Last edited February 5, 2015

For submission to the Journal of Geophysical Research – Planets

Modeling the Thermal and Physical Evolution of Mount Sharp’s Sedimentary

Rocks, Gale Crater, Mars: Implications for Diagenetic Minerals on the MSL

Curiosity Rover Traverse

Caue S. Borlina1,2, and Bethany L. Ehlmann2,3 and Edwin S. Kite4

1 Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic and Space Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann

Arbor, Michigan, USA

2 Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology,

Pasadena, California, USA

3 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California,

USA

4 Department of Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

Corresponding author: caue@umich.edu; 2215 Space Research Building, 2455

Hayward St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109

Keywords: burial diagenesis, sedimentation, erosion, heat flow, Gale Crater, Mars

Science Laboratory (MSL)

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Abstract

Gale Crater, landing site of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), contains a central

mound with 5 km of sedimentary stratigraphy (Aeolis Mons/Mt. Sharp). Understanding

mound sedimentation, erosion, and diagenesis can constrain past geologic processes and

the mound’s organic preservation potential. Scenarios for mound formation include: (1)

complete filling of Gale followed by partial removal of sediments; (2) building of a

central deposit with morphology controlled by slope winds and only incomplete

sedimentary fill. Here we model sediment temperature-time paths for both scenarios,

compare results with past MSL analyses, and provide scenario-dependent predictions of

diagenesis along MSL’s future traverse. Modeled erosion and deposition rates are 5-42

μm/yr, consistent with previously-published estimates. Evidence of diagenesis is

expected, though spatial patterns and mineralogical predictions depend on Mars surface

paleotemperature and sedimentation scenario. For (1), temperatures experienced by

sediments should decrease monotonically over the traverse and up Mt. Sharp

stratigraphy, whereas for (2) maximum temperatures are reached in the lower units of Mt.

Sharp and thereafter decline or hold roughly constant. If early Mars surface temperatures

were similar to modern Mars (mean: -50°C), only select locations under select scenarios

permit diagenetic fluids (T>0°C). In contrast, if early Mars surface temperatures averaged

0°C, diagenesis is predicted in most locations with maximum temperatures up to 150°C.

Comparing our predictions with future MSL results on diagenetic textures, secondary

mineral assemblages, and the age and spatial variability of authigenic phases could

constrain both mound formation processes and the physical context for liquid water on

early Mars.

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1. Introduction

The study of sedimentation processes at specific regions on Mars constrains the relative

timing of aqueous mineral formation and defines the ancient geologic history of the red

planet. Such analysis can reveal important information about past habitability, presence

of water at or near the surface of the planet, and potential for the long-term preservation

of organic materials. Gale crater (137.4oE, -4.6oN), the landing site of the NASA Mars

Science Laboratory (MSL) mission, has a unique sedimentary stratigraphy, which permits

examining ancient Martian environmental conditions and aqueous alteration. Recent

studies have shown that Gale once hosted a fluvial-lacustrine environment, capable of

supporting life [Grotzinger et al., 2014]. The stratigraphic rock record of the area, and

thus its geologic history, is preserved in a 5-km high mound called Aeolis Mons

(informally, Mt. Sharp) located in Gale crater [Grotzinger et al., 2012] (Figure 1a).

Materials comprising Mt. Sharp are light toned, have a low thermal inertia, and have

subhorizontal layers, which taken together implicates a sedimentary origin [Pelkey et al.,

2004; Anderson & Bell, 2010; Thomson et al., 2011]. More recent work has suggested

that at least some of the lower-lying units are cross-bedded sandstones formed by

cementation and lithification of sand dunes [Milliken et al., 2014]. The lower mound

includes distinctive sedimentary beds with hydrated sulfates, iron oxides and Fe/Mg

smectite clay minerals [Millken et al., 2010; Fraeman et al., 2014]. Boxwork structures

~1 km above the current floor suggest precipitation of minerals during fluid flow within

the sediments [Siebach and Grotzinger, 2014]. Spectral signatures associated with the

upper mound do not permit unique identification of secondary mineral phases.

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Many hypotheses have been developed to explain Mt Sharp formation, variously

invoking airfall dust or volcanic ash, lag deposits from ice/snow, aeolian and

fluviolacustrine sedimentation [for review, see Anderson & Bell, 2010; Wray, 2013;

LeDeit et al., 2013]. Nevertheless, regardless of the process(es) delivering sediments, two

endmember scenarios describe the time-evolution, i.e., growth and subsequent erosion, of

Mt. Sharp. In Scenario 1, Gale Crater was completely filled with layered sediments then

partially exhumed, leaving a central mound [Malin and Edgett, 2000] (Figure 1b). In

Scenario 2, an aeolian process characterized by slope winds created a wind-topography

feedback enabling growth of a high mound without complete fill of the crater [Kite et al.,

2013] (Figure 1c).

