kinesiology ch 12 motor learning.ppt - weebly...•using quality equipment conditions for skill...

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CHAPTER 12Motor Learning in Practice: Skill Acquisition

Kinesiology Books Publisher 1

Conditions for Skill Acquisition

• Starting at a Young Age• Providing Sufficient Learning Time• Being Taught by Qualified Instructors• Following the Right Progression• Using Quality Equipment

Stages of Learning a Skill

• Cognitive Stage• Associative Stage• Autonomous Stage

Feedback for Skill Learning

• Intrinsic Feedback• Extrinsic Feedback• Motivational Properties of Feedback• Minimizing Feedback Dependency• Feedback Questions and Answers

Transfer in Motor Learning

• Types of Transfer• Transfer Strategies

Designing Effective Practice

• Blocked Versus Random Practice• Massed Versus Distributed Practice

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Changes that occur as skill is learned and developed:

• Swifter and more fluid execution

• Less attention demand


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• Starting at a Young Age

• Providing Sufficient Learning Time

• Being Taught by Qualified Instructors

• Following the Right Progression

• Using Quality Equipment

CONDITIONS FOR SKILL ACQUISITION



• Before becoming skilled, a basic movement repertoire consisting of certain fundamental skills is needed

• Several factors affect becoming skilled (i.e., movement intelligence)

• Learning fundamental skills (throwing, catching, climbing), as early as preschool

• Allows a child to incorporate into a repertoire of motor skills

• Movement patterns still being established -important to teach skills correctly the first time to avoid bad habits

STARTING AT YOUNG AGE


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• To improve motor skill development, sufficient time must be allotted to participating in activities that enhance movement skills

• Without physical experience, skills cannot be learned effectively or maintained

PROVIDING SUFFICIENT LEARNING TIME


• Instructors, physical educators, and coaches

• Must be properly trained

• Must have experience with teaching physical activity

BEING TAUGHT BY QUALIFIED INSTRUCTORS


• Has direct influence on the movement skills acquisition

• Organized action and the sequence of drills ensure that skills are easier to grasp

• Then effectively transferred to more complex tasks

FOLLOWING THE RIGHT PROGRESSION


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• Scaled down for children to their size

• Safe, appropriate, and well-maintained

• Makes learning effective for students

USING QUALITY EQUIPMENT


• Cognitive Stage

• Associative Stage

• Autonomous Stage

STAGES OF LEARNING A SKILL



Understand Practice Apply

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When?What? How?

• Begins when the task is first introduced

• Goal • Determine the general shape of the skill and its goals

• What, when, and how?

• Getting a feel

• To help convey skill’s general idea• Instruction,

• Demonstrations

• Films

• Videos

• Vivid descriptions

COGNITIVE STAGE


• Self-talk • Demands concentration

• Does not allow other information to be processed

• Provides verbal reminders as attempting the skill

• Offers security

• Gives a rough idea of what the skill is all about

• Facilitates rapid learning and improvement

• Performance • Slow, jerky

• Highly variable

• Even awkward

• Serves as a good foundation on which to build

COGNITIVE STAGE


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• Practice stage• Movements more automatic and controlled

• Goal• Most stimuli related to the skill now defined

• Performing and refining the skill

• By organizing more appropriate movement patterns

• Variability of performance decreases• Anticipation and consistency improve

ASSOCIATIVE STAGE


• Confidence increases

• Performance improves quite rapidly

• Self-talk diminishes

• Learner able to detect some of their own errors

• Lasts longer than the cognitive stage

ASSOCIATIVE STAGE


• Application stage

• Movements almost automatic and very proficient

• Attention demands dramatically reduced• Focus on other aspects like creativity and strategy

• Ability to analyze environmental stimuli enhanced • Relevant cues quickly detected with increased accuracy

