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Hispaniola is an island that Christopher Columbus took possession of during his voyage of 1492. He was so enchanted with the lush green island that he called it “The Spanish Island”.

As the island was colonized, most of its indigenous tribes died out from diseases and harsh working conditions in Spanish gold mines.

By 1517, the indigenous population was down to 14,000 from an original population of 250,000. There were now 14,000 African slaves and 1,000

Spanish colonists on the island.2

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Spanish and French colonists grew cane sugar, indigo, cotton, and coffee, as these were the most valuable commodities for trade.

Much of the original forested land was cut down and cultivated for farmland.

The slave population of the island revolted in 1804, gaining independence from French rule and their own freedom. They named their new nation “Ayiti”, meaning “mother of the Earth.”

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The farmland was divided up in 15 hectare portions to farmers. As this land was passed down and divided up within families, the average farm size shrunk to 1.5 hectares. Farmers began to overuse the land to continue

supporting themselves.

When the land became infertile, they moved to steep hills, overfarming them as well.

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Today, only about 2% of the country’s original forest cover remains. This forest remains at risk, because most of the people depend on charcoal as a source of heat.

The lack of forests has made the country much more susceptible to flooding, mudslides, and erosion.

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Species - All organisms genetically similar enough to breed and produce live, fertile offspring in nature.

Population - All members of a species that live in the same area at the same time.

Biological Community - All populations living and interacting in an area.

Ecosystem - A biological community and its physical environment. Biotic – Living or once-living factors Abiotic – Non-living factors

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Biomes - Areas sharing similar climate, topographic and soil conditions, and roughly comparable communities. Includes all populations, communities, and abiotic

factors.

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Productivity refers to the amount of biomass produced in a given are during a given time.

Food Webs are series of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem. Trophic Level refers to an individual’s feeding

position in an ecosystem.

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Organisms can also be identified by the kinds of food they consume: Herbivores – Primary consumers; eat plants.

Carnivores – Secondary or tertiary consumers; eat other animals.

Omnivores – Secondary or tertiary consumers, eat both plants and animals.

Decomposers - Breakdown complex organic matter into simpler compounds. Feed on all trophic levels.

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Most ecosystems have huge number of primary producers supporting a smaller number of herbivores, supporting a smaller number of secondary consumers. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that some

energy is lost every time it is transferred in the form of heat.

Ecosystems not 100% efficient.

The total energy transferred from one trophic level to the next can be estimated with the 10% Rule. Only about 10% of the energy present in one trophic level can be

transferred successfully to the next trophic level.

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The main abiotic factor in determining ecosystem type is climate. Temperature, precipitation, humidity, and wind

over a long period of time.

Different than weather (short-term)

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Latitude is the distance away from the equator, measured in degrees.

Altitude is height above sea level.

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Prevailing winds

pick up moisture

from an ocean.

On the windward

side of a mountain range,

air rises, cools, and

releases moisture.

On the leeward side of the

mountain range, air descends,

warms, and releases little

moisture.

Dry habitatsMoist habitats

•Each side of a mountain range is affected differently by weather patterns.

•The windward side is exposed to the wind first and gets more moisture. The leeward side is left with very little moisture.

Water gains and loses heat much more slowly than air.

Biomes near a large lake or ocean generally have more stable temperatures. Often have higher levels of precipitation.

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A climatograph is a combination precipitation and temperature graph for a given biome.

The average montlyprecipitation for the area is displayed as a bar graph, while the average monthly temperature is displayed as a line graph.

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Elevation: 75feet above sea levelTemperature Conversions:

30°C = 86°F 20°C = 68°F 10°C = 50°F 0°C = 32°F

Low moisture levels (less than 25cm of precipitation a year) Rainfall is infrequent and unpredictable

Often located on the leeward side of mountains

High number of succulent plants Can survive for long periods without water

Animals bury themselves underground and sleep through the dry season.

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Hottest and driest land biome

Located near the equator

Lowest amount of plant and animal life

Seasonal temperature changes

More moisture than tropical deserts, less than grasslands

Hot during the summer, freezing during winter.

Similar precipitation to temperate deserts, but more as snow and ice

Large desert cities

Soil destruction by off-road vehicles and urban development

Soil sanitization from irrigation

Depletion of underground water supplies

Land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction

Storage of toxic and radioactive wastes

Large arrays of solar cells and solar collectors used to produce electricity

More precipitation and cooler temperatures than deserts. Temperature fluctuate depending on the time of day

and time of year.

Mostly grasses, wildflowers, and shrubs. Few trees due to inadequate rainfall and high frequency

of fires.

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Located near the equator, usually between desert and rainforest biomes.

