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    THEORIES OFLEARNING

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    Psychologists identified three principlesthat underlie three different kinds of

    learning:CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, OPERANTCONDITIONING, AND COGNITIVELEARNING

    Three Kinds of Learning

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    CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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    CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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    At first Pavlov considered this sort of ananticipatory salivation to be a bothersomeproblem. Later, he reasoned that the dogssalivation at the sight of food was also a

    reflex, but one that the dog had somehowlearned.

    CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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    CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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    In a well-known experiment, Pavlov rang abell before putting food in the dogs mouth.After a number of trials of hearing a bell pairedwith food, the dog salivated at the sound of

    the bell alone, a phenomenon that Pavlovcalled a conditioned reflex and today is calledCLASSICAL CONDITIONING.

    CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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    Classical conditioning was an importantdiscovery because it allowed researchers tostudy learning in an observable or objective

    way. Classical conditioning is a kind of learning in

    which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability toproduce a response that was originally

    produced by a different stimulus. Behaviorist believe there were human

    applications in those experiments.

    CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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    B. Procedure: Classical

    Conditioning

    How is Salivation Classically Conditioned? Your subject is a dog named Russ, who will learn to salivate to a

    tone in the following three-step procedure.

    Step 1. Selecting Stimulus and Response Neutral Stimulus. You need to choose a neutral stimulus.

    Your neutral stimulus will be a tone (represented by a bell),which the dog hears but which does not normally produce thereflex of salivation.

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    B. Procedure: Classical

    Conditioning

    Unconditioned Stimulus. You need to choose anunconditioned stimulus or UCS.

    Your unconditioned stimulus will be a food, which will

    elicit the reflex of salivation.

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    B. Procedure: Classical

    Conditioning

    Unconditioned Response. Finally you need toselect and measure an unconditioned response orUCS.

    For example, salivation is an unconditionedresponse that is elicited by food, the unconditionedstimulus; eye blink is an unconditioned responsethat is elicited by an air puff to the eye.

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    B. Procedure: Classical

    Conditioning

    Step 2. Establishing Classical Conditioning Neutral Stimulus. In a typical trial (the

    presentation of both stimuli), the neutralstimulus, the tone, is paired with the

    unconditioned stimulus, the food. Generally, theneutral stimulus (tone) occurs first, followedshortly after by the unconditioned stimulus(food).

    Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). Some seconds(but less than a minute) after the tone begins, youpresent the unconditioned stimulus, a piece offood, which elicits salivation. This procedure is theone most frequently used in classical

    conditioning.

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    Unconditioned Response (UCR). Theunconditioned stimulus, food, elicits theunconditioned response, salivation. Food and

    salivation are said to be unconditioned because theyhave an effect that is inborn and not dependent onprior training.

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    B. Procedure: Classical

    Conditioning

    Step 3. Testing for Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus. At the presentation of the

    tone alone, Russ shows salivation. This indicatesthat the tone, originally stimulus, has now become a

    conditioned stimulus (CS). Conditioned Response. Russ salivation to the tone

    alone is called the conditioned response (CR).

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    B. Procedure: Classical

    Conditioning

    Because the conditioned response (salivation) isusually similar in appearance but smaller in amountor magnitude than the unconditioned response,Russ will salivate less (CR) to the tone (CS) than tofood (UCS).

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    B. Procedure: Classical Conditioning

    Why Does Reading Zoo WorldMake

    Carla Anxious?Step 1. Identifying the Stimuli and the Response

    Neutral Stimulus: a copy of a Zoo Worldwhich Carla held tightlywhile experiencing pain in the dentists chair. Zoo Worldhas twocharacteristics that make it a neutral stimulus; it affected Carla (sheheld it); and it did not initially produce feelings of anxiety. In fact ,

    initially Carla greatly enjoyed reading Zoo World.

    The Unconditioned Stimulus: one or more dental procedures,including injections, drillings, and fillings. The unconditionedstimulus or UCS, which is a dental procedure, elicited the

    unconditioned response or UCR, which was pain and anxiety. The Unconditioned Response: feeling of anxiety, which is a

    combination of physiological reflexes, such as increased heart rateand blood pressure and rapid breathing, as well as emotionalreactions. The unconditioned response or UCR was elicited by the

    unconditioned stimulus or UCS.