The history of Mt. Sharp’s sedimentation and mineralization provides key constraints on

environmental conditions on early Mars, including the availability of liquid water and the

nature of geochemical environments. Understanding sediment deposition and possible

diagenesis is also crucial to establishing the preservation potential through time for

organic carbon of biological or abiotic origin trapped in sedimentary rock strata. The

thermal history of sediments and their exposure to fluids exerts strong control on the

persistence of organic compounds in the sedimentary record [e.g., Harvey et al., 1995;

Lehmann et al., 2002]. Initial studies of the diagenesis of Martian sediments pointed out

the apparent ubiquity of “juvenile” sediments with smectite clays and amorphous silica

and a paucity of evidence for illite, chlorite, quartz and other typical products of

diagenesis, which are common in the terrestrial rock record. Thus, a conclusion was that

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diagenetic processes on Mars were uncommon, perhaps limited by water availability

[Tosca & Knoll, 2009]. Since then, a growing number of studies have identified clay

minerals such as illite, chlorite, and mixed layer clays that can form from via diagenesis

[Ehlmann et al., 2009, 2011a, 2011b; Milliken & Bish, 2010; Carter et al., 2013]. So far,

minerals identified in Mt. Sharp from orbit do not include these phases. However, in situ

rover data at Yellowknife Bay imply diagenetic reactions to form mineralized veins,

nodules, and filled fractures within the mudstones [Stack et al., 2014; Siebach et al.,

2014; Nachon et al., 2014], including exchange of interlayer cations in smectite clays or

incipient chloritization [Vaniman et al., 2014; Rampe et al., 2014; Bristow et al., 2014].

Here we model the potential diagenetic history of the sediments comprising Mt. Sharp

and accessible in rock units along Curiosity’s traverse. We couple the two sedimentation

scenarios [Malin and Edgett, 2000; Kite et al., 2013] with a thermal model for ancient

Martian heat flow and timescales for Mt. Sharp sedimentary deposition and erosion

constrained by crater counts. We model temperature variations experienced within the

region between Yellowknife Bay, the base of Mt. Sharp, and the lower unit/upper unit

Mt. Sharp unconformity, and we compare them with select temperature thresholds

relevant for diagenesis, e.g., the stability of liquid water (0oC). We also analyze the time-

temperature integral, an alternative method for establishing the likelihood and extent of

mineral diagenesis as described by Tosca and Knoll [2009]. The final results are

compared to findings obtained by MSL to date. Potential mineralogical findings across

MSL’s traverse are discussed and correlated with implications for sedimentation

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processes on Mars, timescales, early Mars temperatures, liquid water availability, and the

organic preservation potential of Gale sediments.

2. Methodology

In this section we describe how we defined the pristine Gale basement profile and the

final Mt. Sharp profile, the two different endmember sedimentation scenarios and

variations in parameters used during the modeling, timescales and timing of

sedimentation assumed, the derivation of the thermal model for surface heat flow, and the

topographic profile of the rover traverse that defines the studied region.

2.1 Pristine Gale Basement & Modern Topography

In order to evaluate how Gale Crater changed we needed to first determine the ancient

(starting point) and modern (ending point) topographies of the crater. Gale crater has

been both eroded and filled relative to its original topographic profile. Consequently, we

used empirical fits to Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter observations of complex craters on

Mars to set the initial conditions for Gale's crater shape, i.e. its initial topographic profile.

Observed crater depth-diameter relationships for less-modified complex craters on Mars

predict a range of initial crater depths for Gale crater (D ~154 km) that range from 4.2 km

to 5.4 km [Garvin et al., 2003; Boyce and Garbeil, 2007; Robbins and Hynek, 2007].

Kalynn et al. [2013] empirically have shown Martian central peak heights of ~1 km for

~100 km craters. Our examination of craters on Mars, better preserved than Gale, with

diameters ranging from 131 km to 155 km (at 16ºW, 43ºS; 36ºW, 36ºS; 45ºE, 42ºN)

yielded lower bounds on central peak height ranging from 1.0-2.1 km that did not scale in

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a straightforward way with diameter; some may have been influenced by later crater fill.

Hence, we set the initial shape of Gale Crater to be 154 km in diameter and 5 km deep

with a central peak height of 1.55 km. In order to have realistic central peak slopes,

heights, and wall slopes, we scaled the average topographic profile from 138-km Moreux

crater (45E, 42N) to fit Gale's parameters for depth and diameter.

Modern Gale crater has a highly asymmetric central mound, its cross-sectional profile

varying with azimuth. The average Gale profile shown (Figure 2) was compiled from

multiple roughly NW-SE cross-sections of present-day crater topography and then

averaged after removing local geologic features. The average Gale profile is used for

estimation of an average overburden over the Curiosity rover traverse. Scenarios 2a and

2b were tuned to produce final mounds of width approximately equivalent to the width of

the average profile.

