1

A Brief History: A Brief History: The Major The Major Schools of Schools of

Psychology/The Psychology/The Major DebatesMajor Debates

When?When? ““Psychology has a long past, but only a Psychology has a long past, but only a

short history. “ Hermann Ebbinghausshort history. “ Hermann Ebbinghaus University of Leipzig , Germany 1879University of Leipzig , Germany 1879 Wilhelm WundtWilhelm Wundt First psychological laboratory First psychological laboratory Taught and influenced by Taught and influenced by Hermann von Hermann von

Helmholtz.Helmholtz. Takes the methods of the physical Takes the methods of the physical

sciences and applies them to the sciences and applies them to the problems of the mind that the problems of the mind that the philosophers are tackling. philosophers are tackling.

Wants to measure “atoms of the mind” or Wants to measure “atoms of the mind” or the elements of consciousness.the elements of consciousness. Sensation and perceptionSensation and perception

Wundt continuedWundt continuedImage s of Wundt’s Image s of Wundt’s Experimental ToolsExperimental Tools

Choice Reaction Time Choice Reaction Time ExperimentExperiment Presentation of a choice of Presentation of a choice of

different sensory stimulidifferent sensory stimuli Must choose the correct Must choose the correct

stimuli by pressing telegraph stimuli by pressing telegraph keykey

Chronoscope measured the Chronoscope measured the reaction timesreaction times

As tasks became more complex As tasks became more complex , incremental increases in , incremental increases in reaction time indicate deeper reaction time indicate deeper mental processes taking place. mental processes taking place. taking taking

In other experiments he wants In other experiments he wants to see what the difference if to see what the difference if any is between our immediate any is between our immediate reaction to a sensory stimuli reaction to a sensory stimuli and our conscious experience and our conscious experience of it.of it.

4

Schools of Psychological Schools of Psychological ScienceScience

StructuralismStructuralism Functionalism Functionalism BehaviorismBehaviorism GestaltGestalt PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis Cognitive Cognitive Humanistic/ExistentialHumanistic/Existential Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology

5

StructuralismStructuralism

Titchener Titchener Student of WundtStudent of Wundt Introspection (self-observation and Introspection (self-observation and

description)description)

6

TitchenerTitchener "If it is true that all the sciences have the same sort of subject-"If it is true that all the sciences have the same sort of subject-

matter [experience], there can be no essential difference matter [experience], there can be no essential difference between the raw materials of physics and the raw materials of between the raw materials of physics and the raw materials of psychology.... All human knowledge is derived from human psychology.... All human knowledge is derived from human experience; there is no other source of knowledge. But human experience; there is no other source of knowledge. But human experience, as we have seen, may be considered from different experience, as we have seen, may be considered from different points of view.... First, we will regard experience as altogether points of view.... First, we will regard experience as altogether independent of any particular personindependent of any particular person; we will assume that it goes ; we will assume that it goes on whether or not anyone is there to have it. Secondly, we will on whether or not anyone is there to have it. Secondly, we will regard experience as altogether regard experience as altogether dependent upon the particular dependent upon the particular personperson; we will assume that it goes on only when someone is ; we will assume that it goes on only when someone is there to have it.... there to have it.... In principle, then, introspection [in In principle, then, introspection [in psychology] is very like inspection [in physics]. The objects psychology] is very like inspection [in physics]. The objects of observation are different; they are objects of dependent, of observation are different; they are objects of dependent, not of independent experience.... And the standpoint of the not of independent experience.... And the standpoint of the observer is different; it is the standpoint of human life and observer is different; it is the standpoint of human life and of human interest, not of detachment and aloofness. But, of human interest, not of detachment and aloofness. But, in general, the [observational] method of psychology is in general, the [observational] method of psychology is much the same as the method of physics"much the same as the method of physics" (Titchener, (Titchener, A A Textbook of PsychologyTextbook of Psychology, 1910, pp. 16-27, emphasis added)., 1910, pp. 16-27, emphasis added).

7

FunctionalismFunctionalism

William James (1890 publishes William James (1890 publishes Principles of Psychology)Principles of Psychology) FunctionalistFunctionalist Why do we have these sensations, Why do we have these sensations,

emotions, thoughts, what function do emotions, thoughts, what function do they serve?they serve?

Philosopher-PsychologistPhilosopher-Psychologist

8

Freud: PsychoanalysisFreud: Psychoanalysis

Freud (1899 Interpretation of Freud (1899 Interpretation of Dreams)Dreams) Developed Psychoanalysis Developed Psychoanalysis

Neurologist/physicianNeurologist/physician

Developed theories based on case Developed theories based on case studiesstudies

PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis

PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis First systematic theory of PersonalityFirst systematic theory of Personality Developed first “talking cure”Developed first “talking cure”

Emphasized early experiences on the Emphasized early experiences on the formation of personalityformation of personality

Emphasized the unconscious as a major Emphasized the unconscious as a major determinant of our behaviordeterminant of our behavior

Emphasized the role of defense Emphasized the role of defense mechanismsmechanisms

9

Other Names within Other Names within Psychodynamic/PsychoanPsychodynamic/Psychoan

alysisalysis Alfred AdlerAlfred Adler Carl JungCarl Jung Karen HorneyKaren Horney Erik EriksonErik Erikson Anna FreudAnna Freud

10

BehaviorismBehaviorism

1920’s through the return of Cognitive 1920’s through the return of Cognitive Psychology in the 1950’s Psychology in the 1950’s

Developed out of the school of Developed out of the school of functionalism.functionalism.

