klimatski atlas hrvatske

Klimatski atlas HrvatskeClimate atlas of Croatia1961 - 1990.1971 - 2000.

Urednica EditorKsenija Zaninovi

Zagreb, 2008.

Uredniki odbor Editorial boardMarjana Gaji-apkaJanja MilkoviMelita Perec TadiMarko Vueti

Autori AuthorsKsenija Zaninovi, Marjana Gaji-apka, Melita Perec Tadi, Marko Vueti, Janja Milkovi, Alica Baji, Ksenija Cindri, Lidija Cvitan, Zvonimir Katuin, Draen Kaui, Tanja Likso, Edita Lonar, eljko Lonar, Domagoj Mihajlovi, Kreo Pandi, Mirta Patari, Lidija Srnec,Vinja Vueti

Karte Maps Melita Perec Tadi, Andreas Matzarakis

Recenzenti ReviewersBranka PenzarIngeborg AuerTomislav Hengl

Prijevod TranslationOctopus jezine usluge d.o.o.

Lektura Language editorsValnea BressanAlemko Gluhak

Likovno oblikovanje knjige i naslovnice Book and cover designMilan VuiMia Vui

Prijelom i tehnika obrada Layout and copyeditingIvan Lukac

Tisak PrintZT Zagraf

Naklada Edition800 primjeraka 800 copies

Izdava PublisherDravni hidrometeoroloki zavod / Meteorological and Hydrological Service of CroatiaGri 3, HR-10000 Zagrebhttp://meteo.hr

Za izdavaa On behalf of the publisherIvan ai, ravnatelj / director

CIP zapis dostupan u raunalnom katalogu Nacionalne i sveuiline knjinice u Zagrebu pod brojem 686062.The catalogue record for this book is available from the National and University Library of Croatia under the number 686062.

Sva prava pridrana. Niti jedan dio ove knjige ne smije se umnoiti, pohraniti ili prenijeti u bilo kakvom obliku, fotokopiranjem, elektronski, me-haniki, presnimavanjem ili nekim drugim nainom bez prethodnog pismenog doputenja izdavaa.No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, or mechanical, recording, or any informationstorage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Citiranje CitationZaninovi, K., Gaji-apka, M., Perec Tadi, M. et al, 2008: Klimatski atlas Hrvatske / Climate atlas of Croatia 19611990., 19712000.Dravni hidrometeoroloki zavod, Zagreb, 200 str.

ISBN: 978-953-7526-01-6

Predgovor Foreword .................................................................................................................................................................................. 7

Uvod Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Klima Hrvatske Climate of Croatia ........................................................................................................................................................... 13

Mrea meteorolokih postaja, obrada, kontrola i pohranjivanje podataka .................................................................................................. 19Meteorological station network, data processing, controlling and archiving

Temperatura zraka Air temperature .......................................................................................................................................................... 27Srednja godinja temperatura zraka Mean annual air temperatureSrednja temperatura zraka za sijeanj Mean air temperature in JanuarySrednja temperatura zraka za travanj Mean air temperature in AprilSrednja temperatura zraka za srpanj Mean air temperature in JulySrednja temperatura zraka za listopad Mean air temperature in OctoberSrednji godinji broj hladnih dana (tmin

Predgovor Foreword

7

Klima je jedna od najvanijih sastavnica ivotnogokolia na Zemlji. Na klimu utjeu mnogi prirodni ini-telji: Sunevo, Zemljino i atmosfersko zraenje, sastavatmosfere, oceanske i zrane struje, razdioba kopna imora, nadmorska visina, razdioba vjenog leda, ivabia pa i djelovanje samog ovjeka. Klimi se treba pri-lagoditi i uinkovito se zatititi od eventualnih tetnihutjecaja, a istovremeno iskoristiti prednosti koje onaprua, pa se klima moe promatrati kao prirodni izvorkoji treba dobro prouiti i zatititi od nekontroliranogljudskog djelovanja.

Svjetska meteoroloka organizacija (WMO WorldMeteorological Organization) u suradnji s ostalim me-unarodnim organizacijama provodi razliite programeu okviru Povjerenstva za klimatologiju (CCl Commis-sion for Climatology), Slubi za klimatske informacije ipredvianje klime (CLIPS Climate Information andPrediction Services), Svjetskog klimatskog istraiva-kog programa (WCRP World Cimate Research Pro-gramme), Svjetskog klimatskog programa (WCP World Climate Programme), te razvija nove metode idostignua u prouavanju mehanizma klime, klimatskihpromjena i poboljanju predvianja klime. Meuvladinpanel o klimatskim promjenama (IPCC Intergovern-mental Panel on Climate Changes), koji je utemeljilaSvjetska meteoroloka organizacija i Program Ujedi-njenih naroda za okoli (UNEP United Nation Envi-ronmental Programme), redovito prikuplja najnovijaznanstvena saznanja u prouavanju klime i objavljuje ihu razmacima od nekoliko godina. etvrto izvjee pro-cjene stanja klime na Zemlji dovreno je 2007. godine.Prema tim najnovijim procjenama Meuvladinog pa-nela o klimatskim promjenama, neprijeporan je utjecajovjeka na recentno globalno klimatsko zatopljenjekoje rezultira sve eim vremenskim ekstremima kaoto su jake grmljavinske oluje praene razornim vjet -rom i pijavicama, suna razdoblja, intenzivne oborinepraene poplavama, toplinski valovi i drugi ekstremi.

U praenju globalne klime nezaobilazna je uloganacionalnih meteorolokih slubi. Slijedom te injenice,

Climate is one of the most important elements of theEarths living environment. It is affected by many natu-ral factors: solar, terrestrial and atmospheric radiation,the composition of the atmosphere, ocean and air cur-rents, land and sea distribution, altitude, perennial icedistribution, living beings and even human activity. Wehave to adapt to our climate and protect ourselves fromits possible adverse influences but at the same timeavail ourselves of the advantages it offers. Therefore,climate can be regarded as a natural resource to bethoroughly studied and protected from uncontrolledhuman actions.

The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), to-gether with other international organisations, has beenimplementing different programmes through its Com-mission for Climatology (CCI), Climate Information andPrediction Services (CLIPS), World Climate ResearchProgramme (WCRP) and World Climate Programme(WCP), developing new methods for the study of cli-mate mechanisms and climate changes and the im-provement of climate prediction. The IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Changes (IPCC), established by theWorld Meteorological Organisation and the United Na-tion Environmental Programme (UNEP) continually col-lect all new scientific research in climate, publishing theresults every few years.

The Fourth Assessment Report On ClimateChanges was completed in 2007. According to the In-tergovernmental Panel on Climate Changes, recentglobal climate warming is very likely the result of an-thropogenic influence on the climate system, resultingin increasingly frequent weather extremes such as se-vere thunderstorms accompanied by violent wind andspouts, heat waves, drought periods, intensive preci -pitation accompanied by floods and other extremes.

The role of National Meteorological Services in themonitoring of global climate is essential and, to en-hance climate monitoring on a global scale, the WorldMeteorological Organisation has issued a recommen-

a s ciljem to uinkovitijeg praenja klime na globalnojljestvici, Svjetska meteoroloka organizacija je izdalapreporuke nacionalnim meteorolokim slubama za pe-riodikim izdavanjem klimatskih atlasa za tridesetogo-dinja (standardna) razdoblja. Kao prvo takvostandardno razdoblje odreeno je razdoblje 19011930. godina. U Dravnom hidrometeorolokom za-vodu (DHMZ) izraen je Atlas klime SR Hrvatske zasljedee klimatsko razdoblje 19311960, koji je objav-ljen povodom obiljeavanja tridesetogodinjice DHMZ-a 1977. godine. Sukladno suvremenim mogunostima,pred nama je prireeno novo izdanje Klimatskog atlasaHrvatske koje se odnosi na standardno klimatsko raz-doblje 19611990, i na razdoblje 19712000. U njemusu takoer prikazane klimatske karte osnovnih klimat-skih elemenata, a za prostornu interpolaciju klimatskihelemenata koritene su suvremene digitalne metodepa je veina analognih prikaza raspoloiva u digitalnomobliku.

Klimatski atlas Hrvatske je temeljni prirunik za svekorisnike koji u svom radu trebaju uvaiti klimatke ka-rakteristike odreenog mjesta, upanije ili itave dr-ave. On je namijenjen gotovo svim granamagospodarstva: poljodjelstvu, vodnom gospodarstvu,energetici, turizmu, zdravstvu, portu, zatiti okolia,graevinarstvu i drugima. Dakako, klimatski atlas bi tre-bao biti sastavnica edukacijskih programa od osnov-nog do visokog obrazovanja. Konano, to je hrvatskidoprinos opem mozaiku praenja globalne klime imeje ostvarena jedna od temeljnih meunarodnih obvezaDHMZ-a i Republike Hrvatske kao lanice Svjetske me-teoroloke organizacije.

Ravnatelj:

mr.sc. Ivan ai

dation to all National Meteorological Services to peri-odically publish climate atlases covering 30-year (stan-dard) periods. The period 19011930 was defined asthe first standard period. The Meteorological and Hy-drological Service of Croatia (DHMZ) developed theClimate Atlas of the Socialist Republic of Croatia for thenext climatological period 19311960. The Atlas waspublished in 1977, on the thirtieth anniversary of theDHMZ. New technology has now enabled to producean advanced version of the Climate Atlas of Croatia forthe standard period 19611990, and for the period19712000. It still contains climate charts of basic cli-matic elements; however, modern digital methods havebeen used for the spatial interpolation of these climaticelements so that most analogous displays are nowavailable in digital form.

The Climate Atlas of Croatia is an essential publi-cation for all those users whose work must take intoconsideration the climatic characteristics of a particularplace, county or even the whole state. It is intended tosupport all economic activities: agriculture, water ma-na gement, energy supply, tourism, health care, sport,environment protection, building and many more. Theclimate atlas of Croatia should also be incorporated ineducational curricula, from primary to tertiary educa-tion.

To conclude: this is the Croatian contribution to thegeneral global climate monitoring puzzle by which theDHMZ and the Republic of Croatia have met one of thebasic requirements of the World Meteorological Or-ganisation.

Director

Ivan ai, M.Sc.

UvodIntroduction

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Uvod Introduction

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Klima je jedna od prirodnih osobitosti neke zemlje.O njoj ovise ivot i zbivanja u prirodi, a gotovo da nemaljudske djelatnosti koja ne ovisi o vremenu i klimi. Stogaje poznavanje klimatskih osobitosti vano zbog plani-ranja razvoja i aktivnosti u mnogim drutvenim i gos -podarskim djelatnostima.

Izrada klimatskog atlasa je prema preporuci Svjet-ske meteoroloke organizacije obaveza meteorolokeslube svake zemlje. Klimatski atlas izrauje se zastandardna 30-godinja klimatska razdoblja. Za pret-hodno klimatsko razdoblje 19311960. podruje Hr-vatske obuhvaeno je u okviru Atlasa klime Jugoslavijeiz 1969. godine, a samo manji dio karata objavljen jeposebno za Hrvatsku u publikaciji Atlas klime SR Hr-vatske iz 1977. godine.

