na ruo=vtiall=time ITR-lose-HAB-ASS.TR-2P.ACT.AG.SG everything.GENʻyou always lose everythingʼ

ruoįu satorisna ruovti[ˈruɔju ˈsɑtɔrɪsnɑ ruɔð:i]ruo=įu Ø-sato-r-e-s-na ruo=vtiall=time ITR-lose-PAST-INFER.TR-HAB-2P.ACT.AG.SG everything.GENʻapparently you always lost everythingʼ

Copulaic verbsCopulaic verbs

sibma sira atana nuami[ˈsɪʔpma ˈsira ˈɑtɑna ˈnuɑmi]Ø-sibm-a sira-Ø ata=na-Ø n-ua-miTR-catch-TR fish.DAT big.ATTR-DAT COP.CONCL-OPT.ASS-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI want to catch a fishʼ

sibma sira atana muami[ˈsɪʔpma ˈsira ˈɑtɑna ˈmuɑmi]Ø-sibm-a sira-Ø ata=na-Ø m-ua-miTR-catch-TR fish.DAT big.ATTR-DAT COP.PAST.CONCL-OPT.ASS-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI wanted to catch a fishʼ

§5.4.5 Irregular verbs

Siwa has a good deal of irregular verbs. There are 4 kinds of irregular verbs; present augmented verbs, past augmented verbs, irregular verbs and syncopic verbs. Present and past augmented verbs are those who either gain or lose an augment (vowel or consonant) - present augments have their augments in the present, and past augmented verbs in the past. Proper irregular verbs are those who simply do not follow any pattern, and syncopic verbs are those who lose a vowel in the past (or with a handful of verbs, gain a vowel in the past). Sometimes, having or losing an augment is enough to mark the past, such that actual past markings are not present.

§5.4.5.1 Present Augmented verbs

Present augmented verbs are verbs whose present form has an extra prefix which disappeared in the past. A handful of present augmented verbs have a different augment in the past. Another subclass is that of thematic verbs ending in diphthongs. The diphthongs have their complex form in the present, but a simple (past marked) form in the past (for the special behavior of monosyllabic words ending in diphthongs, see the phonology). The following verbs are examples of this type of irregular verbs:

įoa [ˈjɔa] į-Ø-o-a-Ø-ØPRES.AUGM-TR-attack-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will attack Yʼ

anoga [ɑˈnɔga ] an-o-g-a-Ø-ØTR-attack-PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX attacked Yʼ

įevti [ˈjeð:i] į-Ø-evt-i-ØPRES.AUGM-ITR-attack-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will runʼ

anekki [ɑˈnɛʔci ] an-e<kk>-i-ØTR-attack.PAST-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX ran Yʼ

gįia [ˈʥia] gį-Ø-e-a-Ø-ØPRES.AUGM-TR-bathe-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will bathe Yʼ

anega [ɑˈnega] an-e-g-a-Ø-ØTR-bathe-PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX bathed Yʼ

muni[ˈmuni] m-Ø-un-i-ØPRES.AUGM-ITR-rest-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will restʼ

anudi or udi[ɑˈnudi] [ˈudi](an)-u<d>-i-ØITR-rest.PAST-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX restedʼ

neni [ˈneni] n-Ø-en-i-ØPRES.AUGM-ITR-sit-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will sitʼ

edi [ˈedi] Ø-e<d>-i-ØITR-sit.PAST-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX satʼ

neska[ˈnɛska] n-Ø-esk-a-ØPRES.AUGM-TR-ask-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will ask about Yʼ

aiska[aɪska] a-esk-a-ØTR-ask-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX asked about Yʼ

vana[vɑna] v-Ø-an-a-ØPRES.AUGM-TR-stretch-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will stretch Yʼ

anadda[ɑnat:a] an-a<dd>-a-ØTR-stretch.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX stretched Yʼ

present and past augmentpresent and past augment

seta [ˈseta] s-Ø-et-a-Ø-ØPRES.AUGM-TR-place-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will place Yʼ

teta or tedda [ˈtʰeta] or [ˈtʰɛt:a]t-Ø-et/e<dd>a-Ø-ØTR-attack-PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX placed Yʼ

bia[ˈbia] b-Ø-i-a-Ø-ØPRES.AUGM-TR-throw-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will throw Yʼ

aiga [ɑˈiga] or [ˈɑiɣa]a-i-g-a-Ø-ØTR-throw-PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX threw Yʼ

thematic verbs ending in diphthongsthematic verbs ending in diphthongs

nįaįa[ˈɲɑja] Ø-nįai-i-ØITR-dive-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will diveʼ

anįaigi [ɑˈɲɑiji]a-nįai-g-i-ØITR-dive-PAST-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX doveʼ

mumi[ˈmumi] Ø-mủ-i-ØITR-absorb-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will absorb/reflectʼ

amủgi [ɑˈmu:ji]a-mủ-g-i-ØITR-absorb-PAST-ASS.ITR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX absorbed/reflectedʼ

tapibu[tʰɑˈpʰibu] t-a-piu-u3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TRANSL-redden-ASS.ITR.CONCLʻX will reddenʼ

tapiumu[tʰɑˈpʰiumu] t-a-piu-m-u3p.act.unag.sg-TRANSL-redden-PAST-ASS.ITR.CONCLʻX reddenedʼ

tadoųima[tʰɑˈdɔwima] t-a-doi-i-ma3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-ITR-fresh-ASS.ITR-INCONCLʻX is freshʼ

tadoigima[tʰɑˈdɔijima] t-a-doi-g-i-ma3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-ITR-fresh-PAST-ASS.ITR-INCONCLʻX was freshʼ

§5.4.5.2 Past Augmented verbs

Past augmented verbs are verbs whose past form has an extra prefix which is not found in the present. A handful of verbs have their past augment as infixes before now fossilized enclitis. The following verbs are examples of this type of irregular verbs:

ira [ˈira] Ø-ir-a-Ø-ØTR-kill-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will kill Yʼ

asira [ɑsˈira] a-s-ir-a-Ø-ØTR-PAST.AUGM-kill-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX killed Yʼ

nodi[ˈnɔdi] Ø-nod-i-ØITR-sing-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will singʼ

nenodi[ˈnenɔʥi ] ne-Ø-nod-i-ØPAST.AUGM-ITR-sing-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX sangʼ

oai [ˈɔɑi] Ø-oa-i-ØITR-say-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will tell/sayʼ

noai [nɔɑi ] n-Ø-oa-i-ØPAST.AUGM-ITR-say-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX told/saidʼ

ona[ˈɔna] Ø-on-a-ØTR-tell-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will tell about Yʼ

nona[ˈnɔnɑ] n-Ø-on-a-ØPAST.AUGMTR-tell-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX told about Yʼ

maki[ˈmɑci] Ø-ma=k-i-ØITR-go.CISLOC-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will goʼ

maski[ˈmasci] Ø-ma-s-k-i-ØITR-go-PAST.AUGMENT-CISLOC-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX wentʼ

mani[ˈmɑci] Ø-ma=n-i-ØITR-go.TRANSLO-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will comeʼ

mansi (also madi)[ˈmansi] Ø-ma=n-s-i-ØITR-go-TRANSLO-PAST.AUGMENT- ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX wentʼ