2.2 Mt. Sharp Sedimentation Scenarios

We develop two geological scenarios for the time evolution of Mt. Sharp filling/removal:

(1) complete filling of the crater followed by partial removal leaving a central mound,

[Malin and Edgett, 2000]; and (2) slope-wind inhibition of complete filling, with mound

growth only near the center of the crater and inhibition of sediment accumulation near the

sides of the crater by crater-wall slope winds [Kite et al., 2013].

2.2.1 Scenario 1

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Scenario 1 is characterized by a complete fill of the crater to the peak of Mt. Sharp,

followed by partial erosion, leaving the modern shape of Mt. Sharp as final output. We

use an average Gale profile as the final shape (see section 2.1). This scenario is strongly

dependent on timescales defined in section 2.3. Sedimentation and erosion rates are

computed linearly based on the defined time period for erosion/sedimentation processes

and necessary burial/erosion height, i.e., deposition rate is computed as distance from

pristine basement to the top of the crater, divided by deposition time. Erosion rate

computed as distance from top of the crater (completely filled crater) to the average

modern profile, divided by erosion time.

2.2.2 Scenario 2

Scenario 2 is an aeolian process where the mound grew close to the center of the crater

with the surrounding topography creating an environment for the presence of strong

mound-flank slope winds capable of eroding the mound. We use Kite et al.’s [2013]

landscape evolution model. In this model a series of approximations are used to

determine the balance between the deposition D (set at the beginning of each simulation

and then held constant during each simulation) and the erosion E (time varying). The

result is the computation of dz/dt (elevation variation over time) for every time step. The

following set of equations define the scenario

dzdt

=D−E , (1)

E=k Uα , (2)

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U ( x )=U0+max [∫x±∞ ∂ z '

∂ x 'exp(−|x−x '|

L )dx ' ] , (3)

where k is an erodibility factor; α is a parameter corresponding to aeolian erosion

processes such as sand transport, soil erosion, and saltation-induced abrasion; U is a

dimensionless expression related to the magnitude of the shear velocity; U0 is the

component of background bed shear velocity; z’ is the height; x is the location within the

crater (0 < x < 154 km, the crater diameter); x’ is the distance half-way between the

values of x starting at x = 1.5 km and ending at x = 153.5 km; and L is a correlation length

scale [Kite et al., 2013]. At t = 0, the basement is represented by a mesh with spacing dx’

of unit value.

U and z’ both vary (and coevolve) with time. Eq. (3) is evaluated for each time step

considering winds to the left and right for x of 0 to 154 km within Gale crater; for a given

value of x, we compute the integral for left slopes (values less than x) and right slopes

(values greater than x and less than 154 km). The operator max[ ] selects the slope with

the highest value, which then permits evaluation of Eq. (2) at each time step. Eq. (1) is

also evaluated in each timestep, using E from Eq. (2) and a value for D determined from

the user-set parameter D’ (D=D’E0, where E0 is the average initial erosion rate calculated

at the start of the simulation, using the initial topography).

We experimented with multiple choices of parameter combinations and choose to work

with two different sets of parameters that yield topographic profiles most similar to Gale.

Parameters used by Kite et al. [2013] and this study are given in Table 1. We name the

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two different scenarios as 2a and 2b. Scenario 2a is defined with a constant deposition

rate, set in the first time step of the model as in the Kite et al., [2013] implementation.

The mound grows tall with a relatively constant width over time. Scenario 2b has a

linearly decreasing deposition rate over time, and the mound grows wide then steepens

and narrows. Both scenarios converge on a similar final output though the amount of

sediment overburden as a function of time depends on the intermediate steps. Because the

absolute timescales depend on the erodibility parameter, k, which is poorly constrained,

we implement timescales in the final output of the model by scaling the output to our

specified durations after iterations converged.

2.3 Timescales

Crater counts on the ejecta blanket of Gale crater constrain its formation age to Late

Noachian/Early Hesperian, approximately 3.8 to 3.6 Ga, and place an upper limit on the

period of infilling Mt. Sharp sediments [Thomson et al., 2011; Le Deit et al., 2013].

Similarly, an upper limit to the age and extent of lower Mt. Sharp can be obtained using

the superposition relationship of the topographically lower but stratigraphically higher

deposits of Aeolis Palus, which have estimated ages ranging from early Hesperian to

early Amazonian [Thomson et al., 2011; Le Deit et al., 2012; Grant et al., 2012], i.e.,

from ~3.2 to ~3.5 Ga. Thus, most of the formation and erosion of Mt. Sharp to its present

extent took place during the Hesperian, though processes continued to shape the form of

the mound during the Amazonian.

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While surface ages based on crater counts and superposition relationships are useful for

relative age dating, pinning in absolute time is challenged by the existence of different

chronology models relating the density of craters with time [e.g., Werner & Tanaka,

2011]. Yet, numerical ages constraining the start and end of major episodes of Mt. Sharp

erosion and deposition are required to tie burial history to models of the secular cooling

of Mars (section 2.4). Consequently, we examine three different temporal scenarios for

the fill and exhumation of Mt. Sharp: (1) a standard model, (2) a maximum diagenesis

model, and (3) a minimum diagenesis model. For (1), Mt. Sharp formation begins at 3.7

Ga, reaches 5 km in height, and is then exhumed to reach approximately its present extent

by 3.3 Ga. For (2), Gale crater and Mt. Sharp form early, 3.85 Gyr, and Mt. Sharp is

exhumed late, 3.0 Gyr, thus providing a maximum for heat flow and duration of burial.