Klimatski atlas Hrvatske za razdoblje 19611990.19712000. obuhvaa karte prostorne razdiobe kli-matskih elemenata, grafikone godinjih hodova klimat-skih elemenata na deset odabranih meteorolokihpostaja te tekstualni dio u kojem su opisane klimatskeznaajke i njihovi uzroci. Na kraju se nalaze tablice sprosjenim 30-godinjim mjesenim, sezonskim i go-dinjim vrijednostima klimatolokih elemenata na 20postaja koje reprezentiraju klimatsku raznolikost Hr-vatske. Obzirom na vremensku varijabilnost klimatskihparametara i uoeno zatopljenje u posljednjoj dekadidvadesetog stoljea tablini prikazi proireni su i na kli-matsko razdoblje 19712000.

Ope klimatske znaajke opisane su u poglavljuKlima Hrvatske. Posebno poglavlje posveeno jemrei meteorolokih postaja u Hrvatskoj te nainuobrade, kontrole i arhiviranja motrenih meteorolokihpodataka. Slijede detaljniji opisi pojedinih klimatskihelemenata u posebnim poglavljima. Na temelju pro-storne razdiobe razliitih parametara pojedinih klimat-skih elemenata te grafikona na kojima su prikazanihodovi, vjerojatnosti, percentili ili procjene ekstremaopisane su klimatske znaajke te uzroci koji do njih do-vode, a dana je i usporedba s podacima iz prethodnog

Climate is the natural characteristic of a country. Lifeand natural processes depend on it and there is almostno human activity which does not depend on weatherand climate. Therefore, awareness of particular climatecharacteristics is especially important when planningdevelopment activities in many social and economicareas.

Following the recommendation of the World Mete-orological Organisation, each member state meteoro-logical service is expected to develop a Climate Atlas.The Atlas is based on standard 30-year climate peri-ods. For the previous climate period (19311960) thearea of Croatia was covered by the Climate Atlas of Yu-goslavia, published in 1969, and only a small numberof maps were published specifically for Croatia in theCroatian Climate Atlas of 1977.

The Climate Atlas of Croatia for the period 19611990, 19712000 comprises maps of the spatial distri-bution of climatological elements, graphs of the annualcourse of climatological elements at ten chosen mete-orological stations and a textual description of the rel-evant climate characteristics and their causes. It endswith tables of the mean 30-year monthly, seasonal andannual values of climatological elements at 20 stationsrepresentative of the climate diversity of Croatia. Be-cause of the time variability of climatological parame-ters and the perceived warming in the last decade ofthe 20th century, the tables have been expanded to in-clude the 19712000 climate period.

The general climate characteristics have been de-scribed in the chapter on climate. A chapter has beendevoted to the meteorological station network and tothe system of processing, controlling and archiving me-teorological data. Detailed descriptions of particular cli-matological elements are given in separate chapters.The climatological characteristics and their causeshave been described in accordance with the spatial dis-tribution of the different parameters of particular climaticelements and the graphs showing courses, probability,

klimatskog razdoblja 19311960. te s razdobljem19712000. Grafikoni su na neki nain povezani s kar-tama uz koje se nalaze. Tako je, primjerice, uz kartusrednje temperature zraka za sijeanj na grafikonimauz kartu prikazana procjena apsolutnih minimalnih tem-peratura zraka, ili godinji hod sunih razdoblja uz obo-rinsku kartu za ljeto. Osobitost ovog atlasa su prilozikoji se rjee nalaze u klimatskim atlasima. Tu je po-glavlje o vremenskim tipovima, u kojem su tekstualnoopisane i kartografski prikazane karakteristine sinop-tike situacije za vremenske tipove koji se pojavljuju uHrvatskoj, a dana je i njihova statistika obrada za kon-tinentalnu Hrvatsku te sjeverni i srednji Jadran. Turisti-kim djelatnicima moe biti korisno poglavljeBiometeorologija koje sadri karte kombiniranog bio-meteorolokog indeksa kao pokazatelja osjeta ugodeza sijeanj, travanj, srpanj i listopad te grafikone s go-dinjim hodom osjeta ugode i vjerojatnostima pojavlji-vanja razliitih osjeta ugode ujutro, popodne i naveer.Za poljoprivredu moe biti korisno poglavlje Agrome-teorologija gdje se mogu nai podaci o temperaturamatla, trajanjima razdoblja s temperaturama zraka i tlaiznad odreenih pragova te fenofaze odabranih biljaka.U posljednjem poglavlju su prikazane metode koriteneza proraune i izradu karata u atlasu. Tu su prikazanirezultati ispitivanja homogenosti srednje godinje tem-perature zraka na meteorolokim postajama koritenimu atlasu. Nain izrade karata opisan je u dijelu o geo-statistikom kartiranju klimatskih varijabli. Na kraju jeprikazana i metoda analize ekstremnih vrijednosti kojaje koritena za procjenu godinjih apsolutnih maksi-malnih i minimalnih temperatura zraka te maksimalnihdnevnih koliina oborine.

Klimatski atlas je fundamentalni doprinos poznava-nju klime Hrvatske. Izrada klimatskog atlasa je zahtje-van posao i rezultat je viegodinjeg rada klimatologaDHMZ-a. Njegovom konanom izgledu i obliku dopri-nijeli su dizajneri te recenzenti, prevoditelji i lektori svo-jim primjedbama, sugestijama i prijedlozima. Nadamo

percentiles and estimation of extremes. Also, a com-parison has been made with the previous climate pe-riod 19311960 and the period 19712000. The graphsare linked to the adjacent maps. Thus, for example, themap showing the mean air temperatures for January isaccompanied by the graph showing the estimation ofabsolute minimal air temperatures; or, the annualcourse of drought periods stands by the summer pre-cipitation map. An important feature of this Atlas are itscontributions, rarely found in climate atlases. They in-clude a chapter on weather types presenting theweather types existing in Croatia, with a textual de-scription and maps of cha ra cteristic synoptic situationstogether with a statistical analysis of data for continen-tal Croatia and the northern and middle Adriatic. Thechapter on biometeoro logy could be interesting to thetourist community because it contains maps of thecombined biometeorological index as an indicator ofthermal sensation for January, April, July and Octoberand graphs with the annual course of the thermal sen-sation and the probability of occurrence of differentthermal sensations in the morning, afternoon andevening. Agriculturists should find the chapter onagrometeorology interes ting, as it contains data on soiltemperatures, the duration of periods with air and soiltemperature exceeding certain thresholds, and thephenophases of chosen plants. In the last chapter pres-ents the methodology used for the calculations and pro-duction of the maps in the Atlas. It presents the resultof the analyses of mean annual air temperature homo-geneity at the meteorological stations used to producethe Atlas. The chapter on the geostatistical mapping ofclimatological variables describes how the maps wereproduced. Finally, the methodology is presented of theextreme value analysis used to predict the annual ab-solute maximal and minimal air temperatures and thedaily maximal precipitation amounts.

This Climate Atlas is a fundamental contribution tothe study of climate in Croatia and it is the result of the

se da e on koristiti strunjacima iz razliitih podrujautjecaja klime u njihovom istraivakom i strunomradu radi prilagodbe na lokalne klimatske uvjete. Timese smanjuje rizik od meteorolokih uvjeta, doprinoseizatiti okolia te drutvenom i gospodarskom razvojuzemlje.

Urednica

work of the Meteorological Service climatologists overmany years. Many other people have contributed to itsfinal version with their commentaries and suggestions:designers, reviewers, translators and language-editors.We hope the Atlas will help experts engaged in thestudy of the effects of climate change to adapt their re-search and professional work to local climate condi-tions thus mitigating meteorological risks andcontributing to environmental protection and to the so-cial and economic development of the country.

Editor

12

Uvod Introduction

Zgrada Dravnog hidrometeorolokog zavoda u Zagrebu na Griu.The building of the Meteorological and Hydrological Service in Zagreb, Gri.Fotografija Photo by: Ivan Lukac

Klima HrvatskeClimate of Croatia

Marjana Gaji-apkaKsenija Zaninovi

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Klima Hrvatske Climate of Croatia

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Klimu Hrvatske odreuje njezin poloaj u sjevernimumjerenim irinama i pripadni vremenski procesi velikihi srednjih razmjera. Najvaniji modifikatori klime na po-druju Hrvatske jesu Jadransko i ire Sredozemnomore, orografija Dinarida sa svojim oblikom, nadmor-skom visinom i poloajem prema prevladavajuemstrujanju, otvorenost sjeveroistonih krajeva prema Pa-nonskoj ravnici, te raznolikost biljnog pokrova.

Kontinentalna Hrvatska ima umjereno kontinentalnuklimu i cijele se godine nalazi u cirkulacijskom pojasuumjerenih irina, gdje je stanje atmosfere vrlo promje-njivo: obiljeeno je raznolikou vremenskih situacijauz este i intenzivne promjene tijekom godine. Te pro-mjene izazivaju putujui sustavi visokog ili niskog tlaka,esto slini vrtlozima promjera vie stotina i tisua ki-lometara. Zimi prevladavaju stacionarni anticiklonalnitipovi vremena s estom maglom ili niskim oblacima, svrlo slabim strujanjem to predstavlja povoljne uvjeteza stvaranje inja. Za proljee su karakteristini bre po-kretni ciklonalni tipovi vremena (ciklone i doline), todovodi do estih i naglih promjena vremena, izmjenjujuse oborinska razdoblja s bezoborinskima, tiha s vjetro-vitima, hladnija s toplijima. U travnju se obino pojav-ljuje desetak uzastopnih dana s umjerenim, ak i jakimhladnim sjevernim vjetrom koji vlada na prednjoj stranimeridionalno poloene anticiklone to se protee odSkandinavije do srednje, pa i june Europe. Ljeti su ba-rika polja s malim gradijentom tlaka i osvjeavajuimnonim povjetarcem niz gorske obronke isprekidanaprolascima hladne fronte koja dovodi svje zrak s At-lantika uz jako mijeanje zraka, pojaan vjetar, grmlja-vinu i pljuskove iz gustih oblaka vertikalnog razvoja.Labilna stratifikacija atmosfere i konvekcijski oblaci za-dravaju se obino jo dan ili dva nakon prodora, dokse nova zrana masa ne ugrije od podloge. Za jesen sukarakteristina razdoblja mirna anticiklonalnog vre-mena, ali i kioviti dani u ciklonama koje prelaze bapreko naih krajeva. Anticiklonalno vrijeme se u ranojjeseni odlikuje toplim i sunanim danima i svjeim no-

Croatias climate is determined by its position in thenorthern mid-latitudes and the corresponding weatherprocesses on a large and medium scale. The most im-portant climate modifiers over Croatia are the Adriaticand the Mediterranean, the Dinarides orography withtheir form, altitude and position relative to the prevail-ing air flow, the openness of the north-eastern parts tothe Pannonian plain, and the diversity of vegetation.