§5.4.5.3 Syncoping Verbs

Syncoping verbs are those whose present or past form goes through syncope, i.e. lose a vowel between two consonants, thus creating a consonant cluster. The following verbs are examples of this type of irregular verbs:

past syncopepast syncope

setula[ˈsetula] Ø-setul-a-Ø-ØTR-push-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will push Yʼ

sedla[ˈsetɬa] Ø-set<Ø>l-a-Ø-ØTR-push.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX pushed Yʼ

geiga[ˈɟeiɣa] Ø-geig-a-Ø-ØTR-share-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will share Yʼ

giga[ˈɟiga] Ø-g<Ø>ig-a-Ø-ØTR-share.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX shared Yʼ

present syncope

erri[ˈer:i] Ø-er<Ø>l-i-ØITR-work-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will workʼ

eruli[ˈeruli] Ø-er<u>l-i-ØITR-work.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX workedʼ

tsurri[ˈtsur:i] t-Ø-sur<Ø>l-i-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG-ITR-sweat-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX will sweatʼ

tsuruli[ˈtsuruli] t-Ø-sur<u>l-i-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG-ITR-sweat.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻX sweatʼ

§5.4.5.4 Proper Irregular Verbs

Proper irregular verbs are those whose stem changes in unpredictable ways from non-past to past. The following verbs are examples of this type of irregular verbs:

past syncopepast syncope

isota[iˈsɔta]] i-sot-a-Ø-ØDIT-give-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will give Yʼ

ista[ˈɪsta] or [ɪˈsta] i-s<Ø>t-a-Ø-ØDIT-give.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX gave Yʼ

ha[ˈha] Ø-h-a-Ø-ØTR-eat-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will eat Yʼ

ma[ˈma] Ø-<m>-a-Ø-ØTR-eat.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX ate Yʼ

kita[ˈcʰita] Ø-kit-a-Ø-ØTR-work-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will do Yʼ

ahta[ˈahta] a-k<u>t-a-Ø-ØTR-do.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX did Yʼ

kįoka[ˈcʰɔka] Ø-kįok-a-Ø-ØTR-weave-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will weave Yʼ

kẻuhka[ˈcʰø:hka] a-k<ẻuh>k-a-Ø-ØTR-weave.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX weaved Yʼ

takyma[ˈtʰɑcyma] t-Ø-akym-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG-TR-please-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻY will like Xʼ

takoa[tʰɑˈkʰɔa] t-a-ko-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG-TR-please.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻY liked Xʼ

dlei[ˈtɬei]t-Ø-le-i3P.ACT.UNAG-ITR-chafe-ASS.CONCL.TRʻX will chafeʼ

tagįi[ˈtʰɑj:i]t-Ø-aį-i3P.ACT.UNAG-ITR-chafe.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TRʻX chafedʼ

mįora[ˈmjɔra] Ø-mįor-a-Ø-ØTR-grind-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will grind Yʼ

myrra[ˈmyr:a] Ø-m<yrr>-a-Ø-ØTR-grind.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX grinded Yʼ

neįa[ˈneja] Ø-neį-a-Ø-ØTR-see-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX will see Yʼ

nega[ˈnega] Ø-n<edd>-a-Ø-ØTR-see.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX saw Yʼ

older form

ṡivi[ˈɕivi]Ø-ṡiv-i-ØITR-stay-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX will stayʼ

aġvi [ˈaɣvi]Ø-aġv-i-ØITR-stay.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX will stayʼ

tsema [ˈtsema] t-Ø-ṡem-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG-TR-believe-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻY will believe Xʼ

taġama[ˈtʰɑɣɑma] t-aġam-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG-TR-believe.PAST-ASS.TR.CONCL-3P.ACT.AGʻY believed Xʼ

tata[ˈtʰɑta]Ø-tat-a-Ø-ØTR-think-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3p.PAT-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX will think about Yʼ

dodda[ˈdɔt:a]Ø-<dodd>-a-Ø-ØTR-think.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3p.PAT-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX thought about Yʼ

uora[ˈuɔra]Ø-uor-a-Ø-ØTR-worship-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3p.PAT-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX will worship/serve Yʼ

ẻura[ˈø:ra]Ø-<ẻur>-a-Ø-ØTR-worship.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3p.PAT-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX worshiped/served Yʼ

okaiki[ɔˈkʰɑiɟi]o-kaik-i-ØSUBJ-kneel/crouch-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX will kneel/crouchʼ

okỉvki[ɔˈcʰi:ðɟi]o-k<ỉv>k-i-ØSUBJ-kneel/crouch.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX will kneel/crouchʼ

§5.5 Evidentiality

All Siwa verbs have marking to distinguish between two types of evidentiality - assertive or inferential. Verbs are always marked for evidentiality, and so it is quite a basic part of the verbal morphology which has to be understood thoroughly. Siwa speakers always distinguish between a statement which they know from direct evidence, own experience or consider to be true, or a statement from a second source, acquired, uncertain or doubtful information. Assertive statements correspond to the former class, while inferential to the latter. There are many nuances that can come about from using either evidentiality marker. Evidentiality is expressed with an verbal infix, but it can be repeated as a stand-alone particle, either hyphenated to the verb of standing after the topic of the evidentiality.

assertive inferential

stand-alone na ni

hyphenated to verb -ha -hi

§5.5.1 Assertive

The most basic definition of the assertive is a marking that shows that a statement is certain. However, Siwa speakers use the assertive to show a variety of nuances between certainty and uncertainty. Generally, if the speaker has acquired the information shared in the statement first-hand (a), then it will be in the assertive. The assertive particle may also be used to underline an agreement or assumed knowledge of the other speaker or to counter an assumption or to underline the speaker’s belief in a statement (b) even thought he information is not first-hand.

tatemi[ˈtʰɑtemi] t-ate-m-i3P.ACT.UNAG-sick-INCONCL-ASS.ITRʻX is sick (because speaker saw)ʼ

negami kita ome[ˈnegɑmi ˈcʰita ɔˈme]Ø-n<eg>-a-Ø-mi kit-a o-m-e-ØTR-see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT-1P.ACT.AG.SG do.ASS.TR REL-COP.INCONCL.PAST-INFER.INDIC-3P.PAT ʻI saw X do Yʼ

netami monina tįảhpa [ˈnetɑmi ˈmonina ʨæhba]Ø-net-a-mi m<on>-i-na tįảhpaTR-know-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.ACT.AG.SG COP.PAST.INCONCL.COMPL-ASS.ITR-2P.ACT.AG.SG over.thereʻI know that you were over thereʼ

negasami seįa omeina[ˈnegɑsɑmi ˈseja ɔˈmeina]Ø-n<eg>-a-sa-mi seį-a o-m-e-ØTR-see.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.PAT.SG-1P.ACT.AG.SG listen.ASS.TR REL-COP.INCONCL.PAST-INFER.INDIC-3P.PAT.PL-2P.ACT.AG.SGʻI saw you listening to themʼ