AUTONOMOUS STAGE


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• Expert performance• Result of a great deal of practice and

dedication

• Performance improvements slow• Already reached high level of proficiency

• Less obvious performance gains • Reduction in anxiety and mental effort

• Improvement in techniques

AUTONOMOUS STAGE


• Intrinsic Feedback

• Extrinsic Feedback

• Motivational Properties of Feedback

• Minimizing Feedback Dependency

• Feedback Questions and Answers

FEEDBACK FOR SKILL LEARNING



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• Information that is provided as a natural consequence of performing an action

• Example: throwing a dart

• Feel arm extend

• See dart fly

• Hear dart make contact

INTRINSIC FEEDBACK


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• Success (or failure) of performance provides intrinsic feedback

• Examples: • Watching the tennis ball land in the opponent’s court• Covering an excellent distance in a 12-minute walk/run test

KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS


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• Involves senses for obtaining more or less direct information

• Examples:• Finger sensations felt when playing piano• Pull in shoulders when pulling on the oar

• Particularly in the associative stage

KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE


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• Muscle Sense • Muscles gather information about movement • Stimuli are the result of muscles and tendons pressure and tension• Special receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints supply information about

each joint ‘s position

• Other sensory organ receptors • Touch, balance, sight



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Development of Muscle Sense

• First learning stage• Muscles send contradictory information • Awareness of muscle signals not developed

• Second learning stage requires extensive practice

• Gradually, after a lot of practice relying more



• Information provided to learner by external source at outcome

• Suggestions used to correct and refine the skill

• Can be controlled to a great extent,• Must adapt to particular situation

• Accommodating to differences among the learners

EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK


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• Information concerning the degree of success of a performance

• Ineffective when outcomes obvious • Redundant with intrinsic feedback

• More important when outcomes less obvious• Activities involving judging

KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS


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• Feedback is given by teacher / coach concerning the correctness of a movement

• Example• “Make eye contact with the ball before a hit”

• Gives something to consider and improve on



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• Learning is unlikely to occur until proper motivation

• Appropriate feedback = motivation

• A skilled instructor is able to reinforce correct actions, and guide the learner to improved performance as errors are held to a minimum

• Movements that are learned early on have the greatest impression on students, so appropriate feedback must be given first time around

MOTIVATIONAL PROPERTIES OF FEEDBACK



• Too frequent can lead to dependency

• Skills are executed well when feedback is present but suffer when performed independently

• Occasional feedback tends to enhance learning

• Various strategies can minimize feedback dependency

MINIMIZING FEEDBACK DEPENDENCY


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• Providing feedback at very high frequencies early on

• Then gradually reduced as skills begin to develop

• Allows to assess the needs of each individual learner and tailor

FADED FEEDBACK


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• Feedback delivered only when errors fall outside some defined range of correctness

• Ranges across various levels of performance

• Advantages• Eventually produces faded feedback• Positive reinforcement when no feedback occurs• Blocks tendency to correct every movement develops consistency

BANDWIDTH FEEDBACK


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• Feedback provided after a certain number of trials

• Blocks tendency to correct every movement consistency

• Avoids overloading information processing capacity

SUMMARY FEEDBACK


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Let us summarize some of the most important principles of effective feedback by answering several key questions:

FEEDBACK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS


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• Required throughout, vital early on (cognitive and associative stages)

• After experience gained, apply faded, bandwidth or summary feedback before withdrawing altogether

WHEN IS LEARNING PROCESS NEEDED?


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• Ability to process information can be overloaded when learning new skills

• Intense but selective instruction during the early stages

• Balanced feedback!

HOW MUCH FEEDBACK IS NECESSARY?


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HOW PRECISE SHOULD FEEDBACK BE?


• Precise and specific information generates better results; prescriptive feedback

• During the early stages of learning, more appropriate to provide more general descriptive feedback

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WHAT IS THE BEST TIMING FOR FEEDBACK?