For (3), Mt. Sharp forms late (3.6 Gyr) and is quickly exhumed by 3.4 Gyr.

2.4 Thermal Model

The thermal model used here defines temperature as a function of depth and time. We

construct it by using the one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction solution that

describes the temperature T as a function of the depth, z, and time, t, as

T ( z , t )=T0+q (t )

kz− ρH ( t )

2 kz2 , (1)

where T0 is mean surface temperature, q(t) is the heat flow as a function of time, k is the

thermal conductivity, ρ is the density and H(t) the heat production as a function of time.

We define ρ = 2500 kg/m3, k = 2 W/(m ⁰C), values typical for average sedimentary rocks

on Earth [Beardsmore and Cull, 2001].

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The mean surface temperature for early Mars is still an unknown. Here we adopt two

possibilities: T0 = 0oC and T0 = -50oC in order to analyze how different values of T0 can

impact the results. The first presumes a warmer early Mars where temperatures routinely

exceed the melting point of water during large portions of the Martian year; the latter

represents the modern-day average equatorial temperature. Finally, q(t) and H(t) were

estimated by curve-fitting to geophysical models for the evolution of heat flow

[Parmentier and Zuber, 2007] and crustal heat production, respectively, through time

[Hahn et al., 2011; their Figure 2]. Results for q(t) and H(t) are shown in Figures 3a and

3b. Parmentier and Zuber [2007] estimated values for q to be ~60 mW/m2 at 3.5 Gyr for a

variety of cooling scenarios and 20 mW/m2 at present; measurements of modern heat

flow will soon be obtained by the InSight mission. These values are similar to those

independently predicted by Morschhauser et al. [2011]. Figure 3c shows derived

temperatures as a function of depth for the two different mean surface temperatures and

several time periods.

Gale may have had additional heating from sources such as residual heat following the

Gale-forming impact or local volcanic sources, but we do not include these in our

modeling. Were additional sources of heat present, heat flow would be higher and

temperatures higher.

2.5 Yellowknife Bay to Mt. Sharp: MSL’s Traverse

After landing, MSL headed toward Yellowknife Bay, a local topographic low with light-

toned sedimentary units. The rocks at Yellowknife Bay preserve evidence for a fluvio-

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lacustrine environment [Grotzinger et al., 2014] and several minerals related to aqueous

alteration, including Mg smectites and hydrated calcium sulfates, were identified

[Vaniman et al., 2014]. Subsequently, the rover has traversed to reach units at the base of

Mt. Sharp, near a location called Pahrump, and will traverse Murray Buttes, the Bagnold

Dune Field, and continue climbing through stratigraphic units in Mt. Sharp (Figure 4).

Given sections 2.1-2.4 above, we model the sedimentary and thermal history along the

Curiosity traverse, obtained between Yellowknife Bay, the Murray Buttes entrance to Mt.

Sharp, and predicted future locations of MSL Curiosity while climbing Mt. Sharp. Figure

4 shows Bradbury Landing, Yellowknife Bay, Pahrump, and a potential future path for

MSL. We picked the final destination for modeling to be the unconformity marking the

boundary between upper and lower Mt Sharp. In order to relate model results to rover

observations, we compute the ratio between the distance of the closest rim to Yellowknife

Bay and the distance of the rim to the foothill of Mt. Sharp. This is necessary because

different models output mounds of different widths, and proper location of the rover

relative to the mound is crucial for computation of overburden. The ratio computed here

is ~0.93. Therefore, for the final output of our models, Yellowknife Bay’s location

corresponds to 0.93 of the distance between the base of the rim and the foothill of the

output mound. Yellowknife Bay and Hidden Valley (~ Curiosity’s location on Sol 722)

have similar elevations and rim distances. The unconformity is set to correspond to the x

location that is ~1000 m higher than Yellowknife/Hidden Valley in the final model

output (Figures 4, 5). Results for the thermal history are subsequently presented as a

range of values between Yellowknife Bay and the unconformity in Mt. Sharp. This range

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represents MSL’s likely future path. While approximate, this approach is sufficient to

capture the main differences in expected thermal histories for points along MSL’s

traverse.

2.6 Key diagenetic thresholds

After deposition, subsequent fluid circulation through sediments can lead to textural

changes as well as alteration of existing minerals and formation of new minerals.