(b)

sę dabmami amaddotįoi, ba amadi-ha[sæ ˈdaʔpmɑmi ɑˈmat:oʨɔɪ bɑ ɑˈmɑdiha]sę Ø-<d>at-m-a-mi a-ma=<dd>-įoi ba a-ma=<d>i–haNEG TR-think.PAST-INCONCL-ASS.TR-1P.ACT.AG ITR-come.PAST-COMPL-INFER.IRREA.ITR but ITR-come.PAST- ASS.CONCL.ITR–ASS.PʻI didnʼt think X would come but X did come after allʼ

tatarasi moa na[tʰɑtɑrɑsi mɔa na]tataras-i moa naloon.ACT-COP.ASS.PAST that.ACT ASS.Pʻthat was a loonʼ

sę na tanatta[sæ na tʰɑˈnaʔta]sę na ta-Ø-na<tt>-a-ØNEG ASS.P 3P.ACT.UNAG-TR-break.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PATʻX did not break Yʼ

§5.5.2 Inferential

Inferential in its simplest definition is an evidentiality marker that denotes uncertainty, indirect information, information acquired through senses or to show hypothetical or subjunctival statements. However, the inferential serves many purposes, namely one analogical to the subjunctive of many European languages. The inferential is used in Siwa in the following cases: (a) When the information the speaker is giving has been acquired through a second or indirect source (b) When the speaker acquires uncertain information through senses (with unagentive active pronoun) (c) When the speaker wants to show that the information is not a fact but a possibility (in relative clauses)A verb marked with inferential may appear with an assertive particle, in which case the speaker wishes to show his belief (or in jocular or ironic language his disbelief) in indirectly acquired information.Very often in narratives

(a) ukęvma-ni itảhkarini sủbma[ˈucæm:ani iˈtʰæ:hkɑrini su:ʔpma]ukęvma-ni i-tảhk-a-r-e-ni su<p>-main.morning-this.PROX.INA DIT-leave-PAST-INFER.CONCL.TR-3P.ACT.AG.PL winter.camp-GENʻthey apparently left camp this morningʼ (i.e. speaker did not see them leave)

inanakiri tokeiddotulari[iˈnɑnɑɟiri tʰɔˈcʰɛɪt:ɔdulɑri]i-n<nan>-a-ki-ri-Ø t-o-kei<dd>-ot-u-la-ri-DIT-tell.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-1P.REC.SG-3P.ACT.AG.PL-3P.PAT 3P.ACT.AG-OBV.TR-start.fire.PAST-COMPL-INFER.ITR-PERF-PLʻthey¹ told me that they² had started the fire.

(b) manege oskos [mɑˈneɟe ɔskɔs]m-a-n<eg>-e osko-s1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-see.PAST-INFER.CONCL.TR male.moose-GENʻI think I saw a male mooseʼ

masaįe kykkyma [mɑˈsɑje cʰœʔcyma]m-a-s<a>į-e kykky-ma1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-hear.PAST-INFER.CONCL.TR voice- GENʻI think I heard a voiceʼ

(c) tabmami matetotema[ˈtʰaʔpmɑmi mˈɑtedodema]Ø-tat-m-a-mi m-Ø-ate-tot-u-maTR-think-INCONCL-ASS.TR-1P.ACT.AG.SG 1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-ITR-sick-COMPL-INFER.ITR-INCONCLʻI think I could/might be sickʼ

inanari retrototįo atana sira[iˈnɑnɑri ˈretχɔdɔʥo ˈɑtɑna sira] i-<nan>-a-ri-Ø rẻtr-o-tot-įo atana-Ø sira-ØDIT-tell.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.ACT.AG.PL-3P.PAT northern.pike-ACT-COMPL-COP.PAST.INFER big-ACT fish-ACTʻthey said that the fish was a big northern pikeʼ

(d) õ negena-ha tsảppekka [ɔ̃ ˈneɟenaha tsæ:ʔpɛʔka]õ Ø-n<eg>-e-na–ha tsảbb=bem-kawell TR-see.PAST-INFER.CONCL.TR-2P.ACT.AG.SG–ASS.P blood=north-GENʻso you saw northern lights, ehʼ

retroįo atana na sira[ˈretχɔjɔ ˈɑtɑna nɑ sira]rẻtr-o-įo s-Ø-atar-m-u-Ø na sira-Ønorthern.pike-ACT-COP.PAST.INFER BIG-ACT ASS fish-ACTʻThe fish was a big northern pike, you sayʼ

retrủndo ni sira[ˈretχu:ndo ni sira]rẻtr-o-undona sira-Ønorthern.pike-ACT-COP.PAST.OBL.INFER fish-ACTʻThe fish must have been a big northern pike, ehʼ

retrủndo ni sira[ˈretχu:ndo ni sira]rẻtr-o-undona sira-Ønorthern.pike-ACT-COP.PAST.OBL.INFER fish-ACTʻThe fish must have been a big northern pike, ehʼ

(e) isohhįe ủratista mone somi...[iˈsoh:je ˈu:rɑʨɪsta ˈmone ˈsomi]i-sohhį-e-Ø ủra-tis-ta m<on>-e somi-ØDIT-is.far-INFER.CONCL.ITR 1P.GEN.PL.INCL-2ND.LOC-ILLAT COP.PAST.TEMP<COMP>-INFER.INDIC man-ACTʻa long time ago/once upon a time, there was a man...ʼ(lit. it is far away to ourʼs that there was a man)

atranuo te ẻrhio to[ˈatχɑnuɔ de ˈe:rhiɔ tʰɔ]atrana-o te ẻrhe-o tobig.ATTR-COP.PAST.INFER and strong.ATTR-COP.PAST.INFER 3P.PRON.ACT.SGʻS/he was (said to be) big and (said to be) strongʼ

§5.6 Aspect

Siwa has four primary aspects; conclusive, inconclusive (independent or copulaic), habitual and perfective. Moreover, it has 8 secondarily aspects; reversive, semelfactive, persistive, frequentative, inchoative, subitive, habilitive and diminutive. The devision between primary and secondary is explained by the place the aspect markers occupy in the verb slots. Also, conclusive and inclonclusive are by far the most frequent markers. In the case of independent verbs, aspect is always marked after the verb. For primary aspects, they are generally attached directly to the stem of the verb. Secondary are usually preceded by the postverbial modal and transitive vowel.