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    B. Procedure: Classical Conditioning

    Step 2. Establishing Classical Conditioning

    One procedure for establishing classical conditioning is to present the

    neutral stimulus and quickly follow it with unconditioned stimulus.Each presentation of the two stimuli is called trial.

    In Carlas case, theneutral stimulus was

    holding a copy ofZoo World as sheexperienced painfuldental procedures.

    After many trips tothe dentist, Carla

    repeatedlyexperienced theneutral stimulus,which was holdingZoo Wolrd, andoccurrence of the

    unconditionedstimulus, whichinvolved a variety ofpainful dentalprocedures.

    The painful dentalprocedures elicited

    the unconditionedresponse, whichincluded feelings ofanxiety as well asother physiologicalresponses, such as

    increases in heartrate, blood pressure,and breathing.

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    B. Procedure: Classical Conditioning

    Step 3.Testing for a Conditioning

    A test for classical conditioning is to be observe whether the neutral

    stimulus, when presented alone, elicits the conditioned response.

    When Carla sat in thedentists waiting roomand held a copy of ZooWorld, she felt anxious.Zoo World, formerly aneutral stimulus, hadbecome a conditionedstimulus, which elicitedanxiety, the conditioned

    response.

    The conditionedresponse, feeling anxious,was elicited by holdingZoo World, theconditioned stimulus. Theconditioned response issimilar to, but of lesserintensity than, theunconditioned response.

    Thus, the anxiety elicitedby Zoo World was similarto, but not as great as,the anxiety Carla feltduring the painful dental

    procedures.

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    Because of classical conditioning, about 50% ofyoung children report being very fearful ofdental procedures and approximately 6 % ofadults develop an intense fear or phobia of

    dental procedures (Johnson et.al., 1990;Milgrom et.al., 1994).

    Just as classical conditioning elicit fears andphobias, it can also be used to treat them.

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    C. Other Conditioning Concept

    Four Concepts (Carlas Case) Generalization - is the tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the

    original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to theconditioned response. Usually, the more similar the new stimulus is to theoriginal conditioned stimulus, the larger will be the conditioned response.

    Discrimination occurs during classical conditioning when an organism

    learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others.

    Extinction - refers to a procedure in which a conditioned stimulus isrepeatedly presented with out the unconditioned stimulus and, as a result,the conditioned stimulus tends to no longer elicit the conditionedresponse.

    Spontaneous Recovery- recovery is the tendency for the conditionedresponse to reappear after being extinguished even though there havebeen no further conditioning trials.

    D Ad ti V l

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    D. Adaptive ValueWhats the Use of Classical Conditioning?

    Taste-Aversion Learning

    * In areas where rats are a problem, it is very difficult to exterminate themwith bait poison. Thats because some rats eat enough poison to die but others

    eat only enough to become sick and then learn to avoid that particular poison

    taste in the future. Exterminators must continually change the smell and taste

    of bait used to lure animals into traps.

    * Survival values (warns us from poisons that cause illness or death; from

    overeating and becoming sick; warning to predators; etc.) Salivation and Digestion

    Salivation lubricates our mouths and throats to make chewing andswallowing easier. This means that classically conditionedsalivation is a help to the digestive process.

    Emotions, Fears, and Phobias In a conditioned emotional response, we feel some positive or

    negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, whenexperiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a painful orpleasant event.

    l ti

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    E. Two ExplanationsWhat is Learned?

    Three Theories stimulus substitution, contiguity theory, andinformation theory that offer different explanation of what welearn.

    Th f L i

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    Theory of LearningA. Operant Conditioning (Thorndike and Skinner)

    It is also called instrumental conditioning, is a kind of learning in

    which the consequences that follow some behavior increase ordecrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future.

    In operant conditioning we act, or operate, on the environment inorder to change the likelihood of the response occurring again.

    Example:

    The Bear (movie): The Bear Bart, learned to perform 45behaviors on cue, such as sitting, running, standing up, roaring,and most difficult of all, cradling a teddy bear, which is not whatan adult bear does in real world.

    Training Procedure: each time Bart performed a behavior

    on cue, the trainer, Doug Seus, gave Bart an affectionateback scratch, an ear rub, or a juicy apple or pear. Forexample the trainer raised his arms high in the air, it wasthe signal for Bart to sit and hold the teddy bear. Aftercorrectly performing this behavior, Doug would give Bart

    his reward.