Phyllosilicates, sulfates, iron oxides, and silica phases may form and/or undergo

mineralogic transitions, depending upon the availability and chemistry of diagenetic

fluids, temperature, and the duration of reaction. It is beyond the scope of this work to

track all diagenetic transitions [for review, see Mackenzie, 2005]. However, one class of

phyllosilicates, smectite clays, forms during the reaction of water with silicates and has

been detected from orbit in Mt. Sharp units [Milliken et al., 2010] as well as found in situ

by the Curiosity rover at multiple traverse locations [Vaniman et al., 2014]. Smectites

should be a key tracer of diagnetic history because at elevated temperatures they are no

longer the favored phase and instead convert to other phyllosilicate phases like illite or

chlorite that lack interlayer water [e.g. Velde, 1985].

We track multiple thresholds relevant for determining whether smectite would be

expected to have converted to another phase. A single temperature threshold (0ºC)

provides a useful parameterization of water availability for alteration, although aqueous

fluids may be available at lower temperatures due to freezing point depression from

dissolved salts. It was originally thought that the conversion of smectite to illite or

chlorite began at ~40⁰C or ~90⁰C, respectively, proceeding via mixed layered clay

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formation to illite and chlorite, although subsequent work has shown the kinetics and

thermodynamics are more complex and strongly influenced by fluid chemistry and time

[Velde, 1985; Meunier, 2005]. Hence, we also compute a time-temperature integral with

thresholds for the smectite-illite conversion chosen using the terrestrial clay mineral rock

record, which indicate boundaries for the expected occurrence of mixed layer clays and

non-expanding clays like illite and chlorite [Tosca & Knoll, 2009]. Collectively,

computed temperature and temperature-time integrals will serve as useful inputs to

geochemical models.

3. Results

In this section we provide results for modeled erosion/deposition rates, followed by

temperature results for different scenarios and locations. We conclude by presenting the

time-temperature integrals for the different models.

3.1 Topographic Evolution and Erosion/Deposition Rates

Figures 5a and 5d show the evolution of topography and overburden values for scenario

1, complete fill and exhumation, under the standard timing model. Maximum diagenesis

and minimum diagenesis models have the same overall evolution, albeit with

temperatures achieved at different points in time. Figure 5 also shows topography and

overburden for Scenarios 2a (Figure 5b and 5e) and 2b (figure 5c and 5f). In Figure 5, a

solid line represents Yellowknife Bay while a dashed line represents the unconformity

described in section 2.5.

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If complete crater filling and exhumation to present-day topography is assumed (Scenario

1), with the time period assumed to be equally split into an interval of net erosion

followed by interval of net deposition, the average rates of erosion and deposition are 6-

27 µm/yr and 8-42 µm/yr, respectively, varying with location. For Scenario 2a average

erosion rates fall between 5-21 µm/yr, while average deposition rates range from 5-22

µm/yr. For Scenario 2b average erosion rates are within 7-29 µm/yr while deposition

rates range from 8-35 µm/yr. Table 2 summarizes the obtained results.

3.2 Temperature

The results obtained in this section are based on coupling the topographic evolution of

Mt. Sharp with the thermal model for Mars’ changing geothermal gradient. Figure 6

shows the temperature variation with time for two locations (Yellowknife Bay and the

unconformity of Mt. Sharp), considering three different timing scenarios and three

different sedimentary models. Figures 6a, 6b and 6c show results for the different timing

scenarios considering a cold early Mars (-50oC), while Figures 6d, 6e and 6f show results

for the same timing scenarios but for a warm early Mars (0oC).

Because we calculate steady-state thermal profiles, which is reasonable for the relatively

slow erosion and deposition rates summarized in Table 2, duration does not affect the

peak temperatures achieved nor the overall range of temperatures experienced by the

sediments. It does, however, significantly affect the time-temperature integral, which

determines the expected degree of diagenesis [e.g., Tosca & Knoll 2009]. Our summary

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of results below assumes ice or groundwaters might be present, an assumption with

implications discussed further in section 4.2.

3.2.1 Cold Early Mars

For a cold early Mars, scenario 1 predicts a history in which subsurface liquid water and

smectite-to-illite conversion would occur within Mt. Sharp sediments everywhere along

the traverse from Yellowknife Bay to the Mt. Sharp unconformity. Maximum

temperatures reached are ~100ºC and ~70ºC at Yellowknife Bay and the Mt. Sharp

unconformity, respectively (Figure 6a, 6b and 6c). Scenario 2a does not generate

conditions above 0ºC for the sediments that are currently exposed along MSL’s traverse;

there would be no alteration or diagenesis in situ unless driven by salty brines. Scenario

2a implies that swelling clays (if formed by another process and already part of the

sedimentary deposit) should be the dominant clay from Yellowknife Bay and Mt. Sharp.

Scenario 2b predicts liquid water at Mt. Sharp that could facilitate diagenetic transitions,

though temperatures above 40ºC are not reached. Under Scenario 2b, at Yellowknife Bay

the 0ºC threshold is not reached, and only freezing point-depressed brines are permitted

by the temperature model output.