Copulaic verbs have all their aspect marking on the copula, in the order given below. Because the copula never requires an aspect marker to be marked after a consonant (i.e. there is always a vowel preceding it), only the vowel-aspect order applies.

primaryprimaryprimaryprimaryprimaryprimary

conclusive independent inconclusive obligative habitual perfective

vowel-aspect V-Ø- V-m(a)-V-mu

V-s(a/Ø)- V-l(a)-

aspect-vowel -Ø-V -(a)m-VV-mu

-(a)s-V -(a)l-V

imperativeimperativeimperativeimperativeimperative

2p.sg 3p.sg.ani 3p.sg.ina 2p.pl 3p.pl

positive -n -g -go -uri -guri

negative -sen -seg -sog -suri -sġuri

secondarysecondarysecondarysecondarysecondarysecondarysecondarysecondary

revers. semelfact. persist. frequent. inchoat. subit. habilit. diminuti.

-dna- -ga- -sta- -ska- -dla- -tta- -rrhi- -da-

Primary aspect markers are either in the order vowel-aspect or aspect-vowel. The difference lies in the ending of the verbal root. If a root ends in a consonant which may not form a cluster with the concerned aspectual marker or the root ends in a consonant cluster, then the aspectual marker comes after the postverbial vowel. For example, the verb stem nok- ‘to rain (sleet)’ requires the inconclusive to come after the postverbial vowel so as to not allow for the illegal cluster -km-, such that ‘it is raining sleet’ is nokami [%n&k'mi]. The habitual aspectual marker -s- is allowed to combine with the -k- of nok- to form the form noksa [%n&ksa] ‘it usually rains sleet’. Only the habitual can end a word without the addition of -a (that is, verbs may not end in -m or -l, they must end in -ma and -la).

§5.6.1 Inconclusive Independent

Verb stems ending in -t( -d( -dl -l( -vl -ng -n( -vn -k -kk -g -gg and -g( and most consonant clusters have the vowel-aspect order.

anỷrhumasi ảvka na[anyrhumɑsi ˈæðga na]an-ỷrh-u-ma-si av-kaTRANSL-coagulate-TRANSL.ASS-INCONL-2P.RECI.SG wound-STAT ASS.Pʻyour wound is healing, I seeʼ(stem is ỷrh-)

agigįimadna eterre[ɑˈɟij:imaʔtna ˈeter:e]a-gigį-i-ma-dna etere-iTRANSL-become.unsharp-ASS.TRANLS-INCONCL-1P.ACT.AG.SG spear-STATʻthe spear is becoming dullʼ(stem is gigį-)

§5.6.2 Habitual

Verb stems ending in -t( -d( -dl -l( -vl -n( -vn -kk -g -gg -g( hh(- and -rrh- have the vowel-aspect order. Note that the sequence -n-s (-n-HAB) is realized as <nt> [nt].

ruoįu įaiṡus[ˈruɔju ˈjɑiɕʊs]ruo=įu į-a-iṡ-u-salways 4P.ACT.UNAG-TRANSL-old-TRANSL-HABʻone always gets olderʼ

tavma obekkis õdi[ˈtʰɑm:a ˈɔbɛʔcis ˈɔ̃ʥi]tavma Ø-obekk-i-s o<n>-dimuch ITR.make.smoke-ITR.ASS-HAB tinder.moss-STATʻtinder moss (dried moss) makes a lot of smokeʼ

nõtįi ủkia yhhůa[ˈnɔ̃ʨi ˈu:ɟia ˈyh:œa]Ø-non-s-i <ủk>-ia yhhy-Ø-aITR-swim-HAB-ASS.ITR water.GEN-INES salmon-ACT-PLʻthe salmons swim in the waterʼ

§5.6.3 Perfective

Verb stems ending in -t( -d( -dl -vl -n( -vn -kk and -g( have the vowel-aspect order.

ituvtitįu gagga eskisubmibma avittila ųỉvka [iˈtʰuð:iʨu gak:a ˈɛsciˈsʊʔpmɪʔpma ɑˈvɪʔtila ˈwiðga]i-tuvt-i-tįu g-a-gga eski=su<p>-m=ibma a-vi<tt>-i-la ųip-kaDIT-return.ITR-TEMP.LINK COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-1P.ACT.AG.PL.EXCL empty=winteR.CAMP.GEN-ALLAT ITR-slant.PAST- ASS.CONCL.ITR- PERF wall-STATʻwhen we returned, the walls of the abandonned/last yearʼs winter camp had caved inʼ

Note that the addition of the aspectual markers causes certain sound changes (refer to the phonology section).

§5.6.4 Conclusive

The conclusive aspect is the only aspect that is not explicitly marked. The conclusive, as the name points to, indicates that the action is concluded or reaches its end point. When the conclusive is used with the present, it must then mean the future,

as present actions cannot reach their end point. In the past, the conclusive aspect denotes a simple perfect, i.e. the action ended at a moment in the past.

oanasimi [ˈɔɑnɑsimi] Ø-oa-n-a-si-miITR-tell-PRES-ASS.CONCL.TR-2P.SG.RECI-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI will tell you a storyʼ

nanaki [ˈnɑnɑɟi]n-<an>-a-Ø-ki-ØTR-tell.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.PAT.1P.SG.RECI-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX told me about itʼ

§5.6.5 Inconclusive

The inconclusive aspect is shown through the ending -m- in impersonal verbs and verbal adjectives. Other verbs show the inconclusive by using the copula at the end of the verbal phrase (after all arguments except subject pronouns) and the verb at the beginning of the verbal phrase (after any preverbal adverbials). The verb is only marked transitivity, whereas the copula is marked with tense, mood, relativizer, complementizer, pronouns, etc. It denotes an action which has not reached its end point yet, i.e. which is ongoing. The inconclusive is nearly universally used with verbal adjectives, even though the verbal adjectives may carry a conclusive meaning - the difference between temporary and inherent qualitites is expressed differently than with the aspectual markers (see section on adjectives).

oamisi[ˈɔɑmisi]Ø-oa-m-i-si-Øitr-tell-inconcl-ass.itr-2p.sg.reci-3p.act.ag.sgʻX is telling you a storyʼ

obekki nobekkika ovti na[ˈɔbɛʔci ˈnɔbɛʔciga ˈoð:i na]Ø-obekk-i nobe-kk=ika ovti n-aITR-smoke-ASS.ITR fire-ELAT up-ILLAT COP.INCONC-ASS.INDICʻsmoke is coming up from the fireʼ(lit. it smokes from the fire up)

§5.6.6 Reversive

The reversive is a secondary aspectual marker and has the form -dna-. The reversive plays an two important syntactic roles. Its most common role is to reverse the action that the verb depicts, not unlike the English prefix de- (derail, deflate, decapitate, etc.). It is, most likely by semantic extrapolation, also used to mean show movement down or off things with verbs which normally show the opposite movement. The reversive comes first after the other primary aspectual markers.