Continental Croatia has a temperate continental cli-mate and throughout the whole year it is in a circulationzone of mid-latitudes, where the atmospheric condi-tions are very variable. They are characterised by a di-versity of weather situations with frequent and intenseexchanges during the year. These are caused by mov-ing systems of low or high air pressure, often resem-bling vortices hundreds and thousands of kilometres indiameter. During the cold part of the year, stationaryanticyclonic weather types, with foggy weather or lowclouds and a very gentle air flow, are prevalent. Inspring, fast-moving cyclonic weather types (cycloneand trough) are characteristic, resulting in frequent andsudden weather changes, from rainy to dry periods,from calm to windy, from colder to warmer. In April,there are usually about ten successive days with amoderate, even strong cold northern wind at the frontside of the meridional anticyclone stretching from Scan-dinavia to Central and even Southern Europe. In sum-mer, the zero pressure gradient fields and a coolingnight breeze blowing down mountain slopes are inter-rupted by cold fronts passing through. They bring infresh air from the Atlantic, with very strong air mixing,increased wind, thunder and showers from denseclouds with vertical development. This unstable at-mosphere stratification and convective clouds usuallystay for a day or two after the cold air outbreak, untilthe new air mass is warmed by the land surface. In au-tumn, periods of calm anticyclonic weather are verycommon, but there are also rainy days as cyclonespass over this territory. Calm weather in early autumn

ima s obilnom rosom i niskim prugama magle nad po-tocima i rijekama, koja u jutro brzo nestaje. U kasnojpak jeseni za anticiklone je hladno, maglovito i tmurno;u ravnicama sunce se kroz maglu probija tek na kratko,oko podneva, a na gorskim je vrhuncima, naprotiv, sun-ano vrijeme po cijele dane.

Klima kontinentalnog dijela Hrvatske modificirana jemaritimnim utjecajem sa Sredozemlja, koji se u podru-ju juno od Save istie jae nego na sjeveru i sve vieslabi prema istonom podruju. Sljedei lokalni modifi-kator klime jest orografija (Medvednica, gore u Hrvat-skom Zagorju i oko Poeke kotline), koja npr. dovodido intenzifikacije kratkotrajnih jakih oborina na navje-trinskoj strani prepreke ili stvaranja oborinske sjene uzavjetrini. To se dogaa, primjerice, u istonom dijelugrada Zagreba, gdje Medvednica djeluje kao preprekaza sjeverozapadne kionosne prodore. Slian uinakuoen je i u nizinskom podruju istono od Kalnika.

Na viim nadmorskim visinama dinarskih planina uGorskom kotaru, Lici i dalmatinskom zaleu prisutna jeplaninska klima koja se razlikuje od ireg podruja pr-venstveno po temperaturnom i snjenom reimu.

Primorska Hrvatska nalazi se vei dio godine tako-er u cirkulacijskom podruju umjerenih irina, s estimi intenzivnim promjenama vremena. Ljeti, naprotiv, podutjecajem azorske anticiklone koja spreava prodorehladnog zraka na Jadran, to podruje dolazi pod utje-caj suptropskog pojasa. Jedan od najvanijih modifi-katora klime tog podruja jest more, pa se ona moenazvati primorskom. Uz neposredan utjecaj ciklogene-tikog djelovanja sjevernog Jadrana, klimu tog podru-ja izrazito modificira jako razvijena orografijadinarskog planinskog lanca.

Ljeti na Jadranu prevladava dugotrajno vedro vri-jeme u polju izjednaenog tlaka oko 1015 hPa. Uskladu s opim barikim gradijentom na Sredozemlju is poloajem Jadranskog mora, tada na puini struji sje-verozapadnjak (etezija), na sjevernom Jadranu slab,pri sredini umjeren, a blie Otrantu povremeno jak vje-

is characterised by warm and sunny days and freshnights with heavy dew and low fog patches overstreams and rivers, which dissipate quickly by themorning. In late autumn, calm weather is cold, foggyand gloomy; in open plains and in the hills, where thereis light wind, rime sticks to branches and wires, andthere is a short period of sunshine through fog aroundnoon. On mountain peaks, however, the weather issunny throughout the whole day.

The climate of continental Croatia is modified by themaritime influence of the Mediterranean, which isstronger in the area south of the Sava River than in thenorth, and which weakens towards the east. The nextlocal climate modifier is orography (the Mount Medved-nica, the mountains in the NW part of Croatia -Hrvatsko Zagorje, the mountains around the PoegaValley), which, for example, facilitates the intensifica-tion of short-term heavy precipitation on the windwardside of the orographic obstacle or the appearance ofprecipitation shadow on the leeward side. This, for exa m -ple, happens in the eastern part of Zagreb, where theMount Medvednica acts as an obstacle to the north-western precipitation outbreaks. A similar effect can beobserved in the lowland area east of Mount Kalnik.

At higher altitudes, in the mountainous districts ofGorski kotar and Lika and the Dinaric Alps, there is amountain climate that differs from the wider area pri-marily by its air temperature and snow regime.

The Croatian Littoral is also in a circulation area ofmid-latitudes with frequent and intense weatherchanges most of the year. In summer, however, thisarea comes under the influence of the subtropical zone,as a result of the influence of the Azorean anticyclone,which prevents cold air outbreaks to the Adriatic. Oneof the most important climate modifiers in this area isthe sea, so the climate can be referred to as maritime.With the direct influence of the Northern Adriatic cyclo-genetic effect, the climate in this area is extremely mo -dified by the highly developed orography of Gorskikotar and the Dinarides.


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tar. U isto se vrijeme na veim otocima i obali, zbog ne-jednake brzine grijanja i hlaenja mora i kopna te brdai susjedne nizine, razvijaju lokalne dnevne periodinecirkulacije zraka. Njihovi najizraeniji dijelovi jesu re-doviti danji vjetar s mora na kopno i noni s kopna i nizobronak prema moru. Sve to omoguuje jaku turbu-lencijsku razmjenu zranih svojstava, a time i uspo-stavu homogenih prostornih razdioba meteorolokihparametara i ublaavanje ekstrema.

U hladnom dijelu godine kao i nou za mirna vre-mena turbulencija je mala pa su lokalni uvjeti domina-ntni, zbog ega su razlike u vrijednostima, hodovima iprostornoj raspodjeli meteorolokih parametara meu-sobno blizih postaja velike. Tako npr. meteoroloka po-staja Pazin u sredinjoj Istri ukazuje na specifinelokalne prilike pojaanog hlaenja u anticiklonalnim si-tuacijama tijekom noi i zimi u udolini u kojoj je smje-tena. Za hladan dio godine, osobito zimu, tipian jevjetar sjevernog Jadrana bura, koja pue iz sjevero -istonog kvadranta i poznata je po svojoj mahovitosti,velikim brzinama i trajanju. Bura ne nastaje samo narubu zimske kopnene anticiklone, koja see do primor-skih planina, nego i inae kad se hladniji zrak nad kop-nom rui niz te planine u toplije podruje iznad mora.Najjaa je kad i opi gradijent tlaka potie zrano stru-janje preko planinskog lanca. Tada ini razorne tete ikao vjetar koji udara o morsku povrinu i raspruje vr-hove povrinskih valova dopire daleko od obale. Pro-sjena brzina bure iznosi vie desetaka kilometara nasat, a brzina pojedinih udara mnogo je vea; najvea iz-mjerena bila je 69 ms-1, odnosno 248 kmh-1. Ona jeprevladavajui vjetar, najjai u podvelebitskom podru-ju, slabi s udaljavanjem od obale, dominira i na istar-skom priobalnom podruju, ali je slabija i rijetka uunutranjosti Istre. Na srednjem i junom Jadranu buraje obino vjetar manje intenzivan i svakako rjei negona sjevernom Jadranu, a po jaini je poznata bura uklikim vratima, Vruljama, makarskom primorju i Rijecidubrovakoj. Ondje je intenzitet i uestalost juga vea.

In summer, on the Adriatic, stationary clear weatherprevails in the zero pressure gradient field of about1015hPa. Due to the general pressure gradient in theMediterranean and the position of the Adriatic, thereare north-western winds (etesians) in the open sea, agentle wind in the Northern Adriatic, moderate wind inthe Middle Adriatic, and, occasionally, strong windcloser to the Strait of Otranto. At the same time, localdaily periodic circulation is developed on the larger is-lands and the coast, due to the unequal warming (andcooling) speed of the sea and the land, as well as onthe hills and the surrounding valleys. Its most impor-tant characteristics are a regular daily wind from sea toland and, at night, wind blowing down hill slopes to-wards the sea. All this enables a strong turbulent ex-change of air characteristics, the establishment of ahomogenous spatial distribution of meteorological pa-rameters and the mitigation of extremes.

During the cold part of the year (and at night), incalm weather, turbulence is gentle, so local conditionsare dominant, and, therefore, there are great differen -ces in the values, courses and spatial distribution ofmeteorological parameters at adjacent stations. Forexa m ple, due to its position in the valley, the Pazinweather station in the centre of the Istrian Peninsulashows specific local conditions of increased cooling inanticyclonic situations during the night and in winter.

During the cold part of the year, especially in winter,the typical Northern Adriatic wind is bura. It blows fromthe north-eastern quadrant and is known for its gusti-ness, high speed and duration. Bura is not formed onlyon the edge of winter inland anticyclones, which stretchto the coastal mountains, but also when cold air fromthe ground layer descends from the mountains into thewarmer area above the sea. Bura is the strongest whenthe general pressure gradient stimulates an air flowover the mountain ridge. Then it causes great damage,and, as a wind blowing to the open sea and dispersingsurface wave tips, it reaches remote distances from the

Motrilite opservatorija Zagreb-Gri.The Zagreb-Gri observatory enclosure.Fotografija Photo by: Ana anti

Jugo je postojan i snaan jugoistonjak koji pue rav -nomjerno brzinom slinoj prosjenoj brzini bure, najve-om u povoljno poloenim morskim kanalima.Pojavljuje se u sklopu zranog strujanja iz junoga kva-dranta koje na puini esto ima juni smjer, a obalnega planine u donjem dijelu atmosfere skreu u SE. Navanjskim otocima i puini prevladavaju vjetrovi izsmjera NNW te S i SSE.

Ciklonalna aktivnost tipina za zimu, rano proljee ikasnu jesen jednako je znaajna za oblani i oborinskireim obale i zalea, s tim da u najhladnijem razdobljuciklone uglavnom ne prelaze s Jadrana na kopno.

Preostala vremenska stanja po uestalosti nisuesta, ali se po manifestacijama istiu levantara, lebi-ada, garbinada i pulentada.

Prema Kppenovoj klasifikaciji klime, koja uvaavabitne odlike srednjeg godinjeg hoda temperaturezraka i koliine oborine najvei dio Hrvatske ima umje-

shore. The average wind speed during bura is severaltens of kilometres per hour, but the speed of individualwind gusts is much higher. The highest speed recordedwas 69ms-1, i.e. 248 km/h. Bura is the prevalent andthe strongest wind in the sub-Velebit area and it wea-kens as it moves away from the shore. It is also a do -mi nant wind in the coastal area of Istria, although it isweaker and it is not present in the hinterland of thepeninsula. On the Middle and Southern Adriatic, bura isusually less intense and less frequent than on theNorthern Adriatic. Jugo (sirocco) is a more intense andfrequent wind in these areas. Jugo is a steady andstrong wind which blows evenly with a speed similar tothe bura average speed, being the highest in the con-veniently positioned channels between the islands andthe coastland. The wind occurs in the air flow from thesouthern quadrant and often has a southward directioninto the open sea, while the coastal mountains turn it toSE. Winds from the NNW, S and SE are prevalent overthe open sea and the outer islands.