Goals: Goals: To be as objective as possible in its To be as objective as possible in its

methods of understanding learning. methods of understanding learning. To control and predict behaviorTo control and predict behavior

Major research done on animal modelsMajor research done on animal models

11

Behaviorism ContinuedBehaviorism Continued

Major Behavioral Learning ModelsMajor Behavioral Learning Models Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Behavioral TherapiesBehavioral Therapies Exposure therapyExposure therapy Systematic DesensitizationSystematic Desensitization FloodingFlooding Operant Based procedures in the Operant Based procedures in the

classroom, relationshipsclassroom, relationships12

BehaviorismBehaviorism

Emphasizes what can be seen, stritctly Emphasizes what can be seen, stritctly in the empiricist philosophical tradition.in the empiricist philosophical tradition.

What can’t be seen are emotions, What can’t be seen are emotions, thoughts, motivations.thoughts, motivations.

Names associated with BehaviorismNames associated with Behaviorism Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)Pavlov (Classical Conditioning) Watson (Classical Conditioning)Watson (Classical Conditioning) Skinner (Operant Conditioning)Skinner (Operant Conditioning) Thorndike (Law of Effect)Thorndike (Law of Effect)

13

“ “Give me a dozen healthy infants, Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll world to bring them up in and I’ll

guarantee to take any one at guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become random and train him to become

any type of specialist I might select- any type of specialist I might select- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant,

chief, and yes even beggar man and chief, and yes even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, thief, regardless of his talents,

penchants, tendencies, abilities, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. vocations, and race of his ancestors.

John Watson John Watson

14

Other developments and Other developments and schools of Psychologyschools of Psychology

GestaltGestalt German SchoolGerman School

Reaction against Wundt Reaction against Wundt and his schooland his school

Psychological principles Psychological principles are not reducible and are not reducible and understandable by their understandable by their parts alone.parts alone.

The whole is different The whole is different from the sum of its parts.from the sum of its parts.

Cognitive Psychology has Cognitive Psychology has some of its roots here. some of its roots here.

15

Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology

Gains prominence in the 1950’s.Gains prominence in the 1950’s. Develops out of both philosophical Develops out of both philosophical

traditions of humanism and traditions of humanism and existentialism.existentialism.

It is a reaction to both Behaviorism and It is a reaction to both Behaviorism and Psychoanalytical Schools of thought.Psychoanalytical Schools of thought.

Instead of emphasizing the deterministic Instead of emphasizing the deterministic models of the schools above, it models of the schools above, it emphasizes freedom and individual emphasizes freedom and individual responsibility.responsibility.

16

Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology

A major goal of being human is self-A major goal of being human is self-actualization.actualization.

The search for our authentic “self” is The search for our authentic “self” is emphasized. emphasized.

Believed that the fundamental Believed that the fundamental nature of humans is a tendency nature of humans is a tendency towards positive growth.towards positive growth.

17

Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology

Names associated with Names associated with Humanistic/Existential PsychologiesHumanistic/Existential Psychologies Rogers (Person/Client Centered Rogers (Person/Client Centered

Psychotherapy)Psychotherapy) Maslow (Hierarchy of Needs)Maslow (Hierarchy of Needs) Frankl (Man’s Search for Meaning)Frankl (Man’s Search for Meaning) Bugenthal (Existential)Bugenthal (Existential) Yalom (Existential)Yalom (Existential)

18

Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology Starts in the 50’s and doesn’t take off till the 1960’s.Starts in the 50’s and doesn’t take off till the 1960’s.

It is a reaction to Behaviorism.It is a reaction to Behaviorism.

Rise of mind as computer metaphor.Rise of mind as computer metaphor.

How can we understand something as complex as language How can we understand something as complex as language development through operant conditioning and classical development through operant conditioning and classical conditioning?conditioning?

No longer has to restrict itself to only directly observable No longer has to restrict itself to only directly observable concepts.concepts.

Thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, emotions are now fair game for Thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, emotions are now fair game for psychological experimentation.psychological experimentation.

Maintains strict adherence to controlled psychological Maintains strict adherence to controlled psychological experiments.experiments.

19

Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

Cognitive neuroscience Cognitive neuroscience Using neuro imaging techniques to understand Using neuro imaging techniques to understand

which parts of the brain are active under what which parts of the brain are active under what behaviors/thought patterns.behaviors/thought patterns.

Cognitive psychology has led to the Cognitive psychology has led to the development of a number of effective development of a number of effective therapeutic treatmentstherapeutic treatments

While in theory a separate school from While in theory a separate school from behaviorism, findings within behaviorism behaviorism, findings within behaviorism informs cognitive psychology and vice versa.informs cognitive psychology and vice versa.