itįivla ṡimi tahhita atta[iˈʨil:a ɕimi ˈtɑh:ida ɑʔta]i-tįi<vl>-a-Ø ṡimi-Ø tahh-ita a=ttaDIT-hang.PAST-ASS.TR-3P.ACT.AG.SG bear.head-DAT tree-ILLAT Up=ILLATʻX hung the bearhead up in the treeʼ

cf. itįivladna ṡimi tahhika akka[iˈʨil:aʔtna ɕimi ˈtɑh:iga ɑʔka]i-tįi<vl>-a-dna-Ø ṡimi-Ø tahh-ika a=kkaDIT-hang.PAST-ASS.TR-REVERS-3P.ACT.AG.SG bear.head-DAT tree-ELAT up=ELATʻX took the bearhead down from the treeʼ

iįikki tỏmibma ovti [iˈjɪʔci ˈtʊ:mɪʔpma oð:i]i-i<kk>-i-Ø tỏ-m=ibma o=vtiDIT-step.on.PAST-ASS.ITR-3P.ACT.AG.SG stone-ILLAT up=ILLATʻX got up on the stoneʼ

cf. sę iįivtuadna tỏmiska ovki[sæ iˈjið:uaʔtna ˈtʊ:mɪska ˈɔðɟi]sę i-ivt-ua-dna-Ø tỏ-m=iska o=vkinot DIT-step.on-ASS.ITR.OPT-REVERS-3P.ACT.AG.SG / stone-ABLA up=ABLATʻX does not want to get off the stoneʼ

Reversive may also be used to confer a verb a negative aspect. For example;

vappa [ˈvaʔpa] ʻX praises/adors Yʼ (cf. vappi ʻX kneelsʼ) but vappadna [ˈvaʔpaʔtna] ʻX insults Yʼ.

koni [ˈkʰɔni] ʻX walksʼ but konidna [ˈkʰɔnɪʔtna] ʻX limpsʼ.It can also confer a more vulgar or violent meaning to verbs, for example;

nakna [ˈnaʔŋa] ʻX breaks Yʼ but naknadna [ˈnaʔŋaʔtna] ʻX breaks Y (vulgar)ʼ

tsyka [ˈtsyka] ʻX hits Yʼ but tsykadna [ˈtsykaʔtna] ʻX hits Y (violently/vulgar)ʼ

The reversive is used with the movement verbs man- and mak- ‘come’ and ‘go’ as well as tahh-, kir- ‘leave’ and ‘arrive’ and other similar verbs to mean ‘back’, e.g. manidna ‘come back’, makidna ‘go back’, tahhidna ‘leave (to go back)’ and kiridna ‘arrive (back)’ Finally, the reversive is used with some ditransitive verbs in the optative. Then, the subject’s optative is acting upon a recipient, which may (a) or may not (b) act upon a direct object. It can also be used a more polite form of command, or to express wish.

(a) minokuadnasimi Sappa [miˈnɔkuaʔtnɑsimi ˈsaʔpa]m-i-nok-ua-dna-si-mi sappa-Ø1P.ACT.PAT.SG-DIT-call-ASS.TR.OPT- REVERS-2P.REP.SG-1P.ACT.AG.SG Sappa-ACTʻI want you to call me Sappaʼ / ʻCall me Sappaʼ

minanuednaniri[miˈnɑnuɛʔtnaniri]m-i-<nan>-ue-dna-ni-Ø-(Ø)-ri1P.ACT.PAT-DIT-tell.PAST-INFE.TR.OPT- REVERS-3P.RECI-3P.PAT-(1P.PL.EXCL)-3P.ACT.AG.PLʻApparently they¹ wanted us/me to tell them¹ (about it)ʼ

(b) sę inikuadnati [sæ iˈnikuaʔtnaʨi]sę i-nik-ua-dna-ti-Ønot DIT-die-ASS.TR.OPT-REVERS-3P.RECI-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX does not want Y to dieʼ

imanųadnatimi neda[iˈmanwaʔtnɑʨimi ˈneda]i-ma=n-ua-dna-ti-mi ne=daDIT-come-ASS.TR.OPT-REVERS-3P.RECI-1P.ACT.AG.SG hitherʻI wish X would come hereʼ

§5.6.7 Semelfactive

The semelfactive is a secondary aspectual marker with the form -ga, and it comes after the reversive. It denotes that an action takes place quickly and only once, i.e. a momentary or punctiliar action.

aįoddi[ɑˈjɔt:i]a-įo<dd>-i-ØTR-scream.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AGʻX screamedʼ

aįoddiga[ɑˈjɔ:tiɣa]a-įo<dd>-i-Ø-gaTR-scream.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SEMELF-3P.ACT.AG-SEMELFʻX let out a screamʼ

tavuovvima[tʰɑˈvuɔw:ima]t-a-vuo<vv>-i-ma3P.ACT.UNAG-TR-scared.PAST-ASS.ITR-INCONCLʻX was scaredʼ

tavuovviga[tʰɑˈvuɔw:iɣa]t-a-vuo<vv>-i-ga3P.ACT.UNAG-TR-scared.PAST-ASS.CONCLITR-SEMELFʻX was taken a back, surprisedʼ

uvli[ˈul:i]Ø-u<vl>-iITR-night.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻnight was fallingʼ

uvliga[ˈul:iɣa]Ø-u<vl>-i-gaITR-night.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SEMELFʻnight fell all of a sudden/quicklyʼ

Many verbs cannot exist in the semelfactive, and only a handful of verbs always take the secondary aspectual marker -ga. Many verbs with an inherent semelfactive meaning have a rootbound ending which is historically the same as -ga but may appear as -r-, -k- or -g-, for example the verb tu"ekk$a ‘X is born’ is technically semelfactive but it never appears with the semelfactive ending -ga. Historically, the form ekk(- already contains a fossilized form of the semelfactive. Opposite to this, the verb tat$%miga [‘X sneezed’ is always foudn in the semelfactive (the form *tat$%mi is not found). The semelfactive is not usually found in the inconclusive, as it has a perfective apsect. The semelfactive can transform the meaning of the verb and is sometimes unpredictably equivalent to a separate English expression, e.g.

tįoda or tioda[ˈʨɔda] or [ˈtʰiɔða]Ø-tįod/tiod-a-Ø-Øtr-contain/close-ass.concl.tr-3p.pat-3p.act.agʻX contains Y/holds Y closedʼ

tįodaga or tiodaga [ˈʨɔdɑɣa] or [ˈtʰiɔðɑɣa]Ø-tįod-a-ga-Ø-ØTR-contain/close-ASS.CONCL.TR-SEMELF-3P.PAT-3P.ACT.AGʻX closes Yʼ

Note that the form t$otra ‘X slams Y closed’ is another example of the rootbound semelfactive.