Cyclonic activity, typical of winter, early spring andlate autumn, is equally significant for the cloud and pre-cipitation regime of the coast and the hinterland. In thecold period, cyclones mostly do not pass from the Adri-atic to the mainland.

Other weather situations are not typical of thecoastal climate. However levantara, lebiada,garbinada, and pulentada can be expected to occur.

According to the Kppen climate classification,where the mean annual temperature course and pre-cipitation amount are considered, most of Croatia hasa temperate rainy climate with an average monthly tem-perature higher than -3C and lower than 18C (symbolC) in the coldest month. Only the highest mountainareas (>1200 m asl) have a snow-forest climate withan average temperature lower than 3C in the coldestmonth (symbol D). Inland, the warmest month of theyear has an average temperature lower than 22C(symbol b), in the coastal area higher than 22C (sym-


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emu su unutranjost Istre, Kvarner i dalmatinsko za-lee vlaniji nego istarska obala i Srednji Jadran. UKvarnerskom zaljevu, uz ciklogenetiko djelovanje po-seban utjecaj na velike koliine oborine ima planinskozalee s orografskim efektom intenzifikacije oborine,to se posebno oituje u iroj rijekoj regiji. Stoga serijeka klima prema vrijednostima Thornthwaiteova in-deksa svrstava u perhumidnu klimu kakva prevladavau gorskom dijelu Hrvatske. U dijelovima srednjeg i najunom Jadranu prevladavaju subhumidni uvjeti, ali naj-juniji dijelovi oko Dubrovnika zbog vie oborine imajuhumidnu klimu.

land generates high amounts of precipitation, becauseof its orographic effect that intensifies precipitation,which is specially manifested in the wider region of Ri-jeka. Therefore, according to the Thornthwaite indexvalues, Rijeka has a perhumid climate, similar to thatwhich is prevalent in the highland part of Croatia. Insome parts of the Middle Adriatic and on the SouthernAdriatic, subhumid conditions prevail. However, thesouthernmost parts, around Dubrovnik, towards thehilly hinterland, have a humid climate because of highprecipitation amounts.

reno toplu kinu klimu sa srednjom mjesenom tem-peraturom najhladnijeg mjeseca viom od -3oC i niomod 18C (oznaka C). Samo najvia planinska podruja(>1200 m nm) imaju snjeno-umsku klimu sa sred -njom temperaturom najhladnijeg mjeseca niom od -3C (oznaka D). U unutranjosti najtopliji mjesec u go-dini ima srednju temperaturu niu od 22C (oznaka b),u priobalnom podruju viu od 22oC (oznaka a), a vieod etiri mjeseca u godini imaju srednju mjesenu tem-peraturu viu od 10C.

Nizinski kontinentalni dio Hrvatske ima klimuCfwbx. Uz spomenute temperaturne karakteristike (oz-nake C i b), tijekom godine nema izrazito suhih mje-seci, a mjesec s najmanje oborine u hladnom je dijelugodine (fw). U godinjem hodu oborine javljaju se dvamaksimuma (x). Lika i Gorski kotar te vii dijelovi Istrespadaju u klasu klime Cfsbx, a vrni dijelovi planina(vii od 1200 m nm) u klimu Dfsbx. U tim podrujimanema sunih razdoblja, najvie oborine padne u mje-secu hladnog dijela godine (fs), a zimsko je kino raz-doblje iroko rascijepano u jesensko-zimski i proljetnimaksimum (x). Na otocima i na obalnom podruju srednjeg i junog Jadrana prevladava klima masline (Csa),u kojoj je suho razdoblje u toplom dijelu godine, najsuimjesec ima manje od 40 mm oborine i manje od tre-ine najkiovitijeg mjeseca u hladnom dijelu godine (oz-naka s), a u veem dijelu toga podruja takoer sejavljaju dva maksimuma oborine (x).

Prema Thornthwaiteovoj klasifikaciji klime baziranojna odnosu koliine vode potrebne za potencijalnu eva-potranspiraciju i oborinske vode postoji pet tipova, odperhumidne do aridne klime. U Hrvatskoj se javljajuperhumidna, humidna i subhumidna klima. U najveemdijelu nizinskog kontinentalnog dijela Hrvatske prevla-dava humidna klima, a samo u istonoj Slavoniji sub-humidna klima. U gorskom podruju prevladavaperhumidna klima. U primorskoj Hrvatskoj pojavljuju seperhumidna, humidna i subhumidna klima. Na sjever-nom i srednjem Jadranu prevladava humidna klima, pri

bol a), and more than four months within one year havea monthly average temperature higher than 10C.

The lowland, continental part of Croatia has aCfwbx climate. With the previously mentioned tem-perature characteristics (symbols C and b), there areno extremely dry months during the year, and themonth with the smallest amount of precipitation is inthe cold part of the year (fw). In the annual course ofprecipitation there are two maxima (x). The mountain-ous area of Lika and Gorski kotar, and the higher partsof Istria belong to the Cfsbx climate class, while themountain peaks (higher than 1200 m asl) belong to theDfsbx class. In these areas there are no dry periods,the highest monthly amount of precipitation is in thecold part of the year (fs), and the winter rainy period isdivided into the autumn-winter and the spring maximum(x). On the islands and in the coastal area of the Mid-dle and Southern Adriatic, there is a prevalent olive cli-mate (Csa), which means that the dry period is in thewarm part of the year, and the driest month has evenless than 40 mm of precipitation, less than a third of theamount in the rainiest month in the cold part of the year(symbol s). There are also two precipitation maxima(x) in the larger part of the area.

According to the Thornthwaite climate classification,based on the relation between the amount of waternecessary for potential evapotranspiration and ob-tained from precipitation, there are five types of climate,from perhumid to arid. Croatia has perhumid, humidand subhumid climates. In the largest part of lowland,continental Croatia there is a prevalent humid climate,and a subhumid climate only in Slavonia. The perhumidclimate prevails in the highlands. In coastal Croatia,there are perhumid, humid and subhumid climates. Inthe Northern and Middle Adriatic, a humid climate pre-vails in inland Istria, the hinterland of the Kvarner Bayand in Dalmatia, which is more humid than the Istriancoast and the Middle Adriatic. In the Kvarner Bay, be-side the cyclogenetic effect, the mountainous hinter-

Literatura References

Gaji-apka, M., Zaninovi, K., 2004: Klimatske prilike slivova Save, Drave i Dunava, Hrvatske vode, 12, 49, 297312.Penzar, I.; Penzar, B. 2000: Agrometeorologija, kolska knjiga, Zagreb, str. 222.Penzar, I., Penzar, B., Orli, M., 2001: Vrijeme i klima hrvatskog Jadrana. Bibliotheka Geographia Croatica, knjiga 16, Nakla-dna kua Dr. Feletar, 258 pp.Zaninovi, K., Gaji-apka, M., 2005: Klimatske prilike jadranskih slivova, Hrvatske vode, 13, 50, 114.

Mrea meteorolokih postaja, obrada, kontrolai pohranjivanje podatakaMeteorological station network, data processing,controlling and archiving

Zvonimir KatuinJanja Milkovi

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Mrea meteorolokih postaja, obrada, kontrola i pohranjivanje podataka Meteorological station network, data processing, controlling and archiving

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Skup postaja koje na irem prostoru, prema stan-dardiziranim pravilima obavljaju motrenja (vizualnaopaanja i instrumentalna mjerenja) ini mreu meteo-rolokih postaja. Mrea meteorolokih postaja koju odr-ava Dravni hidrometeoroloki zavod dio je Globalnogmotriteljskog sustava Svjetske meteoroloke organiza-cije.

Pojedinana meteoroloka motrenja u Hrvatskojobavljana su na vie mjesta tijekom srednjeg vijeka iprovodili su ih pojedinci. Jedan od poznatijih bio je li-

The meteorological station network consists of anumber of stations which, according to standardisedprocedures, perform observations (visual observationsand instrument measurements) over a wider area. Themeteorological station network maintained by the Me-teorological and Hydrological Service of Croatia(DHMZ) is part of the World Meteorological Organisa-tion Global Observing System.

In the middle ages, particular meteorological ob-servations in Croatia were performed at several loca-tions and they mostly depended on individual persons.One of the better known observers was a physiciannamed Santorio Santorio who, in the period from 1587to 1599, performed observations, with instruments con-structed by himself, in Senj, Novi Vinodolski, Ozalj andKarlovac.

The first meteorological station networks in Europestarted emerging after a meteorological society, namedSocietas Meteorologica Palatina, had been establishedin Mannheim in 1781. In 1829/1830 and in 1841/1842,meteorological observations were performed and pub-lished in contemporary newspapers in Zagreb. Suchmeasurements also existed in other Croatian cities andtowns, e.g. Zadar, Hvar, Osijek, Mali Loinj.

Organised meteorological station networks in Eu-rope were established in the second half of the 19thcentury. In the majority of European countries obser-vations were organised in 1880, and, therefore, thatyear has been chosen as the beginning of the period oforganised observations in Europe.

The central meteorological service in Vienna pub-lished the first annual meteorological report in 1848, forthe area of the Habsburg Monarchy, and the first me-teorological data for Dubrovnik were published in theannual report for 1851. Immediately after that, new me-teorological stations were founded: Zavalje (nearBiha) in 1852, Stara Gradika and Zagreb in 1853,Zadar and Zemun in 1854, Korula in 1855, Vis in1857, Hvar in 1858, Osijek, Split and Varadin in 1859,Rijeka in 1860.

jenik Santorio Santorio, koji je osobno konstruiraniminstrumentima u razdoblju od 1587. do 1599. obavljaomotrenja u Senju, Novom Vinodolskom, Ozlju i Kar-lovcu.

Prve mree meteorolokih postaja poinju se u Eu-ropi pojavljivati nakon 1781, kad je u Mannheimu osno-vano meteoroloko drutvo Societas meteorologicaPalatina. U Zagrebu su 1829/1830 te 1841/1842 obav-ljana meteoroloka motrenja koja su objavljivana u ta-danjim novinama. Takvih mjerenja bilo je i u drugimgradovima, kao primjerice u Zadru, Hvaru, Osijeku,Malom Loinju.

Organizirane mree meteorolokih postaja u Europiosnivane su tijekom druge polovine 19. stoljea, a uveini europskih zemalja 1880. godine postoje organi-zirana motrenja, pa se ta godina uzima kao poetakrazdoblja organiziranih meteorolokih motrenja u Eu-ropi.

Sredinji meteoroloki ured u Beu objavio je 1848.prvi meteoroloki godinjak za podruje habsburkemonarhije, a u godinjaku iz 1851. objavljeni su me-teoroloki podaci za Dubrovnik. Odmah nakon togaosnivane su nove meteoroloke postaje: 1852. Zavalje(kod Bihaa), 1853. Stara Gradika i Zagreb, 1854.Zadar i Zemun, 1855. Korula, 1857. Vis, 1858. Hvar,1859. Osijek, Split i Varadin, 1860. Rijeka.