Using the time-temperature integral as a metric of diagenesis (Figure 7a, 7b and 7c),

Scenario 1 predicts the complete transformation of smectite to illite for Mt. Sharp

sediments at Yellowknife Bay elevation for the standard and maximum diagenesis

models and at the Mt. Sharp unconformity only in the maximum diagenesis model. In all

other Scenario 1 cases, transformation of smectite to illite occurs, but is partial. Scenario

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2b implies partial smectite to illite conversion at Mt. Sharp, but not at Yellowknife Bay.

Scenario 2a predicts that no conversion process occurs.

3.2.2 Warm Early Mars

For warm early Mars, liquid water that might cause alteration and diagenesis would be

available everywhere between Yellowknife Bay and Mt. Sharp under all scenarios

(Figures 6d, 6e and 6f). Maximum temperatures greater than 100ºC occur at both

Yellowknife Bay and Mt Sharp in scenario 1. In both Scenarios 2a and 2b, temperatures

above 40ºC are reached at the Mt. Sharp unconformity, while at Yellowknife Bay, that

temperature is only reached in Scenario 2b.

Using the time-temperature integral, conversion of smectite to illite is predicted for all

scenarios and locations in the warm Mars case except for possibly Scenario 2a at

Yellowknife Bay, where the predicted transformation is slight. Plots are shown in Figures

7d, 7e and 7f.

4. Discussion

In this section we start by discussing predicted erosion and deposition rates. We then

proceed to describe the current knowledge regarding the presence of clays throughout

MSL’s path, and predictions for what the rover might encounter under each scenario.

4.1 Martian Deposition and Erosion Rates

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Our deposition-rate estimates (section 3.1, Table 2) fall near or within the range of 10-

100 µm/yr estimated for Martian sedimentary deposition [Lewis & Aharonson, 2014].

The calculated average ranges are within or moderately exceed estimated erosion rates of

Noachian and Hesperian terrains, 0.7-10 µm/yr, but are at the lower end of erosion rates

from Earth, 2-100 µm/yr [Golombek et al., 2006]. Having erosion and deposition rates

falling within a reasonable range derived from the literature confirms the plausibility of

our assumptions and the models described in this work.

In Scenario 1, erosion and deposition are equally scaled to add and then remove the

necessary materials over the specified time period. By contrast, in Scenario 2, a discrete

erosion rate is computed in every time step iteration. The Kite et al. [2013] model

computes deposition rate using a constant value based on the initial time step that does

not change during the simulation, regardless of Mt Sharp form. For scenario 2a, this

assumption is used; however, with our choice of crater wall height, 5 km instead of 10

km in Kite et al. [2013], this leads to a thin central mound that does not first grow wide

then narrow with erosion like that proposed by Kite et al. [2013] to fit observations of the

dip of Mt. Sharp beds. For scenario 2b, we decrease the deposition rate linearly with

time. This yielded results similar to what we see at Gale, e.g. a mound height and shape

that matches modern topography and that also steepens with time and retreats back from

the wall toward the center, a sequence originally proposed in Kite et al. [2013].

Alternatively, a step function could be used here; this might correspond to volcanic

interference while the aeolian process happens inside the crater. Step functions produce a

final form similar to the constant deposition case (Scenario 2b).

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4.2 Mineralogical Implications from Ground Measurements and Modeling

4.2.1 Yellowknife Bay

Vaniman et al. [2014] identified trioctahedral smectites at Yellowknife Bay in the

samples John Klein and Cumberland. No illites were positively recognized. Interestingly,

XRD patterns indicate that the smectite interlayers in John Klein are collapsed, while

those in Cumberland are held open, perhaps by metal-hydroxides [Bristow et al., in

press]. This suggests an additional episode(s) of fluid interaction with the smectite clays

after formation. This is consistent with the overall history of the Yellowknife Bay

sedimentary rock which shows raised ridges, nodules, and calcium sulfate veins inferred

to result from post-depositional processes [Grotzinger et al., 2014; Siebach et al., 2014;

Stack et al., 2014].

Given amounts of diagenesis predicted but the observed lack of smectite conversion to

other phases, our models for the temperatures experienced by the Yellowknife Bay

sediments suggest that either (1) Yellowknife Bay was either never buried by >~1.5 km

of fill and mean Hesperian Mars surface temperatures were substantially below zero or

(2) water was unavailable during most of Yellowknife Bay’s burial (Figure 7). Any

scenario where Yellowknife Bay is buried under 5 km of fill (Scenario 1) for long enough

for temperatures to approach steady state (~300 kyr) leads to conversion of smectite to

mixed layer clays to illite if water is available. The conversion is predicted to be complete

in all except the minimum diagenesis, cold early Mars case. Scenarios where the crater is

partially filled (Scenarios 2a, 2b) do not predict any smectite to mixed layer clay to illite

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conversion if average mean surface temperatures were substantially below 0ºC because,

even with burial to 1.5 km, subsurface temperatures of the package of sedimentary rocks

comprising the exposed outcrop do not exceed 0ºC (Figures, 5 6). In a warmer early

Mars, where Tsurf ≥ 0ºC, partial to complete conversion of smectite to illite would be

expected at Yellowknife Bay, even with burial on only a few hundred meters, so long as

water is available.