Another use of the semelfactive, with usually inherently perfective verbs, is to underline how sudden and/or violent the action is:

manỉddi [mɑni:t:i]m-an-ỉ<dd>-i1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-ITR-fall.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITRʻI fellʼ

moųỉddiga [mɔˈwi:t:iɣa]m-oų-i<dd>-i-ga1P.ACT.UNAG.SG-SUBJ-fall.past-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SEMELFʻI took a bad fallʼ

ama siehhõdi [ɑˈma ˈsieh:ɔʥ̃i]a-<m>-a-Ø siehhum-diTR-eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.ACT.AG dried.meat-GENʻX had himself a small piece of dried meatʼ

omiga siehhõdi [ɔˈmiɣa ˈsieh:ɔʥ̃i]o-<m>-i-ga-Ø siehhum-diSUBJ-eat.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SEMELF-3P.ACT.AG dried.meat-GENʻX ate him/her/itself a piece of dried meatʼ

The semelfactive may also be used to emphasize a verb or to make it more intense, e.g.

ihõhri ykymita tsutta[iˈhɔ̃hri ˈycymida ˈtsʊʔta]i-hõ<hr>-i-Ø yky-mi=ta tsu=ttaDIT-jump.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-3P.ACT.AG fallen.tree-ILLAT over-ILLATʻX jumped over the fallen treeʼ

ihõhriga ykymita tsutta[iˈhɔ̃hriɣa ˈycymida ˈtsʊʔta]i-hõ<hr>-i-ga-Ø yky-mi=ta tsu=ttaDIT-jump.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SEMELF-3P.ACT.AG fallen.tree-ILLAT over-ILLATʻX leaped over the fallen treeʼ

§5.6.8 Persistive

The persistive is a secondary aspectual marker that denotes an action which goes on for a long time or is repeated over and over again. It has the form -sta and comes after the reversive and the semelfactive. It is often translated in English by phrases such as ‘over and over again’ and ‘keep on’.

sihrima[ˈsɪhrima]Ø-si<hr>-i-maITR-rain.PAST-ASS.ITR-INCONCLʻit was rainingʼ

sihrimasta[ˈsɪhrimasta]Ø-si<hr>-i-ma-staITR-rain.PAST-ASS.ITR-INCONCL-PERSʻit kept on raining (over and over again)ʼ

kỏi na[ˈkʰʊ:i na]Ø-kỏ-i n-a-ØITR-talk-ITR- COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-3P.ACT.AGʻX was talkingʼ

kỏi nasta[ˈkʰʊ:i nasta]Ø-kỏ-i n-a-sta-ØITR-talk-ITR- COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-PERSIS-3P.ACT.AGʻX kept on talking (on and on)ʼ

atyvmusta-ha de tįỉd-mo![ɑˈtym:ʊstaha de ˈʨiʥmo]a-tyv-m-u-sta–ha de tįi<Ø>i-d–moTRANSL-fat-INCONL-ASS.TRANSL-PERS–ASS this.INA baby.STAT–this.INAʻthis baby just keeps on getting fatter!ʼ

atyvmusta-ha de tįỉd-mo![ɑˈtym:ʊstaha de ˈʨiʥmo]a-tyv-m-u-sta–ha de tįi<Ø>i-d–moTRANSL-fat-INCONL-ASS.TRANSL-PERS–ASS this.INA baby.STAT–this.INAʻthis baby just keeps on getting fatter!ʼ

§5.6.9 Frequentative

The frequentive is a secondary aspectual marker that denotes that an action happens a few times. Its form is -ska- and is added after the reversive, semelfactive and the persistive. It is a a very common aspectual marker with certain verbs of motion, to the point where certain verbs show a rootbound suffix which is then part of the root, e.g. t&ska [%t)iska] ‘X shakes Y a few times’ cf. t& [%t)i:] ‘X takes Y in X’s hand’. In certain cases, especially with intransitive verbs, the frequentative may be translated as “a little”. Sometimes, especially with the inconclusive, it translates as ‘again’

moġaskan [ˈmɔɣaskan]Ø-moġ-a-ska-nTR-drink-ASS.CONCL.TR-FREQ-IMPER.2P.SGʻhave a few sipsʼ(lit. drink a few times)

oa nuįalaskami me mảhraga-ta [ɔɑ ˈnujɑlaskɑmi me ˈmæ:hrɑɣata]oa Ø-nuį-a-la-ska-mi me mảhra-ga–taalready TR-see-ASS.CONCL.TR-PERF-FREQ-1P.ACT.AG.SG that.ANI bear-STAT–that.ANI.DISTʻI have already seen that bear a couple of timesʼ

akodiskaki voavva ṡibma [ɑˈkʰɔdɪskɑɟi ˈvɔɑw:a ɕɪʔpma]a-ko<d>-i-ska-ki-Ø voa<vva> ṡi=bma ITR-walk.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-FREQ-TRANSLOC-3P.ACT.AG.SG lake.GEN along-ALLATʻX went for a little walk along the lake (shore)ʼ(lit. walked a few times)

huhmiska tẻrri[ˈhʊhmɪska ˈtʰer:i]huh-m-i-ska ter-i-eshine-inconcl.ass.tr-freq sun-statʻthe sun is shining againʼ

§5.6.10 Inchoative

The inchoative is a secondary aspectual marker that denotes an action which is about to happen or begin (a). It most often used with unagentive subjects, as it cannot apply to agentive subjects, and impersonal verbs already have an inchoative form in the

conclusive. The inchoative cannot be used with the copula, as it too already has a translative form. The inchoative’s form is -dla- and comes after the frequentive, persistive, semelfactive and reversive. Note that the inchoative does not allow the verb to be in the translative. The inchoative is sometimes used with animate subjects (often animals or babies) and verbs denoting an unpleasent or negative action (b).When used with animate unagentive subjects and adjectival verbs denoting temporary states, the inchoative shows that the action is not temporary but gradual.

(a) taismudla[ˈtʰaɪsmutɬa]t-a-iṡ-m-u-dla3P.ACT.PAT.SG-ASS.TRANSL-old-INCONCL-TRANSL-INCHOAʻX is starting to get oldʼ

masibmidla[mɑˈsɪʔpmitɬa]ma-sid-m-i-dla1P.ACT.PAT.SG-grab-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-INCHOAʻI am beginning to understandʼ

(b) ahorgugidla benhue[ɑˈhɔrɣujitɬa ˈbenhue]a-horgu-g-i-dla bẻnho-eITR-bark-PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-INCHOA dog-STATʻthe dog started barkingʼ+

agįosmudla nįuhmo[ɑˈʥɔsmutɬa ɲʊhmo]a-gįos-m-u-dla nįuhhi-moTRANSL-tired-INCONCL-ASS.TRANSL-INCHOA old.woman-STATʻthe old woman is beginning to be tired (in general)ʼ[animate unagentive subject - gradual inchoative]

cf gįosủ de onga-ni[ˈʥɔsu: de ˈɔŋ:ani]gįoso-u de onga–nitired-COP.TRANSL.PRES this.PROX.INA bridge–this.PROX.INAʻthis bridge is starting to be/get old (lit. tired)ʼ[copulaic]

gįosủ de onga-ni[ˈʥɔsu: de ˈɔŋ:ani]gįoso-u de onga–nitired-COP.TRANSL.PRES this.PROX.INA bridge–this.PROX.INAʻthis bridge is starting to be/get old (lit. tired)ʼ[copulaic]