Na tadanjem podruju Hrvatske 1900. radilo je 146meteorolokih postaja, od toga 88 kiomjernih. Daljnjirazvoj i broj meteorolokih postaja bitno je ovisio o po-vijesnim dogaajima, pa se broj meteorolokih postajasmanjio za vrijeme i nakon prvog i drugog svjetskograta te domovinskog rata (Slika 1).

Najvie meteorolokih postaja bilo je u Hrvatskoj urazdoblju od 1963. do 1980. godine, kada je ukupanbroj meteorolokih postaja prelazio 700, a prosjenaudaljenost izmeu postaja bila u skladu s propisimaSvjetske meteoroloke organizacije.

There were 146 meteorological stations on the ter-ritory of Croatia at the time, out of which 88 precipita-tion stations. Further development and the number ofmeteorological stations depended significantly on his-torical events: the number of meteorological stationsdecreased during and after the First and Second WorldWars, as well as after the Patriotic War from 1991 to1995 (Figure 1).

Croatia was best covered by meteorological stationsin the period from 1963 to 1980, when the number ofstations was over 700, and the average distance be-tween them was in accordance with World Meteoro-logical Organisation regulations.

According to their organisation, meteorological sta-tions are divided into: main meteorological stations,with 2 to 5 professional observers, ordinary (climato-logical) meteorological stations, with amateur ob-servers and observations at 7 am, 2 pm and 9 pm localtime and with 24-hour observations of meteorological

Motrilite na visinskoj glavnoj meteorolokoj postaji Zavian. The Zavian high elevation main meteorological station enclosure.Fotografija Photo by: Ante Vukui

Slika 1. Ukupan broj meteorolokih postaja od 18512007.godine na podruju Hrvatske.Figure 1. Total number of meteorological stations in 18512007 in Croatia.


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Prema organizaciji, meteoroloke postaje se dijelena ove: glavne meteoroloke postaje s 2 do 5 profe-sionalna motritelja, obine (klimatoloke) meteorolokepostaje s neprofesionalnim motriteljima i motrenjima u7, 14, 21 h lokalnog vremena te opaanjem meteoro-lokih pojava tijekom 24 sata, kiomjerne postaje s ne-profesionalnim motriteljima i mjerenjem oborine u 7 h temotrenjem meteorolokih pojava tijekom 24 sata, tota-lizatore za prikupljanje godinjih koliina oborine, au-tomatske meteoroloke postaje s automatskimbiljeenjem meteorolokih elemenata i neposrednomvezom u informacijski sustav. Dananja mrea meteo-rolokih postaja (31. 12. 2007.) sastoji se od 41 glavnemeteoroloke postaje, 113 klimatolokih (Slika 2), 333kiomjernih postaja, 23 totalizatora i 63 automatskemeteoroloke postaje.

Prema programu motrenja meteoroloke postajedijele se na ove: sinoptike postaje, visinske (radio-sondane i pilotbalonske) postaje, klimatoloke po-staje, zrakoplovne postaje, agrometeoroloke postaje,postaje za kvalitetu zraka, specijalne meteoroloke po-staje, koje se dijele na: radarske postaje, postaje zaSunevo zraenje, postaje za mjerenje koliine ozona,postaje za mjerenje radioaktivnosti zraka te postaje zamjerenje atmosferskog elektriciteta i elektrinog pra-njenja

Osim navedenih postaja, DHMZ skrbi i o mrei hi-drolokih postaja, pomorskim brodskim meteorolokimpostajama i postajama za mjerenje temperature mora.

U atlasu su koriteni podaci glavnih meteorolokih,klimatolokih i kiomjernih postaja te totalizatora.

Program rada glavne meteoroloke postaje obu -hva a opaanja i mjerenja sadanjeg i prolog vre-mena, smjera i brzine vjetra, naoblake, vrste oblaka,visine podnice oblaka, vidljivosti, temperature zraka,vlanosti zraka, atmosferskog tlaka, iznosa i oblika ten-dencije tlaka, minimalne i maksimalne temperature, ko-liine oborine, stanja tla, snjenog pokrivaa, trajanjasijanja Sunca, minimalne temperature zraka na 5 cm,

phenomena, precipitation stations, with amateur ob-servers, measuring precipitation at 7 am and observingmeteorological phenomena over 24 hours, storagerain-gauge stations, collecting annual amounts of pre-cipitation, automatic stations, with automatic registra-tion of meteorological elements and direct connectionto the information system. The current meteorologicalstation network (data from 31 December 2007) consistsof 41 main meteorological stations, 113 climatologicalstations (Figure 2), 333 precipitation stations, 23 sto - ra ge rain-gauge stations, and 63 automatic stations.

According to observation programmes, meteoro-logical stations are divided into: synoptic stations,upper-air stations (radio-sonde and pilot-balloon) sta-tions, climatological stations, aeronautical stations,agrometeorological stations, air quality measurementstations and special meteorological stations, which arefurther divided into: radar stations, solar radiationmeasurement stations, ozone quantity monitoring sta-tions, air radioactivity measurement stations and sta-tions for measuring atmospheric electricity and electricdischarge.

Besides these, the DHMZ administers the hydro-logical station network, marine meteorological stationsand sea temperature measurement stations.

In this Atlas, data from the main meteorological, cli-matological and precipitation stations have been used.

The main meteorological station programme of ac-tivities includes observations and measurements ofpresent and past weather, wind direction and speed,cloud amount, type of cloud, cloud base height, visibi -li ty, air temperature, air humidity, atmospheric pressure,pressure tendency amount and shape, minimal andmaximal temperature, precipitation amount, state ofsoil, snow cover, sunshine duration, minimum air tem-perature at 5 cm height, soil temperature at 2, 5, 10,20, 30, 50 and 100 cm. Observations are performedevery hour during working time of observers, depen -ding on the number of observers at the station. The ma-

Slika 2. Mrea glavnih meteorolokih i klimatolokih postaja dana 31. prosinca 2007.Figure 2. Main meteorological and climatological stations network on 31 December 2007.


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temperature tla na 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50 i 100 cm. Mo-trenja se obavljaju svaki sat za vrijeme deurstva kojaovise o broju motritelja na postaji. Na veini glavnih me-teorolokih postaja postavljene su i automatske me-teoroloke postaje, a na njima se obavljaju i razliitidrugi programi rada.

Obvezni program rada klimatolokih postaja jestcjelodnevno motrenje vremena u terminima motrenja u7, 14, 21 h po mjesnom vremenu smjera i jaine vjetra,naoblake, terminskih i ekstremnih temperatura zraka,vlanosti zraka, koliine oborine, visine ukupnog inovog snijega. Takva su motrenja temelj svih dugogo-dinjih postojeih klimatolokih nizova podataka, od1851.

Na kiomjernoj postaji obvezno se motri vrijeme ti-jekom dana, te koliina oborine i visina ukupnog sni-jega ujutro u 7h.

jority of main meteorological stations include automaticmeteorological stations connected to the DHMZ infor-mation system. Main meteorological stations performsome other observation programmes.

The ordinary (climatological) meteorological stationobligatory programme of activities consists of 24-hourobservations of weather phenomena, and observationsat climatological observation hours (7 am, 2 pm and 9pm, local time) of wind direction and force on the Beau-fort scale, total cloud amount and air temperature aswell as of extreme air temperatures, air humidity,amount of precipitation, height of total and new snow.Since 1851, such observations have been the basis forall existing climatological data series.

At precipitation stations, weather phenomena areobserved during the day while the amount of precipita-tion and the height of total snow is measured at 7 am.

All measurements: conventional measurements atthe main meteorological stations as well as remote au-tomatic, radar and satellite measurements are broughttogether by a common telecommunication and com-puter system.

Until the end of 1967, meteorological data were onlyavailable as written records in observation diaries,which included basic statistical analyses. These datawere also used to produce, on paper, multi-annual sur-veys of particular elements from different stations.Computer storing, controlling and processing was in-troduced in 1968. Data processing started at the Fe-deral Hydrometeorological Institute in Belgrade andwas carried out there for all the ex-Yugoslav republicsuntil 1980. At the very beginning, data were stored onpunch cards and when they were later transferred tomagnetic tape part of the data was lost.

Since January 1981, data processing and the stora -ge of climatological data from both main meteorologi caland climatological stations (observations at 7 am, 2 pmand 9 pm, local time) have been performed in Zagreb.By then, the DHMZ had prepared all the programmes

Sva mjerenja, konvencionalna na glavnim meteo-rolokim postajama, daljinska automatska, radarska isatelitska povezana su u jedinstveni telekomunikacij-ski i raunalni sustav.

Do kraja 1967. postojali su samo zapisi meteoro -lo kih podataka u dnevnicima motrenja koji su sadra-vali i osnovne statistike obrade. Na temelju toga radilisu se, takoer u papirnatom obliku, viegodinji pre-gledi pojedinih elementima po postajama. Od 1968.prelazi se na unos, kontrolu i obradu klimatolokih po-dataka raunalom. Raunalna obrada podataka poelaje i obavljala se u Beogradu za sve drave bive Jugo-slavije sve do 1980. U samim poecima raunalneobrade podaci su se pohranjivali na izbuene papirnatekartice. Pri promjeni naina pohranjivanja podataka, namagnetske trake, dolo je do gubitka dijela podatakapohranjenih na karticama.

Od sijenja 1981. raunalna obrada i pohranjivanjeklimatolokih podataka glavnih i klimatolokih postaja(motrenja tri puta dnevno u 7, 14 i 21 sat, lokalno vri-jeme) obavlja se u Zagrebu. Tad su u Zavodu naprav-ljeni svi potrebni programi za unos, razliite vrstekontrola i ispisa obraenih i kontroliranih podataka. Od1981. u digitalnom obliku nalaze se klimatoloki podacisvih postaja. Deset godina poslije, u sijenju 1991., po-inje unos i raunalna obrada podataka kiomjernih po-staja. Iste godine poinje unos i kontrola satnihvrijednosti razliitih meteorolokih elemenata.

Podaci iz razdoblja prije raunalne obrade i kon-trole, u obliku razliitih dnevnika i izvjetaja te zapisiautografa uvaju se u naem arhivu. Zbog nedostatkaprostora, arhivska graa nije pohranjena samo u Za-grebu ve i u Krievcima, Karlovcu i Gospiu. Ti podaciunose se i kontroliraju prema vlastitim potrebama ilizahtjevima i potrebama investitora i drugih korisnika.

Danas podaci s glavnih, automatskih i radioson-danih postaja pristiu u Zavod u realnom vremenu idigitalnom obliku. Podaci s klimatolokih i kiomjernihpostaja pristiu po zavretku svakog mjeseca u obliku

required for data input, different controls and the pri n -ting of processed and controlled data. Since then, allclimatological data from all stations have been digitallystored. Ten years later, in January 1991, entry and pro-cessing of data from precipitation stations was intro-duced. The same year saw the entry and control of thehourly values of different meteorological elements.