Precipitation is very seasonal Wet season: Most active time for animals and plants

Dry Season: Grass fires occur frequently

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Elevation: 1700m above sea level

Temperature Conversions:

30°C = 86°F

20°C = 68°F

10°C = 50°F

0°C = 32°F

Found in the interior of continents

Three types of grasslands:

Temperate means seasonal; Hot summers and cold winters

More consistent precipitation than tropical grasslands.

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Elevation: 400m above sea level

Temperature Conversions:

30°C = 86°F

20°C = 68°F

10°C = 50°F

0°C = 32°F

Very cold most of the year, windy

Dominated by grasses, lichens, and herbs.

Located north of the Arctic circle

Underneath the topsoil, there is permafrost Permanently frozen soil

Fig. 5-14, p. 89

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Elevation: 15 meters

Natural Capital Degradation

Grasslands

Conversion of savanna and

temperate grasslands to cropland

Release of CO2 to atmosphere from

burning and conversion of

grassland to cropland

Overgrazing of tropical and

temperate grasslands by livestock

Damage to fragile arctic tundra by

oil production, air and water

pollution, and off-road vehicles

Transition areas between arid grasslands and forests

Hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters.

Dominated with small, leathery, waxy leaves. Evergreen shrubs

Fires common component of landscape.

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Elevation: 15 meters

above sea level

Tropical Rainforests More than 200 cm annual rainfall

Hot temperatures year-round.

Usually located near the equator.

Rapid plant growth causes the soil to be very nutrient poor.

Thin soil cannot support continued farming, and is susceptible to erosion.

Higher diversity of plants and animals than any other biome.

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Canopy Top layer of forest; Contains most of the fruits and flowers

Also contains most of the animals

Understory Receives only 5% of sunlight Few branches and leaves in this layer.

Shrub Layer Shorter plants with wide, flat leaves to catch as much

sunlight as possible.

Ground Layer Very bottom Mostly occupied by decomposers

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Harpy

eagle

Toco

toucan

Wooly

opossum

Brazilian

tapir

Black-crowned

antpitta

Shrub

layer

Canopy

Emergent

layer

Understory

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

He

igh

t (m

ete

rs)

Fig. 5-17, p. 91

Ground

layer

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Elevation: 3280 meters

above sea level

Anywhere in the world where rainfall is plentiful and there are four seasons.

Deciduous trees shed leaves when water is scarce or ground is frozen.

High variety of trees and animals; not as diverse as the rainforest

Plants grow in layers Canopy: Tall, mature trees

Understory: Small trees and shrubs

Forest floor: Ferns, herbs, mosses

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Elevation: 300m above

sea level

Large amounts of precipitation, high humidity, and moderate temperatures.

Occur farther away from the equator than tropical rain forests and are not as warm.

Example: Pacific Northwest Located near the Pacific Ocean

Windward side of the Olympic Mountains

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Located just below the Arctic Circle. Long, harsh winters

Short growing season

Mostly coniferous trees Produce cones instead of flowers

Needle-like leaves Do not shed leaves in winter

Waxy coating minimizes water loss.

Allow snow to fall to the ground easier

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Fig. 5-19b, p. 93

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Fig. 5-20, p. 94

Natural Capital Degradation

Forests

Clearing and degradation of tropical forests for agriculture, livestock grazing, and timber harvesting

Clearing of temperate deciduous forests in Europe, Asia, and North America for timber, agriculture, and urban development

Clearing of evergreen coniferous forests in North America, Finland, Sweden, Canada, Siberia, and Russia

Conversion of diverse forests to less biodiverse tree plantations

Damage to soils from off-road vehicles

Located anywhere the elevation rises 3000 feet or more above sea level.

Climate changes quickly occur over very short distances Effect of elevation: Air gets colder and drier as

you get higher and higher Windward vs. leeward slopes: The side facing

the wind/weather patterns gets more moisture. Tops covered in ice and snow Reflects sunlight; Stay cooler and maintain

snow.

Fig. 5-22, p. 95

Natural Capital Degradation

Mountains

Landless poor migrating uphill to survive

Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs

Increasing tourism (such as hiking and skiing)

Air pollution from industrial and urban centers

Increased ultraviolet radi-ation from ozone depletion

Timber extraction

Mineral resource extraction

Soil damage from off-road vehicles

Ecotones - Boundaries between adjacent communities.

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Ecological Succession Primary Succession - A community begins to

develop on a site previously unoccupied by living organisms.

Secondary Succession - An existing community is disrupted and a new one subsequently develops at the site.

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Pioneer Community – Community that develops initially.

Climax Community – Mature community that develops after many years. Animals and plants are well-established K-

strategists

Community becomes resistant to further change.

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