§5.6.11 Subitive

The subitive is a secondary aspectual marker that serves two purposes. Its primary purpose it to show that an action is subite or takes place all of a sudden. Its second purpose, which it gained by semantic shift, is to form imperatives or interjections based on nouns, adjectives, adverbs or postpositions. These are often less polite than regular imperatives. Its form is -tta- and is added after the inchoative, frequentive, persistive, semelfactive and reversive. The subitive ending -tta can even be attached to titles or names to form a sort of rude vocative.

uhustatta tahhi hõttamo [uˈhʊstaʔta ˈtʰɑh:i ˈhɔ̃ʔtɑmɔ]u-hu<st>-a-tta tahhi-Ø hõtta-moPASS-blow.down.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-SUBIT tree-DAT gust.STATʻthe tree was suddenly blown down/over by a gust of windʼ

akokitta[ɑˈkʰɔcɪʔta]a-<kok>-i-tta-ØITR-speak.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SUBIT-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻsuddenly X spokeʼ

sihritta[ˈsihrɪʔta]Ø-si<hr>-i-ttaITR-rain.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SUBITʻit suddenly started rainingʼ

kỏitta ![ˈkʰʊ:ɪʔta]Ø-kỏ-i-ttaITR-speak-ASS.CONCL.ITR-SUBITʻspeak !!ʼ

Sappatta ![ˈsaʔpaʔta]sappa-Ø-ttasappa-ACT-SUBITSappa ! / Hey Sappa!

Sappatta ![ˈsaʔpaʔta]sappa-Ø-ttasappa-ACT-SUBITSappa ! / Hey Sappa!

The interjections that use the subitive endings can be formed from all classes of words. They are very productive, and when attached to something else than a verb, they are not considered overly impolite but simply informal. Below are some common subitive interjections/imperatives:

katta [ˈkʰaʔta] ʻgo outside ! / outside !ʼ (cf. -ika ʻELATIVEʼ)

karakatta [ˈkʰɑrɑgaʔta] ʻclose the door !ʼ (cf. karaka [ˈkʰɑrɑga] ʻdoorʼ)

matta [ˈmaʔta] ʻcome on ! / hop on !ʼ (cf. -ibma ʻALLATIVEʼ)

mảtta [ˈmæʔta] ʻcome ! / come on ! / letʼs go ! / go ! / please !ʼ (cf. manin [ˈmɑnɪn] ʻcome hereʼ)

mingitatta [ˈmiŋ:idaʔta] ʻcalm down !ʼ (cf. mingita [ˈmiŋ:ida] ʻmore calmʼ)

ṡitatta [ˈɕitaʔta] ʻahead ! / letʼs go ! / continue ! / yes ! (cf. ṡita [ˈɕita] ahead)

sỉtta [ˈsi:ʔta] ʻof course ! / yes ! / I understand ! / eureka !ʼ (cf. sidi/sỉ [ˈsidi]/[ˈsi:] ʻX understands])

siehhuitatta/siehhutta [ˈsieh:uidaʔta]/[ˈsieh:ʊʔta] ʻget up ! / get on your feet !ʼ

suhuinetta [ˈsuʔuinɛʔta] ʻmore quietly !ʼ (cf. suhuine [ˈsuʔuine] ʻmore quietlyʼ)

tatta [ˈtʰaʔta] ʻcome inside ! / inside !ʼ (cf. -ita ʻILLATIVEʼ)

tįủtta [ˈʨu:ʔta] ʻcome on ! (to group) / letʼs go ! (to group) / keep on going ! (to a group) (cf. tįoutike [ˈʨɔuʨiɟe] ʻwe are working togetherʼ)

nủtta! [ˈnuʔta] ʻlook ! / look out ! / be careful ! / ahead !ʼ (cf. nuįa [ˈnuja] ʻX sees Yʼ)

§5.6.12 Habilitive

The habilitive is a secondary aspectual marker that shows that the subject of the verb is able or has the knowledge required to perform the action. Its form is -*i- and it follows the subitive, inchoative, frequentive, persistive, semelfactive and reversive. It requires an agentive subject. It can be added to the stem of certain nouns to form verbs which are otherwise defunct. The habilitive is the only aspectual marker that requires negation, in which case the habilitive (sometimes called habilitive negative) has the form -si*i- and also requires an agentive subject, despite the verb having an unagentive meaning. The habilitive is most often found in the habitual in the present or imperfect tense.

siųasiṡimi [ˈsiwɑsiɕimi] Ø-siųa-s-i-ṡ-miITR-siwa-INCONCL-ASS.ITR-HABI-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI know how to/can speak Siwaʼ

kỏsaṡimi siadi [ˈkʊ:sɑɕimi siɑʥi]Ø-kỏ-s-a-ṡ-mi si<Ø>a-diTR-speak-HAB-ASS.TR-HABI-1P.ACT.AG.SG siųa-GENʻI know how to/can speak Siwaʼ

nõtįiṡimi[ˈnɔ̃ʨiɕimi]] Ø-non-s-i-si=rrhi-miITR-swim-HAB-ASS.ITR-HABI=NEG-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI donʼt know how to swim / canʼt swimʼ

nõtįiṡimi[ˈnɔ̃ʨiɕimi]] Ø-non-s-i-si=rrhi-miITR-swim-HAB-ASS.ITR-HABI=NEG-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻI donʼt know how to swim / canʼt swimʼ

gįykyntiṡi[ˈʥycœnʨiɕi]Ø-gįykyn-s-iṡ-ØITR-snow.shoes-HAB-ASS.ITR-HABI-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX knows (how to make) snowshoesʼ

gįykyn bủntasaṡi[ˈʥycœn ˈbu:ntɑsɑɕi]gįyky-n Ø-bu:nt-a-sa-ṡ-Øsnow.shoe-ACC TR-weave-ASS.TR-HAB-HABI-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX knows how to make/weave snowshoesʼ

§5.6.13 Diminutive

The diminutive is the last of the secondary aspectual markers and is thus added at the very end of the chain of aspectual markers. Only personal pronouns, location markers and certain evidential markers follow the diminutive. Its function is to varied and can be hard to pinpoint. The most common use of the diminutive is to make the verb (a)softer or (b) to show that the action happened “only a little“ or so. Its form is -da or in certain speakers, also -ra. In the case of the 2. person singular imperative, the diminutive usually follows the ending -n, resulting in the diminutive imperative form -nda.