Data collected before the introduction of computerprocessing and control, such as diaries, reports andautographic records are kept in the DHMZ archives.Due to lack of space in Zagreb, part of the archival ma-terial has been stored also in Krievci, Karlovac andGospi. These records have been and are being en-tered in the computer system as necessary, for internalpurposes or when required by investors and otherusers.

Klimatoloka postaja na jadranskom puinskom otoku Pala-grui. The climatological station on the remote Adriatic island ofPalagrua. Fotografija Photo by: Davor Tomi

Glavna meteoroloka postaja Bjelovar.The main meteorological station Bjelovar.Fotografija Photo by: Zvonko ibrat

samo podaci postaje koja se kontrolira a sastoje se od: kontrole znakova (program provjerava da li su na

odreenim mjestima upisani dozvoljeni znakovi, te dajepopis gdje taj uvjet nije ispunjen);

kontrole potpunosti (program pronalazi praznineu slogu podataka i ukoliko one postoje ispisuje upozo-renja koja se zatim provjeravaju);

logike kontrola (provjerava logiki odnos izmeupodataka motrenih na jednoj postaji i daje popis porukakoje mogu biti provjere, uvjetni ispravci ili ispravci).

Drugu grupu kontrola ine kontrole gdje se koriste ipodaci drugih postaja, a sastoji se od:

prostorne kontrole 1 (usporeuje 16 parametaraza postaje koje su slinih klimatskih karakteristika, pro-nalazi sumnjive, a opravdanost prostornog odstupanjaprocjenjuje se subjektivnom metodom, uvaavajui kli-matske karakteristike postaja);

prostorne kontrole 2 (program na osnovu mjese-nih srednjaka ili suma 13 meteorolokih elemenata izemljopisnih koordinata i nadmorske visine, odreujeza svaku postaju 3 postaje s najslinijim vremenskimprilikama u mjesecu, te u odnosu na srednjake tihusporednih postaja rauna odstupanja i ispisuje postajes najveim odstupanjima);

grafike kontrole (grafikom usporedbom prona-laze se prostorna odstupanja u terminskim ili dnevnimvrijednostima, a podaci sumnjive postaje usporeujuse s podacima postaje s najslinijim klimatskim karak-teristikama, te sa srednjim vrijednostima dvije, tri ili e-tiri okolne postaje).

Istovrsne kontrole primjenjuju se na tekue podatkeali i na povijesne nizove podataka.

Provjereni i kontrolirani podaci pohranjuju se u bazupodataka i raspoloivi su za daljnju upotrebu. Do 1999.svi kontrolirani podaci pohranjivani su na MicroVAX-u, a od 1999. podaci su pohranjeni i na UNIX operativ-nom sustavu.


Nowadays, data from the main and radio-sonde sta-tions reach the DHMZ in real time and in digital form.Data from the climatological and precipitation stationsare delivered at the end of each month as diaries andreports and are controlled and manually entered intothe system. Main station data are usually of higherquality than those from the climatological and precipi-tation stations, one of the reasons being that the ob-servers at the main stations are educated and trainedmeteorological technicians while the staff at climato-logical and precipitation stations consists mainly oftrained-on-the-job, amateur observers.

All the data collected undergo different checks andcontrols before being entered into the computer. Datacollected at climatological observation hours (at themain and climatological stations) and precipitation datafrom the precipitation stations are important for thestudy of climate and, thus, a short survey must be givenof the control process.

These data are controlled monthly and stored an-nually, at the end of the year.

There are basically two sets of climatological datachecks. The first set is carried out on data collectedfrom the station being controlled and it includes:

character control (the programme checks whetherthe relevant characters have been inserted in the rightplaces and produces a list showing where this require-ment has not been met);

completeness control (the programme looks forgaps in the data record and, if any are found, it pro-duces warnings which lead to further checks);

logic control (the programme checks the logical re-lationship of data observed at a certain station and pro-duces a list of messages leading to checks, conditionalcorrections or corrections).

The next set of checks takes into consideration alsodata from other stations and it includes:

spatial control 1 (the programme compares 16 pa-rameters from stations with similar climatic characteri -

dnevnika i izvjetaja, te se kontroliraju i runo unose uraunalo. Podaci s glavnih meteorolokih postaja u pra-vilu su kvalitetniji od onih s klimatolokih i kiomjernihpostaja. Jedan od razloga svakako je i to to na glav -nim postajama rade kolovani ili dokolovani meteoro-loki tehniari, a na klimatolokim i kiomjernimpostajama priueno osoblje odnosno volonteri.

Svi prikupljeni meteoroloki podaci podvrgavaju serazliitim vrstama provjera i kontrola prije pohranjiva-nja u raunalo. Podaci iz klimatolokih termina (glavnihi klimatolokih postaja) i oborinski podaci s kiomjernihpostaja, vani su za prouavanje klime, pa se ukratkonavode naini njihove kontrole. Kontrola tih podatakaprovodi se na mjesenoj bazi, a po zavretku godine inakon svih kontrola pohranjuju se u bazu.

Kontrole klimatolokih podataka mogu se u grubopodijeliti u dvije grupe. U prvoj grupi kontrola koriste se

stics and detects suspicious parameters. Spatial devi-ation adequacy is evaluated subjectively, taking into ac-count the stations climatic characteristics);

spatial control 2 (for each station, taking themonthly means or the sum of 13 meteorological ele-ments and the geographic coordinates and altitude, theprogramme identifies three other stations with the mostsimilar weather conditions in a particular month and bycomparison with the means of these parallel stations itcalculates possible deviations and lists the stations withthe greatest deviations);

graphic control (by comparing graphics, spatial de-viations in term and daily values are detected and thedata of the suspicious station are compared with thedata of the station with the most similar climatic cha ra -

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Radiosondana postaja Zadar-ZemunikRadiosonde station Zadar-Zemunik.Fotografija Photo by: Anelko Vidovi

Motrilite na meteoroloko aerolokom opservatoriju Zagreb-Maksimir.The enclosure of the Zagreb-Maksimir meteorological andaerological observatory.Fotografija Photo by: Ivan Lukac


cteristics and the mean values of two, three or fourneighbouring stations).

The same controls are applied both to current dataand to historical data series. Checked and controlleddata are stored in the data-base, ready for further use.Until 1999, all controlled data were stored in MicroVAXand, since, they have been also stored in the UNIX op-erating system.

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Arhivska graa pohranjena pri glavnoj agrometeo rolokojpostaji Krievci. Archival material stored at the Krievci main agrometeo -rological station.Fotografija Photo by: Zdravko Koevi

Meteoroloko mjeseno izvjee postaje Hvar za oujak1858. iz arhive DHMZ-a.Monthly meteorological report, Hvar station, March 1858(DHMZ archives).Fotografija Photo by: Marko Vueti

Literatura References

Dherent C., Petit-Renaud G., 1994.: Using Archival Resources for Climate History Research, IHP-IV, UNESCO, Paris, 72 pp.

Katuin Z., 1994.: Meteorological Stations Network in Croatia and Wars; Hrvatski meteoroloki asopis, Vol. 29, Hrvatsko me-teoroloko drutvo, Zagreb, 4756

Katuin Z., 2005.: Hrvatski klimatski motriteljski sustav, Croatian Climate Observing System; DHMZ, Zagreb; MZOPU/UNDPGEF, Zagreb; 40 pp.

Kuera O., 1897.: Vrieme Crtice iz meteorologije, Naklada Matice Hrvatske, Zagreb, 351 pp.

Penzar, B., Penzar, I., 1978.: Razvoj mree meteorolokih stanica u Hrvatskoj u 19. stoljeu; RHMZ RH, Zagreb, 45 pp.

WMO, 2003: Manual on the Global Observing System, Volume I, Global aspects, WMO-No.544, Secretariat of the World Me-teorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 46 pp.

WMO, 2006.: Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation, Secretariat of the World Meteorological Orga-nization, WMO-8, Geneva, Switzerland, 570 pp.

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Temperatura zrakaAir temperature

Ksenija Zaninovi

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Temperatura zraka Air temperature

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Temperatura zraka jedan je od najvanijih klimat-skih elemenata i o njoj ovisi ivot prirode i brojne ljud-ske djelatnosti. Godinji hod temperature zraka utjeena vegetacijski ciklus, a o temperaturi zraka ovisi koli-ina energije potrebna za grijanje ili hlaenje unutar-njeg prostora, odabir materijala za gradnju, mogunostboravka i obavljanja radova na otvorenom, a u velikojmjeri utjee i na turizam.

Na temperaturu zraka prvenstveno djeluje podlogaod koje se zrak grije ili hladi kao i iaravanje toplinesamog zraka. Stoga su prostorno-vremenske karakte-ristike temperature zraka u Hrvatskoj, uz opu cirkula-ciju atmosfere i geografsku irinu, prvenstvenouvjetovane raspodjelom kopna i mora, zbog razlike uakumuliranju topline u njima, i nadmorskom visinom.Temperaturu zraka moe promijeniti zrano strujanjeukoliko na neko mjesto dovodi hladniji ili topliji zrak odonog to se tamo prije nalazio i u manjoj mjeri sastavtla i vegetacija.

Prema standardima Svjetske meteoroloke organi-zacije temperatura zraka se mjeri u termometrijskoj ku-ici na visini 2 m iznad tla, pri emu su vrata kuicepostavljena prema sjeveru. Temperatura zraka se mjeriu tri klimatoloka termina dnevno (7h, 14h i 21h), adnev ni srednjak rauna se ovako:

Temperatura zraka u pravilu se smanjuje s visinom,ali vertikalni gradijenti nisu u itavoj Hrvatskoj jednaki,a mijenjaju se i s vremenom (godinja doba, dijelovidana). Promjena srednje godinje temperature zraka svisinom najmanja je u kopnenom dijelu Hrvatske kojiobuhvaa itav nizinski dio te Liku i Gorski kotar i onaiznosi 0,5C/100 m. Visok planinski lanac Dinarida kojiodvaja kontinentalni dio od mora djeluje kao preprekai na taj nain smanjuje utjecaj mora na temperaturneprilike na kopnu. Zbog toga je i promjena temperaturezraka s visinom u Istri i dalmatinskom zaleu vea nego

Air temperature is one of the most important clima-tological elements that nature, life and numeroushuman activities depend on. The annual temperaturecycle affects the vegetation cycle, and air temperaturealso affects the amount of energy required for heatingor cooling, the selection of material and insulation ma-terial for construction, as well as the possibility of livingand working outside. To a large extent, it also affectstourism.

Air temperature is mostly influenced by the groundbase, which either warms or cools the air, as well as bymere warm-air radiation. This is the reason why, be-sides the general atmospheric circulation and geo-graphical latitude, the air temperature space and timefeatures in Croatia are mostly influenced by the distri-bution of sea and land, because of the difference inwarmth accumulation above them, as well as by theheight above sea-level. Air temperature can bechanged by air flow, if it brings to some place cooler orwarmer air than the one which was there before, and,to a smaller extent, by soil structure and vegetation.