Thus, if the deposition of the Yellowknife Bay sediments pre-dates Mt. Sharp formation,

a cold early Mars and slope wind model with relatively little burial is implicated.

However, the stratigraphic relationships between Yellowknife Bay sediments and other

units are not entirely certain, and the deposit might instead represent a late-stage unit

from Peace Vallis alluvial activity emplaced atop materials left behind during Mt.

Sharp’s retreat [Grotzinger et al., 2014]. Continued analysis of orbital and in situ data to

understand contact relationships is crucial. Moreover, these data highlight the importance

of analysis of the mineralogy of Mt. Sharp sediments where the stratigraphic

relationships are clear to determine the environmental history of Gale crater deposits.

Deposits inferred to be part of Mt. Sharp at similar elevations to Yellowknife Bay exist at

Pahrump Hills, location of the rover at the time of this writing.

Models show peak paleotemperatures experienced by rocks along the MSL traverse were

~90⁰C under the slope wind model (Scenario 2) and ~145⁰C for the complete fill model

(Scenario 1), assuming a warm Mars surface temperature. Estimates are reduced by

~50⁰C for a cold Mars more like that today. With these relatively low temperatures,

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phases like prehnite, found in some locations on Mars [Ehlmann et al., 2009; 2011;

Carter et al., 2013] are not predicted, and there are specific predictions for the

composition of any relatively low-temperature chlorite that might be present [e.g. its

aluminum content, Bourdelle et al., 2013].

A possible caveat to the analyses of temperatures above is substantial advection of heat

by groundwater. If the sediments of Mt. Sharp had a sufficiently high permeability during

the Hesperian to allow large-scale groundwater flow, the geothermal gradient would be

lowered by more efficient transport of heat. Temperatures experienced by a given packet

of sediments would be lower than modeled here if the waters flowing through them were

mainly surface-sourced, e.g. from snowmelt or surface bodies of water. However, if

waters flowing through a given packet of sediments were upwelling from greater depths,

temperatures could be higher than modeled. Similarly, the heat from the Gale impact

may have resulted in a locally enhanced geothermal gradient for up to a few hundred

thousand years, which could have raised the temperatures of all our scenarios, depending

on timing of Mt. Sharp construction vs. crater formation. Future work might examine the

effects of fluid flow on diagenesis and of feedbacks between secondary-mineral

precipitation, dissolution, groundwater chemistry, and maintenance of permeability to

support fluid transport [e.g., Giles 1997] and couple such diagenesis models to impact

cratering models [e.g., Abramov & Kring, 2005].

4.2.2. Implications for Diagenesis along the Traverse and Lower Mt. Sharp

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As Curiosity continues its trek toward Mt Sharp, continued collection of mineralogic and

textural data will test whether paleotemperatures were higher or lower in Mt. Sharp

compared to Yellowknife Bay and whether the smectite to illite conversion took place.

Figure 8 provides maximum temperatures experienced by sedimentary rocks at locations

between Yellowknife Bay and Mt. Sharp, considering different depositional scenarios

and different time scales. Importantly, even if absolute temperatures are affected by the

factors discussed above, Scenario 1 has a maximum paleotemperature that decreases

monotonically from Yellowknife Bay to Mt. Sharp. Scenario 2a has an increasing

maximum temperature along MSL’s traverse, and scenario 2b has a peak maximum

temperature near a current outcrop elevation of -4.1 km km in the MOLA elevation,

between the base of Mt. Sharp and the Mt. Sharp unconformity and near the hematite

ridge. These distinctive patterns provide crucial, testable constraints for the history of

sedimentary deposition. If Gale crater was completely filled then exhumed, diagenesis

should decrease with distance up Mt. Sharp, whereas incomplete fill under slope wind

model scenarios presented in this paper would show increased diagenesis toward the

central part of the mound (provided that water was present). If temperature can also be

discerned from diagenetic mineral assemblages determined by Curiosity, these constrain

Hesperian surface temperatures, and thus paleoclimate, at Gale crater.

5. Conclusions

Understanding the conditions that led to sediment deposition, erosion, and secondary

mineral formation in Gale crater advances our understanding of the evolution of

environmental conditions on ancient Mars. We developed a sedimentation-thermal model

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that traces temperature as a function of time for two different scenarios: 1) complete fill

of Gale crater followed by partial erosion and 2) partial fill dictated by slope winds as

described by Kite et al. [2013]. Determining maximum temperatures of sediments and

computation of time-temperature integrals provides a set of distinctive predictions for the

extent of diagenesis, testable with MSL data. Our models have erosion and deposition

rates consistent with previously published Martian deposition and erosion estimates. We

find that during Mt. Sharp formation and erosion, the smectite to illite conversion should

have occurred at all levels in lower Mt. Sharp if Gale crater had been completely filled

with sediments and groundwaters were present. Moreover, either Yellowknife Bay was

never buried by >1.5km of overburden, or there was insufficient water available for

diagenesis when it was buried, due to either aridity or Hesperian mean annual surface

temperatures well below zero. Complete fill of Gale crater means the rover should

observe decreasing diagenesis as it climbs Mt. Sharp, whereas a slope wind model [Kite

et al., 2013] would predict increasing diagenesis as the rover climbs lower Mt. Sharp.