(a) tanỉspaga[tɑˈni:spɑɣa]t-an-ỉsp=a-g-a-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-pinch-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-3P.ACT.PATʻX pinched Yʼ

tanỉspagada / tanỉspagara[tɑˈnispɑʁɑða] / [tɑˈnispɑʁɑra]t-an-ỉsp=a-g-a-da/ra-Ø3P.ACT.UNAG.SG-TR-pinch-PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-DIMIN-3P.ACT.PATʻX pinched Y a little/slightlyʼ

(b) handa[ˈhanda]Ø-ha-n-daTR-eat-IMP.2P.SG-DIMIʻeat a little!ʼ

nanidatagga / naniratagga[ˈnɑniðɑdɑk:a] / [ˈnɑnirɑdɑk:a]Ø-<nan>-i-da/ra-ta-ggaITR-talk.PAST-ASS.ITR-DIMI-3P.PAT.SG-1P.ACT.AG.PL.EXCLʻwe talked about it a littleʼ

§5.7 Location

Siwa verbs may show some information about the location of its constituants. The two main locational markers in verbs are the cislocative and translocative. The cislocative indicates a movement towards the speaker or the agent of the verb, whereas the translocative shows a movement away from the speaker or the agent of the verb. Used with the ditransitive (when possible), verbs may also show a more precise location, using modified forms of the nominal location cases. Locational markers always follow aspectual markers. They are assumed to refer to a 3rd person object. Otherwise, the patient pronoun precedes the location marker. When the locative marker refers to a noun in the main clause and is used in a relative clause, the final -a becomes -o. Note that to show a genitive relationship between the relative argument, the elative is used, with the form -iko. In these cases, no relative marker is needed prefixed to the verb. It may be used, but it is not standard language.

primary primary secondarysecondarysecondarysecondarysecondarysecondary

translocative cislocative inessive illative elative adessive allative ablative

normal -ki -ni -įa/-igįa -ita -ika -ima -ibma -iska

relativerelativerelative -įo/-igįo -ito -iko -imo -ibmo -isko

The locative markers are either primary (cislocative and translocative) or secondary, which contain of the locative cases found in nouns without the distiction of interior vs. surface, i.e. inessive and adessive (roughly “in/on”), illative and allative (roughly “into/onto”) and elative and ablative (roughly “out of/off“).The primary locative markers are simply used to show motion away or towards the agent of the verb. The secondary markers are used mostly when a locative argument is dropped.

tinodigįa [ˈtʰiˈnodij:a] t-i-no<d>-i-igįa3P.ACT.UNAG-DIT-swim.PAST-ASS.CONCL.TR-INESS-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻX swam/floated into itʼ

tinodika [ˈtʰiˈnodiga] t-i-no<d>-i-ka3P.ACT.UNAG-DIT-swim.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-ELAT-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻX swam/floated out of itʼ

ovti isetaibman [ˈoð:i iˈsetaɪman] ovti i-set>-a-ibma-nup.ALLAT DIT-place-ASS.CONCL.TR-ALLAT-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻput it up on itʼ

ovki ikitaiskan [ˈoðɟi iˈcʰitaɪskan] ovti i-set>-a-iska-nup.ALLAT DIT-take-ASS.CONCL.TR-ALLAT-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻtake it off of itʼ

ihỷhkaitaskatta[iˈhy:hkɑidaskaʔta]i-hỷhk-a-ita-ska-ttaDIT-pour-ASS.CONCL.TR-ILLAT-FREQ-SUBITʻpoor some into itʼ

itahrikika[iˈtʰahriɟiga]i-ta<hr>-i-ki-ika-ØDIT-leave.PAST-ASS.CONCL.ITR-TRANSLO-ELAT-3P.ACT.AG.SGʻX went and left away/went and disappearedʼ

relativerelative

seųis iįida gaitori[ˈsewɪs iˈjida ˈgɑidori]seųis-Ø iį-id-a g-a-ito-ririver-ACT DIT-fall-TR COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ILLAT.REL-3P.ACT.AG.PLʻthe river into which they fellʼ

seųis iįida gaitori[ˈsewɪs iˈjida ˈgɑidori]seųis-Ø iį-id-a g-a-ito-ririver-ACT DIT-fall-TR COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ILLAT.REL-3P.ACT.AG.PLʻthe river into which they fellʼ

nidna iųavva bengomu gaibmoka[ˈnɪʔtna iˈwɑw:a ˈbɛŋ:ɔmu ˈgaɪʔpmɔga]nidna-Ø i-ųavv-a bengomu-Ø g-a-ibmo-kahut-ACT DIT-spread.out-TR roof-DAT COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ALLAT.REL-1P.ACT.AG.PL.EXCLʻthe hut over which we spread (i.e. placed) a roof (out of lether)ʼ

nidna iųavva bengomu gaibmoka[ˈnɪʔtna iˈwɑw:a ˈbɛŋ:ɔmu ˈgaɪʔpmɔga]nidna-Ø i-ųavv-a bengomu-Ø g-a-ibmo-kahut-ACT DIT-spread.out-TR roof-DAT COP.PAST.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ALLAT.REL-1P.ACT.AG.PL.EXCLʻthe hut over which we spread (i.e. placed) a roof (out of lether)ʼ

genitive relativegenitive relative

somi ỉla kohko saikomi[ˈsɔmi ˈi:la ˈkʰɔhkɔ ˈsɑigɔmi]somi-Ø ỉl-a kori-ko s-a-iko-miman-ACT know-TR boy-GEN COP.HAB.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ELAT.REL-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻthe man whose boy I knowʼ

somi ỉla kohko saikomi[ˈsɔmi ˈi:la ˈkʰɔhkɔ ˈsɑigɔmi]somi-Ø ỉl-a kori-ko s-a-iko-miman-ACT know-TR boy-GEN COP.HAB.CONCL-ASS.INDIC-ELAT.REL-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻthe man whose boy I knowʼ

nidna sankamuaikomi bengomu[ˈnɪʔtna ˈsaŋ:kɑmuɑigɔmi ˈbɛŋ:ɔmu]nidna-Ø sank-am-u-a-iko-mi bengomu-Øhut-ACT build-PAST-PASS.PART-COP.ASS.TR.CONCL-ELAT.REL-1P.ACT.AG.SG roof-ACTʻthe hut whose roof I built/is built by meʼ

nidna sankamuaikomi bengomu[ˈnɪʔtna ˈsaŋ:kɑmuɑigɔmi ˈbɛŋ:ɔmu]nidna-Ø sank-am-u-a-iko-mi bengomu-Øhut-ACT build-PAST-PASS.PART-COP.ASS.TR.CONCL-ELAT.REL-1P.ACT.AG.SG roof-ACTʻthe hut whose roof I built/is built by meʼ

maski kesa kokutta naikomi[ˈmasci ˈcʰesa ˈkʰɔkʊʔta ˈnɑigɔmi]maski-Ø kes-a kok-u-tta n-a-iko-mipeople-ACT learn-TR speak.PAST-PASS.PART.GEN COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-ELAT.REL-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻthe people whose language I am learningʼ

maski kesa kokutta naikomi[ˈmasci ˈcʰesa ˈkʰɔkʊʔta ˈnɑigɔmi]maski-Ø kes-a kok-u-tta n-a-iko-mipeople-ACT learn-TR speak.PAST-PASS.PART.GEN COP.INCONCL-ASS.INDIC-ELAT.REL-1P.ACT.AG.SGʻthe people whose language I am learningʼ