According to the standards of the World Meteoro-logical Organization, air temperature is measured inthermometer shelters at a height of 2 m above ground,with the shelter door turned towards the north. Air tem-perature is measured daily, at three climatologicalterms (7 am, 2 pm and 9 pm), and the daily mean tem-perature is calculated as follows:

In general, air temperature decreases with altitude,but the air temperature vertical gradients are not thesame all over Croatia, and also differ over time (sea-sons, parts of the day). The change of air temperaturewith altitude is the least in the continental part of Croa-tia, which includes the whole lowland area, as well asLika and Gorski kotar, where it reaches 0.5C/100m.The high mountain range of the Dinarides separates

u kontinentalnom dijelu zemlje, ali manja nego uz obalui iznosi 0,6C/100 m. Linearno opadanje temperaturezraka s nadmorskom visinom najbre je u priobalnimzonama, gdje vertikalni gradijent iznosi 0,7C/100 m.

Srednja godinja temperatura zraka na podruju Hr-vatske kree se od 3C na najviim planinskim predje-lima do 17C uz samu obalu i na otocima srednje ijune Dalmacije zbog njihovog geografskog poloaja ineposrednog utjecaja mora.

Ravniarski dio kontinentalne Hrvatske ima blagerazlike u srednjoj godinjoj temperaturi zraka uz pre -vla davajuu temperaturu zraka od oko 11C. Vee sre-dnje godinje temperature zraka (12C) uoavaju sesamo u najistonijim predjelima Hrvatske kao poslje-dica najtoplijih ljeta u tom najkontinentalnijem dijelu Hr-vatske, te na podruju Zagreba zbog utjecajatoplinskog otoka grada. Nie temperature zraka, iz-meu 8C i 11C, javljaju se na veim nadmorskim vi-sinama zapadnoslavonskog gorja (Psunj, Papuk,Krndija, Poeka i Dilj gora). U sjeverozapadnoj Hrvat-skoj temperatura zraka takoer je nia uz obronke Bi-logore, Kalnikog gorja, Ivanice i Medvednice, naijim je vrhovima najnia temperatura zraka od 8C.Najnie srednje godinje temperature zraka od 6C po-javljuju se u tom dijelu Hrvatske na vrnom podrujuumberake gore.

Juno od Save srednje godinje temperature zrakakreu se izmeu 7C i 11C s najniim vrijednostimana vrhovima Zrinske i Petrove gore.

Zbog velike orografske razvedenosti podruja Likei Gorskog kotara, raspon srednjih godinjih tempera-tura zraka na tom je podruju najvei, pa se srednjagodinja temperatura zraka u Lici kree izmeu 5C i9C, a u Gorskom kotaru od 3C do 11C. Najnie go-dinje temperature zraka od 2C do 3C pojavljuju sena vrhovima Risnjaka, Bjelolasice i sjevernog Velebitana visinama iznad 1700 m. Na najvioj meteorolokojpostaji, na Zavianu (1594 m) srednja godinja tempe-ratura zraka iznosi 3,5C. Zbog ovisnosti temperature

the mainland from the coast, acting as a barrier and di-minishing the sea influence on the continent. This iswhy the air temperature gradient is greater in Istria andthe Dalmatian hinterland than in the continental part ofthe country, but still smaller than on the coast, its valuebeing 0.6C/100m. The linear decrease of air tempe -ra ture related to altitude is the fastest in the coastal re-gions, where the vertical gradient is 0.7C/100m.

The mean annual temperature in Croatia rangesfrom 3C in the highest mountain areas, to 17C alongthe coast and on the islands of the middle and south-ern Adriatic, due to geographical position and the influ-ence of the sea.

The lowland part of continental Croatia shows milddifferences in mean annual air temperature, the mostdominant temperature being about 11C. Higher meanannual air temperatures (12C) have been noticed onlyin the easternmost part of Croatia as a result of verywarm summers in this, the most continental, part ofCroatia, and in the Zagreb area, because of the urbanheat island. Lower air temperatures, 8C to 11C, occurat higher altitudes in the hills of western Slavonia(Psunj, Papuk, Krndija, Poeka gora, Dilj gora). Innorth-western Croatia, air temperature is also lower onthe slopes of Bilogora, Kalniko gorje, the Ivanicaand Medvednica mountains, whose tops have the low-est air temperature of 8C. The lowest mean annual airtemperatures of 6C in this part of Croatia occur in thepeak area of umberaka gora.

In the area south of the Sava River, the mean an-nual air temperatures range from 7 to 11C, with thelowest values on the tops of Zrinska gora and Petrovagora.

Due to the substantial orographic indentedness ofthe area of Lika and Gorski kotar, the span of mean an-nual air temperatures is the greatest there; the meanannual air temperature in Lika ranges from 5C to 9C,and in Gorski kotar from 3C to 11C. The lowest an-nual air temperatures, 2C to 3C, occur on the tops of



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o nadmorskoj visini i velikih promjena nadmorske vi-sine prostorna promjena temperature na tom je podru-ju vrlo velika. Zbog zagrijavajueg utjecaja moraosnovni temperaturni potencijal (temperatura zraka nanadmorskoj visini 0 m) na primorskoj je strani planin-skoga masiva znatno vii (14,8C) od onoga u zaleu(11,1C). Stoga je i prosjeni vertikalni gradijent tem-perature zraka s primorske strane vei (0,7C na 100m) od onoga u unutranjosti (0,5C na 100 m). Izo-terma 10C nalazi se s jugozapadne strane planinskogmasiva na nadmorskoj visini 600 do 700 m, dok je sasjeveroistone na prosjeno 200 do 300 m nad morem.Na likoj visoravni, ija je nadmorska visina izmeu 500i 600 m, prosjena godinja temperatura zraka kreese izmeu 8C i 9C.

Obala poluotoka Istre ima srednju godinju tempe-raturu zraka oko 13C, a njezine se vrijednosti sma-njuju prema unutranjosti. U Pazinskoj kotlini i dolini

Risnjak, Bjelolasica and northern Velebit, at altitudesabove 1700 m. At the highest meteorological station ofZavian (1594 m), the mean annual air temperature is3.5C. Due to temperature dependence on altitude anddue to the great changes in this altitude, the spatialtemperature change in this area is also very large. Thebasic temperature potential (i.e. air temperature at analtitude of 0 m) is much higher on the coastal side of themountain massif (14.8C) than in the hinterland(11.1C) because of the warming effect of the sea. Thisis why the vertical air temperature gradient is higher onthe coastal side (0.7C/100 m) than on the mainland(0.5C/100 m). An isotherm of 10C is situated at an al-titude of 600 m to 700 m above sea level on the south-western side of the mountain range, while it is, onaverage, at an altitude of 200 m to 300 m above sealevel on the north-eastern side. On the Lika plateau,which is at an altitude of 500 to 600 m, the mean an-nual air temperature spans between 8C and 9C.

The coast of the Istrian Peninsula has a mean an-nual air temperature of about 13C and its values de-crease towards the hinterland. In the Pazin basin andthe Raa valley, the mean annual air temperature isabout 11C. The lowest values of annual air tempera-ture in Istria are on the tops of Uka and iarija: theyare at about 8C.

The mean annual air temperature on the islands ofthe northern Adriatic varies from 13C to 15C, with theparts of Cres, Mali Loinj and Rab protruding into thesea and to the south being the warmest.

On the coast, the mean annual air temperatureranges between 14C and 15C, in the northern andmiddle Adriatic, to 17C in the area of the Krka Rivervalley to the south and on the islands of the middle andsouthern Adriatic.

In the Dalmatian, as well as in the Biokovo hinter-land, the sea influence is still high and, therefore, thebasic temperature potential is relatively high, at about15C. In the Sinj and Imotski regions, which are situ-

Rae srednja je godinja temperatura zraka oko 11C.Najnie vrijednosti godinje temperature zraka u Istrisu na vrhovima Uke i iarije i iznose oko 8C.

Otoci sjevernog primorja imaju srednju godinjutemperaturu zraka u rasponu 13C 15C pri emu sunajtopliji uz more i prema jugu najistureniji dijeloviCresa, Malog Loinja i Raba.

Na primorskom podruju Hrvatske srednja godinjatemperatura zraka kree se izmeu 14C i 15C na sje-vernom i srednjem Jadranu, a od doline Krke na jug tena otocima srednjeg i junog Jadrana do 17C.

U dalmatinskom zaleu kao i u zaleu Biokova utje-caj mora je jo uvijek velik pa je osnovni temperaturnipotencijal relativno visok i iznosi 15C. Na podrujuSinjske i Imotske krajine koje su na oko 400 m nadmorem srednja godinja temperatura zraka kree seizmeu 13C i 14C. Temperatura zraka smanjuje seprosjeno za 0,6C na 100 m i na vrhovima Mosora iSvilaje kree se izmeu 6C i 7C, na Biokovu oko4,5C, a najmanje vrijednosti ima na vrhovima Dinaregdje iznosi oko 3C.

Usporedba srednjih godinjih temperatura zraka zarazdoblje 19611990. s prijanjim razdobljem 19311960. koje je koriteno za izradu karata u Atlasu klimeSFR Jugoslavije a potom i u Atlasu klime SR Hrvatske,pokazuje da je na veini postaja novo razdoblje hlad-nije od prethodnoga (73,5% postaja), dok je na pod -jednakom broju postaja novo razdoblje toplije (14,7%),odnosno nije dolo do promjene temperature (11,8%).Posljedica je to toplog razdoblja 50-tih godina.

Klimatsko razdoblje 19712000. u itavoj je Hrvat-skoj toplije od razdoblja 19611990. sudei prema po-dacima za 20 postaja danih u tablicama u prilogu.Porast temperature u posljednjem klimatskom razdo-blju uoava se u svim godinjim dobima s izuzetkomjeseni. Razlike su najvee izmeu zimskih temperaturai vee su u kontinentalnom dijelu Hrvatske nego namoru.

Godinji hod temperature zraka ima oblik jedno-strukog vala s maksimumom ljeti, najee u srpnju,

ated at an altitude of 400 metres, the mean annual airtemperature ranges between 13C and 14C. Air tem-perature decreases by 0.6C/100 m on average and onthe Mosor and Svilaja tops it ranges between 6C and7C; on Biokovo it is at about 4.5C, and it has the lo w-est values on the Dinara tops, where it is at about 3C.

A comparison of the mean annual temperatures inthe period 1961-1990 with those in the period 19311960, used for the climate atlas of Yugoslavia andCroatia, shows that the latter period was cooler at moststations (73.5%), warmer at 14.7% of the stations,while 11.8% of the stations show no changes in tem-perature. It is the consequence of the warm period in1950s.

Throughout Croatia, the climate period 19712000was warmer than the 19611990 period according to20 stations (see the tables in the supplement). In themore recent period, a temperature increase is evidentin all seasons except autumn. The differences aregreatest in the winter temperatures and are alsogreater on the mainland than on the coast. However,all differences are smaller than standard deviation, andone can assume that the temperatures in the two peri-ods do not differ significantly.