Characterization of diagenetic mineral assemblages observed by Curiosity as well as their

spatial pattern along the rover traverse thus may collectively reveal the

paleoenvironmental and sedimentary histories of Gale crater’s Mt. Sharp.

Acknowledgements

The data for this paper are available at NASA’s PDS Geoscience Node. This work was

partially funded by an MSL Participating Scientist grant to B.L.E. The Caltech Summer

Undergraduate Research Fellowship program provided programmatic support to C.B.

E.S.K. acknowledges support from a Princeton University Harry Hess fellowship.

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Tables

Parameters Kite et al. (2013) Scenario 2a Scenario 2bα 3 3 3

D’ 5Linear variation from D’0 = 2.47

to D’ = 00.4

k(erodibility

factor)0.005 0.01 0.01

U0 0 0 0R/L 2.49 2.49 2.4

Table 1. Parameters employed by Kite et al. (2013, their Figure 2b) compared to the ones used here.

Timing Scenario

Deposition start (Ga)

Erosion End (Ga)

Calc. Avg. Net Erosion/Deposition

Rate (µm/yr)

Erosion/Deposition Rates (µm/yr)

Scen. 1 Scen. 2a Scen. 2b(1) Standard

model 3.7 3.3 13.5 / 16.9 8 / 42 11/11 15/17

(2) Maximum diagenesis 3.85 3.0 6.4 / 7.9 6 / 8 5/5 7/8

(3) Minimum diagenesis 3.6 3.4 27.0 / 33.7 27 / 34 21/22 29/35

Table 2. Scenarios for the timing of Mt. Sharp formation and consequent inferred rates of erosion/deposition under different sedimentation scenarios. While the erosion/deposition rates are calculated based on the final output of the models, the average net erosion is calculated iteratively at each time step.

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Figure Captions

Figure 1. (A) Overview of 154-km diameter Gale crater (137.4oE, -4.6oN). The star

indicates MSL’s Bradbury landing site. Aeolis Mons (Mt. Sharp) is located on center of

the figure. Two scenarios for Mt. Sharp’s formation are analyzed in this paper: (B)

complete fill of the crater to the rim, followed by partial exhumation; (C) the Kite et al.,

[2013] model of wind slopes creating feedback with the sides of the crater, enabling

mound formation in the center with only incomplete fill.

Figure 2. Ancient Gale profile (solid black line) is compared with the modern (dashed

gray line) and average (solid gray line) Gale profiles. The ancient Gale profile represents

the initial state of the model for every scenario. We model multiple scenarios for how the

ancient Gale profile evolved into the modern Gale profile.

Figure 3. (a) Secular evolution of surface heat flow and (b) crustal heat production

functions used in modeling and derived from Parmentier & Zuber [2007] and Hahn et al.

[2011] as described in the text. (c) Depth to temperature relationship for two different

mean surface temperatures (0oC and -50oC) as well as four time periods. The modeled

modern Mars profile is 10ºC/km and the modeled Hesperian profile is 28ºC/km.

Figure 4. Bradbury Landing, Yellowknife Bay (YKB), Hidden Valley and a potential

future MSL location (an unconformity at Mt. Sharp) are identified in the figure. The

change in elevation from Yellowknife Bay to the unconformity is ≳1000 m. Yellowknife

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Bay and Hidden Valley are at similar radial distances from Mt. Sharp’s summit, whereas

the unconformity is considerably closer.

Figure 5. Topography versus time and overburden versus time for: scenario 1 (Figures 5a

and 5d); scenario 2a (Figures 5b and 5e); and scenario 2b (Figures 5c and 5f). Black line

shows initial topography and the colors proceed successively from blue (early stage

evolution) stage to red (present-day topography).

Figure 6. Temperature as a function of timing scenarios for scenarios 1, 2a and 2b

considering an early mean surface temperature of either -50oC or 0oC. Solid lines

represent location at Yellowknife Bay; dashed lines represent location at the Mt. Sharp

unconformity.

Figure 7. Time-temperature integral as a function of timing scenarios for sedimentary

models 1, 2a and 2b considering an early mean surface temperature of -50oC and 0oC.

Solid lines represent location at Yellowknife Bay; dashed lines represent location at Mt.

Sharp.

Figure 8. Maximum paleo-temperatures experienced by sediments that currently crop out

along MSL’s traverse, considering different sedimentary scenarios and timescales for

cold and warm early Mars.

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