• Short-term memory is susceptible to loss of information

• Immediate instruction is more beneficial to the development of skills than the provision of information feedback at the end of a lesson

• Types of Transfer

• Transfer Strategies

TRANSFER IN MOTOR LEARNING


• Learning that can occur on a criterion task (present goal of learning) as a result of practising some other task (previous learning experiences)

TRANSFERS IN MOTOR LEARNING


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• Transfer of learning generally increases as similarity between tasks increases

• Some important differences may prove significant

• Distinguishing among types of

TYPES OF TRANSFER


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• When dissonance between learned and new skill results in negative transfer to the new skill

• Example• Tennis forehand may make it more challenging to learn squash forehand

(different wrist action)

• Essential to avoid activities that may transfer negatively when performance is critical

NEGATIVE TRANSFER


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• Fundamental movement skills in practice applied to game situations

• Drills will only be effective if the transfer from the drill to the actual game is strong or positive

POSITIVE TRANSFER


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Near Transfer • Desired when the learning goal is a task similar to training task• Example: volleyball• Transfer of learning is fairly specific and closely approximates the

ultimate situation

POSITIVE TRANSFER


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Far Transfer• Learning more general capabilities for a wider variety of skills• From one task to another very different task or setting• Goal of practice is general• Best applied when beginning to learn a skill

POSITIVE TRANSFER


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• Based on positive transfer

• Include use of simulators, slow-motion practice, drills and training devices

TRANSFER STRATEGIES


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• Overall goal of simulation is the expected positive transfer of learning

• Effectiveness depends upon ability to simulate not only the motor elements but also perceptual, conceptual (tactical), and biomotor(strength, speed, endurance) elements

TRAINING MACHINES AND SIMULATORS


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PART VS. WHOLE PRACTICE


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• To integrate units into fluid performance

• More effective• Serial skills • Tasks long in duration• Components are independent

• Segmentation (or progressive part practice)• Forward chaining: 1st part practised to some criterion level before next• Backward chaining: Last part is learned first

PART PRACTICE


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• Most appropriate for • Actions that are rapid• Components will most likely interact intensely

• Practising parts separately may change skill’s character

• Begin using as soon as skill is performed with some degree of success

• Simplification• Variation that reduces skill’s difficulty or complexity within a particular environment• Altering speed• Lighter ball

WHOLE PRACTICE


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• For developing movement patterns, speed, balance, and visual skills to transfer to target sporting activity

• Basketball: starting and stopping, turning, evading and faking, and skipping and jumping

• Soccer: passing, shooting, dribbling, and faking drills

• Football: stepping through tires, speed ladders

LEAD-UP ACTIVITIES AND DRILLS


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• Involves constructing model situations and going through the motions

• Useful supplement in developing timing and rhythm and in aiding concentration and preparation for competition

• Staying on top of skills between physical practice trials

MENTAL REHEARSAL



• Blocked Versus Random Practice

• Massed Versus Distributed Practice

DESIGNING EFFECTIVE PRACTICE


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Blocked practice

• Task is practised on many consecutive trials before setting about to the next task

• Allows to concentrate on one task at a time until well learned

• Enables to correct and refine one skill at a time

BLOCKED VS. RANDOM PRACTICE


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Random practice

• Ordering of tasks is randomized

• Tasks from different classes are mixed

• Important for open skills where environment is dynamic

BLOCKED VS. RANDOM PRACTICE


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Massed practice

• Amount of rest between practice trials is short relative to the trial length

• Example

• 5 seconds of rest for a practice trial lasting 60 seconds.

• Lay-up drills in basketball

MASSED VS. DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE


Distributed practice

• Allows more rest between trials

• Rest period may last as long as the trial reducing the amount of rest between trials will also reduce the amount of

• Need time for the body and central nervous system have to recover from physical and mental

MASSED VS. DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE


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• For short discrete tasks, reducing the rest has no effect on learning or performance and may even provide a slight benefit

• Continuous skills, by contrast, has a negative impact• Fatigue

• Consider energy requirements

SKILL CHARACTERISTICS AND SCHEDULING


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• Acquiring basic movement skills is achieved most effectively under certain conditions

• There are three stages of learning skills: cognitive, associative, and autonomous

• Numerous factors affect motor learning and performance, such as the conditions of practice, the feedback provided, and learning capacity

• Designing effective practice is also critical for developing skills and improving performance

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER


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