The annual air temperature course has a shapeof a one-strand wave with a peak in summer, mostoften in July, more rarely in August, and with a mini-mum in winter, in January (graphs next to the mean an-nual air temperature map). The sea warms and coolsmore slowly than the land, and that is why its vicinity re-duces the difference in temperature. This is also whythe differences in temperature between the warmestand the coldest month are the highest in the lowland,continental part of Croatia (about 21 to 22C). In themountainous part of Lika and Gorski kotar and in theDalmatian hinterland they vary between 18C and 20Cand on the coast they are about 16C or 17C. Thewarming effect of the sea in winter manifests itself withgreat temperature differences between the continental

Termometrijska kuica na opservatoriju Zagreb-Gri. The Zagreb-Gri observatory thermometer shelter.Fotografija Photo by: eljko Lonar



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rjee u kolovozu, te minimumom zimi u sijenju (grafi-koni uz kartu srednje godinje temperature zraka).More se grije sporije i hladi sporije nego kopno, pa bli-zina mora ublaava temperaturne razlike. Stoga sutemperaturne razlike izmeu najtoplijeg i najhladnijegmjeseca najvee u nizinskom kontinentalnom dijelu Hr-vatske (oko 21C do 22C), u planinskom dijelu Like iGorskog kotara te u dalmatinskom zaleu kreu se iz-meu 18C i 20C, a na moru oko 16C ili 17C. Zagri-javajui utjecaj mora zimi oituje se u velikimtemperaturnim razlikama izmeu kontinentalnih i prio-balnih regija, koje se kreu oko 10C. Ljeti meutim oh-laujue djelovanje mora smanjuje razlike izmeukontinentalnih i priobalnih temperatura zraka, koje u sr-pnju preteno ne premauju 5C. Utjecaj mora oitujese i u razlikama izmeu proljetnih i jesenskih tempera-tura zraka. U predjelima koji su pod jaim utjecajemmora jesen je toplija od proljea, a s udaljavanjem odmora razlike izmeu jesenskih i proljetnih temperaturazraka sve su manje. U nizinskom dijelu proljee je do0,5C toplije od jeseni. U gorskom podruju jesen jepak oko 1C do 2C toplija od proljea, dok je u pri-morskom dijelu jesen preteno 2C do 3C toplija odproljea.

U dnevnom hodu temperature zraka maksimumnastupa izmeu 14h i 15h, a minimum neposrednoprije izlaska sunca to je u hladnom dijelu godine oko7h, a od travnja do kolovoza u 5h (grafikoni uz kartusrednje temperature zraka za travanj). Dnevni hod iz-raeniji je ljeti nego zimi, te izraeniji u unutranjostinego na primorju. Prosjene razlike izmeu najniih inajviih dnevnih vrijednosti temperature zraka kreu seu unutranjosti izmeu 4C u sijenju i 11C do 12C usrpnju ili kolovozu, a na moru od oko 2C ili 3C zimi i6C ili 7C ljeti.

Apsolutni minimumi temperature zraka u Hrvat-skoj zabiljeeni su u kontinentalnim dijelovima i kreuse izmeu -21,7C izmjerenih 1985. godine na Pargu i-28,9C koliko je zabiljeeno 1963. godine u Gospiu

and the coastal regions, which vary by about 10C. Insummer, though, the cooling effect of the sea dimini -shes the differences between the continental and thecoastal air temperatures, which do not rise above 5C.The influence of the sea manifests itself also in the dif-ferences between the spring and autumn air tempera-tures. In the regions under a stronger influence of thesea, autumn is warmer than spring, and the furtheraway from the sea, the more the differences betweenthe autumn and spring air temperatures decrease. Inthe lowland area, spring is warmer than autumn by0.5C. On the other hand, in the mountainous area, au-tumn is sometimes warmer than spring by about 1Cto 2C while on the coast autumn is mostly 2C to 3Cwarmer than spring.

In the air temperature daily course, the maximaltemperature occurs between 2 and 3 pm, and the mi -ni mum immediately before sunrise - at about 7 am inthe cold part of the year, and, from April to August, at 5am (graphs next to the mean air temperature map forApril). The daily run is more pronounced in summerthan in winter, and inland more than on the coast. In-land, the average differences between the lowest andthe highest daily air temperature values range between4C in January and 11C and 12C in July or August,and at the seaside from about 2C to 3C in winter to6C or 7C in summer.

Air temperature absolute minima in Croatia havebeen registered in the continental parts and they rangebetween -21.7C, in 1985, in Parg, to -28.9C, regis-tered in 1963, in Gospi (graphs next to the mean airtemperature map for January). The lowest air tempera -tures occur during the winter anticyclones, when, dueto temperature inversion, the valleys are colder thanthe surrounding mountains. This is evident from thecomparison of minimal air temperatures: -24.5C regi -stered on Zavian (1594 m) and -28.9C in neighbour-ing Gospi (564 m). Because of the warming effect ofthe sea in winter, the minimal air temperatures are 10C

(grafikoni uz kartu srednje temperature zraka za sije-anj). Najnie temperature zraka javljaju se za zimskihanticiklona, kada su zbog temperaturne inverzije dolinehladnije od okolnih planina, o emu svjedoe i mini-malne temperature zraka zabiljeene u Gospiu (564m) i na susjednom Zavianu (-24,5C). Zbog zagrija-vajueg utjecaja mora zimi, u primorju su minimalnetemperature zraka za 10C do 15C vie nego u unu-tranjosti i kreu se od -15C u Rovinju do -7C na ju-nom Jadranu i otocima. Minimalne temperature zrakaiz godine u godinu mnogo se vie mijenjaju u kontine-ntalnom dijelu nego na moru. Tako su se u ravniarskojunutranjosti minimalne temperature zraka kretale u ras-ponu od 15C do 20C, u planinskom dijelu od 10C do15C te od 7C do 12C na moru. Prema proraunuekstrema godinjih apsolutnih minimalnih temperaturazraka, izmjerenim apsolutnim minimumima na podru-ju Hrvatske u razdoblju 19611990. pripadaju povrat -ni periodi veinom izmeu 60 i 100 godina.

Izmjereni apsolutni maksimumi temperaturezraka kretali su se u Hrvatskoj izmeu 27,6C na Zavi-anu i 39,2C u Slavonskom Brodu. Maksimalne tem-perature mnogo se manje razlikuju izmeukontinentalnih i obalnih dijelova Hrvatske nego mini-malne, pa su u nizinskom dijelu Hrvatske maksimalnetemperature bile izmeu 37C i 39C, u Lici i Gorskomkotaru 33C do 37C, a 36C do 38C na moru. Pro-mjenjivost maksimalnih temperatura zraka iz godine ugodinu u kontinentalnom dijelu Hrvatske iznosi 6C do10C, a na obali 5C do 7C. Prema proraunu oeki-vanih godinjih maksimalnih temperatura zraka, po-vratni periodi zabiljeenih maksimalnih temperaturaiznose od 34 godine (Rovinj) do 180 godina (Hvar)(grafikoni uz kartu srednje temperature zraka za sr-panj).

U godinjem hodu percentila srednjih dnevnihtemperatura zraka razlike izmeu srednjih dnevnihtemperatura percentila 98 i 2 vee su zimi nego ljeti(grafikoni uz kartu srednje temperature zraka za listo-

to 15C higher than inland, ranging from -15C in Ro- vi nj to -7C on the southern Adriatic and on the islands.The minimal air temperatures change much more onthe mainland than on the coast. Accordingly, in the lowmainland, the range of minimal temperatures varies be-tween 15C and 20C, in the mountainous part from10C to 15C and on the coast from 7C to 12C. Ac-cording to the estimation of extremes, the measuredminima in Croatia in the period from 19611990 ap-pear, generally, once in 60 to 100 years.

Absolute air temperature maxima in Croatiarange between 27.6C on Zavian and 39.2C inSlavonski Brod. The differences between maximal tem-peratures in the continental and coastal regions ofCroatia are much smaller than between minimal tem-peratures, with maximal temperatures in the lowlandpart of Croatia between 37C and 39C, in Lika andGorski kotar from 33C to 37C, and from 36C to 38C

Zaleena termometrijska kuica na Zavianu.Frozen thermometer shelter on Zavian.Fotografija Photo by: Ante Vukui



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pad). Najvee su razlike na veini postaja u sijenju ismanjuju se idui od kopna prema moru. U unutra-njosti te razlike iznose oko 20C do 22C, a na moruod 13C do 16C. Na nekim postajama najvee su raz-like u oujku (Rijeka, Zavian i Split Marjan), vjerojat nos jedne strane zbog vrlo niskih temperatura povezanihsa situacijama s burom i s druge strane zbog porastatemperature poetkom proljea. Najmanje razlike iz-meu gornjeg (98) i donjeg (2) percentila obino se po-javljuju u srpnju, rjee u kolovozu i iznose 11C do13C u unutranjosti te 8C do 10C u primorskom di-jelu.

Minimalna temperatura zraka na visini 5 cmiznad tla vana je zbog procjene uvjeta pogodnih zastvaranje poledice i nepovoljnih posljedica u poljopri-vredi (grafikoni uz kartu broja hladnih dana). U prosjekuminimalne temperature na visini 5 cm nie su od 0Cod studenog ili prosinca do oujka, na veim nadmor-skim visinama do travnja (Zavian), a u dalmatinskomzaleu (Sinj) do veljae. Meutim, gledajui najnie mi-nimalne temperature uz tlo, one u nizinskom kontine-ntalnom dijelu mogu biti negativne od rujna do lipnja, uzaleu (Pazin i Sinj) do travnja, ali u Lici i Gorskom ko-taru izostaju samo u srpnju (Gospi), dok se na veimnadmorskim visinama mogu pojaviti tijekom itave go-dine. Na veini postaja zimi (od prosinca do veljae)ima vie od 20 dana s temperaturama uz tlo niim od0C, dok su od svibnja do rujna takvi dani vrlo rijetki.Meutim, pojava takvih dana u vegetacijskom razdo-blju, pa makar i rijetka, nanosi tete u poljoprivredi, na-pose u voarstvu, vinogradarstvu, povrarstvu icvjearstvu.

Ledeni (tmin -10C) i studeni dani (tmaks < 0C)javljaju se iskljuivo u kontinentalnom dijelu Hrvatske ito uglavnom samo u zimskim mjesecima (od prosincado veljae) kada ih uglavnom ima manje od 5 (ledenih)odnosno 10 (studenih) na mjesec (grafikoni uz kartubroja toplih dana). Hladni dani, s minimalnim tempe-raturama zraka niima od 0C, u unutranjosti se jav-

on the coast. The fluctuation of maximal air tempera-tures from year to year is 6C to 10C on the mainlandand from 5C to 7C on the coast. According to the es-timation of expected annual temperature maxima, thereturn periods of registered maximal temperaturesrange from 34 years (Rovinj) to 180 years (Hvar)(graphs next to the mean air temperature map for July).

In the annual percentile course of mean daily airtemperatures, the differences between the mean dailytemperatures of percentiles 98 and 2 are greater in win-ter than in summer (graphs next to the mean air tem-perature map for October). At the majority of stations,the greatest differences occur in January and they de-crease when going from the mainland to the sea

klimatski atlas hrvatske

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