    Th f L i

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    Theory of LearningA. Operant Conditioning

    In operant conditioning we act, or operate, on the environment inorder to change the likelihood of the response occurring again. Forexample, Bart acted or operated on his environment by picking upthe teddy

    Th f L i

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    Theory of Learning

    E.L. Thorndikes Law of Effect: The Law of Effect states that behaviors followed by positive

    consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed bynegative consequences are weakened.

    He built a series of puzzle boxes from which a cat could escape bylearning t o make a specific response, such as pulling a string or pressinga lever. Outside the puzzle box was a reward for escaping a piece of

    fish. Thorndike place a cat in the puzzle box and record its escape time.After Thorndike graphs the data, there is a gradual improvement: on thefirst trial the cat needed over 240 seconds to hit the escape latch but bythe 21st trial the cat hits the escape latch in about 60 seconds.

    To explain that, with repeated trials, the cat spends more time around

    the latch, which increases the chances of finding and hitting the latchand more quickly escaping to get the fish. To explain why a cats

    random trial and error behaviors gradually turnedinto efficient goal-directed behaviors, Thorndikeformulated the law of effect.

    Th f L i

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    Theory of Learning

    E.L. Thorndikes Law of Effect: Thorndikes (1898) findings were significant because they suggested

    that the law of effect was a basic law of learning and provided anobjective procedure to study it. Thorndikes emphasis on studyingthe consequences of goal-directed behavior was further developedand expanded by B. F. Skinner.

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    Skinners Theory of Learning

    Operant conditioning

    Conditioningstimulus-

    response (S-R)

    associations throughreinforcement

    Shapingbehaviour

    through selectivereinforcement

    Ski Th f L i

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    Skinners Theory of Learning

    Operant conditioning

    If you want to analyze ongoing behaviors,

    you must have an objective way to

    measure them. Skinners ingenioussolution is a unit of behaviour he calls an

    operant response (Skinner, 1938). By measuring or recording operant

    responses, Skinner can analyze animals

    ongoing behaviours during learning. He

    calls this kind of learning operant

    conditioning, which focuses on how

    consequences (rewards and punishments)

    affect behaviours.

    Ski Th f L i

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    Skinners Theory of Learning

    Operant conditioning

    Procedure:

    Skinner goes on to explain three

    factors involved in operantlyconditioning a rat to press a lever, as

    follows

    Procedure: Operant Conditioning

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    Procedure: Operant Conditioning

    1. The rat has notbeen fed for hoursso that it will beactive and morelikely to eat thefood reward. Ahungry rat tendsto roam restlesslyabout, sniffing atwhatever it finds.

    2. Thegoal is tocondition the ratto press the lever.By pressing thelever, the ratoperates on itsenvironment;thus, thisresponse is calledan operant

    response.

    3. In conditioning arat to press a lever,Skinner will use aprocedure calledshaping. Shaping

    refers a procedure inwhich an experimentsuccessivelyreinforces behaviorsthat lead up to orapproximate thedesired behavior.

    Shaping: Reinforcing Close Approximations

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    Shaping: Reinforcing Close Approximations

    SHAPING: FACINGLEVER

    At first the rat wandersaround the back of thebox but, when it turnsand faces the lever,Skinner releases a foodpellet in to the foodcup. The rat hears the

    pellet and eats it. Therat moves away but, assoon as it again turnsand faces the lever,Skinner releasesanother pellet.

    SHAPING: TOUCHINGLEVER

    Skinner decides toreinforce the rat only whenit moves toward the lever.As soon as the rat facesand then moves towardthe lever, Skinner releasesanother pellet. After eatingthe pellet, the rat wanders

    a bit but soon returns tothe lever and actually sniffsit. A fourth pelletimmediately drops into thecup and the rat eats it.When the rat places onepaw on the lever, a fifthpellet drops into the cup.

    SHAPING:PRESSING LEVER

    Now the rat rears upon its back feet,sniffs the lever, andputs its front pawson it. This downwardmotion presses the

    lever and causesrelease of anotherpellet (reinforcer).With in a period oftime, the rat isputting down, and

    getting food pellets.

    Principles of Operant Conditioning

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    Principles of Operant Conditioning As Skinner pointed out, operant conditioning affects many of our

    behaviors: putting money into a vending machine to obtain a soda;calling our parents or friends to borrow money; studying hard to getgood grades; or practicing long hours to win at sports. One reasonwe continue behaving to perform these behaviors is that they havebeen reinforced.

    Principles of Operant Conditioning

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    Principles of Operant Conditioning Toilet Training and Operant Conditioning

    Heres how operant conditioning techniques can be applied to teachtoilet training.

    1. Target Behavior:

    The target behavior or goal is for Sheryl tourinate in the toilet.

    2. Preparation:

    Before training begins put all of Sheryls toys away so thatshe will not be distracted. Then give her a large glass of apple

    juice, so that she will have to urinate soon.

    3. Reinforcers:

    Select reinforcers, which can be candy, verbal praise, or a hug. Each

    time Sheryl performs or emits a desired behavior, you immediatelyreinforce her. The reinforcer increases the likelihood that the behaviorwill be repeated.

    4. Each time Sheryl performs a behavior that leads to the target behavior (usingthe toilet), give her a treat, verbal praise or a hug. For instance, when Sheryl saysthat she has to go potty, say, Thats great. When Sheryl enters the bathroom ,say, What a good girl. When she lowers her pants by herself, say, Youre doingreally good. After Sheryl urinates into the toilet, give her a big hug and perhaps atreat.

    Comparison

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    Comparison

    Classical versus Operant Conditioning

    B. Reinforcers

    Punishment: Positive versus

    Negative

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    E. Cognitive Learning

    Three year old Dusty

    The first time he got a skateboard, he imitatedwhat he had observed. He put one foot on theskateboard, used his other foot to propel forward,and held his arms out for balance. Dustys learninghow to propel a skateboard was not due to classicalor operant conditioning, but to cognitive learning.

    Cognitive Learning involves mental processes, such

    as attention and memory; may be learned throughobservation or imitation; and may not involve anyexternal rewards or require the person to performany observable behaviours.

    E Cognitive Learning

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    E. Cognitive Learning Three Viewpoints in Cognitive Learning

    B. F. SKINNER:AGAINST

    - In his acceptancespeech (honored by theAmerican PsychologialAssociation (APA) withthe first APA Citationfor OutstandingLifetime Contributionto Psychology), hissevere criticism ofcognitive process andmental events causedmany in the audienceto gasp and only a fewto applaud. Apparently,

    many in the audience,as well as throughoutpsychology today,believe that cognitiveprocesses are not, asSkinner implied, a stepbackward in

    knowledge.

    EDWARD TOLMAN: INFAVOR.

    In the 1930s, Tolman wasexploring hidden mentalprocesses.

    The rat in his experimentselected the shortest pathto the food box because itdeveloped a cognitive map

    of the maze.Learning occurred whilethe rats were exploring.

    A cognitive map is amental representation inthe brain of the layout ofan environment and itsfeatures.

    Tolman, showed that ratslearned the layout of amaze without beingreinforced, a position verydifferent from Skinner.Tolmans emphasis oncognitive processes inlearning is continued byAlbert Bandura.

    ALBERT BANDURA.IN FAVOR.

    In many of his studies,Bandura (1986) hasfocused on howhumans learn throughobservation. Forexample, Bandura

    would say that a childcan learn to hatespiders simply byobserving thebehaviors of someonewho exhibits a greatdislike of spiders(results from watchingand does not requirethe observablebehaviour or receiveany reward).

    Banduras Theory of Observational

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    Bandura s Theory of Observational

    Learning

    Four Processes Necessary for

    Observational Learning

    1. ATTENTION

    Th e observer

    must payattention to whatthe model says ordoes. Mary, theyoung girl, saw hermothers reactions

    of fear and disgustand hear her saythat spiders werefilthy, dirty things.

    2. MEMORYThe observer must store or

    remember the informationso that it can be retrievedand used later. Mary storedthe image of her mothersfearful, disgusted facialexpression and themothers comments aboutspiders being filthy things.

    3. IMITATION

    The observer must beable to use therememberedinformation to guidehis or her own actionsand thus imitate themodels behavior. Maryimitates the mothersfacial expression of

    disgust and repeats hermothers commentsabout dirty spiders.

    Banduras Theory of Observational

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    Bandura s Theory of Observational

    Learning

    Four Processes Necessary for

    Observational Learning4. MOTIVATION

    The observer must have somereason, reinforcement, orincentive to perform themodels behaviors. Marywants to show her mother

    that she also thinks spidersare disgusting things.

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    Insight Learning

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