20

Major Psychological Major Psychological Debates/Points of ViewDebates/Points of View

Free will vs determinismFree will vs determinism

Nature vs nurtureNature vs nurture

Maybe we should replace vs. with Maybe we should replace vs. with “and”“and”

21

22

Psychology’s Three Main Psychology’s Three Main Levels of AnalysisLevels of Analysis

23

Psychology’s Current Psychology’s Current PerspectivesPerspectives

PerspectivePerspective FocusFocus Sample QuestionsSample QuestionsNeuroscienceNeuroscience How the body and How the body and

brain enables brain enables emotions?emotions?

How are messages How are messages transmitted in the body? transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry How is blood chemistry linked with moods and linked with moods and motives?motives?

EvolutionaryEvolutionary How the natural How the natural selection of traits the selection of traits the promotes the promotes the perpetuation of one’s perpetuation of one’s genes?genes?

How does evolution How does evolution influence behavior influence behavior tendencies?tendencies?

Behavior Behavior geneticsgenetics

How much our genes How much our genes and our environments and our environments influence our influence our individual differences?individual differences?

To what extent are To what extent are psychological traits such psychological traits such as intelligence, as intelligence, personality, sexual personality, sexual orientation, and orientation, and vulnerability to vulnerability to depression attributable to depression attributable to our genes? To our our genes? To our environment?environment?

24

Psychology’s Current Psychology’s Current PerspectivesPerspectives

PerspectivePerspective FocusFocus Sample QuestionsSample Questions

PsychodynamiPsychodynamicc

How behavior springs How behavior springs from unconscious from unconscious drives and conflicts?drives and conflicts?

How can someone’s How can someone’s personality traits and personality traits and disorders be explained in disorders be explained in terms of sexual and terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as aggressive drives or as disguised effects of disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?childhood traumas?

BehavioralBehavioral How we learn How we learn observable responses?observable responses?

How do we learn to fear How do we learn to fear particular objects or particular objects or situations? What is the situations? What is the most effective way to alter most effective way to alter our behavior, say to lose our behavior, say to lose weight or quit smoking?weight or quit smoking?

25

Psychology’s Current Psychology’s Current PerspectivesPerspectives

PerspectivePerspective FocusFocus Sample QuestionsSample QuestionsCognitiveCognitive How we encode, How we encode,

process, store and process, store and retrieve information?retrieve information?

How do we use How do we use information in information in remembering? remembering? Reasoning? Problem Reasoning? Problem solving?solving?

Social-Social-culturalcultural

How behavior and How behavior and thinking vary across thinking vary across situations and situations and cultures?cultures?

How are we — as How are we — as Africans, Asians, Africans, Asians, Australians or North Australians or North Americans – alike as Americans – alike as members of human members of human family? As products of family? As products of different environmental different environmental contexts, how do we contexts, how do we differ?differ?

26

Psychology’s Subfields: Psychology’s Subfields: ResearchResearch

PsychologistPsychologist What she doesWhat she does

BiologicalBiological Explore the links between brain and Explore the links between brain and mind.mind.

DevelopmentalDevelopmental Study changing abilities from womb Study changing abilities from womb to tomb.to tomb.

CognitiveCognitive Study how we perceive, think, and Study how we perceive, think, and solve problems.solve problems.

PersonalityPersonality Investigate our persistent traits.Investigate our persistent traits.

SocialSocial Explore how we view and affect one Explore how we view and affect one another.another.

27

Psychology’s Subfields: Psychology’s Subfields: AppliedApplied

PsychologistPsychologist What she doesWhat she does

ClinicalClinical Studies, assesses, and treats people Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorderswith psychological disorders

CounselingCounseling Helps people cope with academic, Helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges.vocational, and marital challenges.

EducationalEducational Studies and helps individuals in Studies and helps individuals in school and educational settingsschool and educational settings

Industrial/Industrial/

OrganizationalOrganizationalStudies and advises on behavior in Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace.the workplace.

28

A A clinical psychologistclinical psychologist (Ph.D., Psy.D.) (Ph.D., Psy.D.) studies, assesses, and treats troubled studies, assesses, and treats troubled

people with psychotherapy. people with psychotherapy.

PsychiatristsPsychiatrists on the other hand are medical on the other hand are medical professionals (M.D.) who use treatments professionals (M.D.) who use treatments

like drugs and psychotherapy to treat like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients.psychologically diseased patients.

Clinical Psychology vs. Clinical Psychology vs. PsychiatryPsychiatry

29

Errors of Common Sense Errors of Common Sense and the Limits of Intuitionand the Limits of Intuition

Try this !Try this !

Fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) 100 Fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) 100 times. How thick will it be?times. How thick will it be?

800,000,000,000,000 times the distance 800,000,000,000,000 times the distance between the sun and the earth.between the sun and the earth.

30

We Are Flawed ThinkersWe Are Flawed ThinkersBiasesBiases

Hindsight Bias: “I-knew-it-all-along” Hindsight Bias: “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.phenomenon. After learning the outcome of an event, many After learning the outcome of an event, many

people believe they could have predicted that people believe they could have predicted that very outcome.very outcome.

OverconfidenceOverconfidence Sometimes we think we know more than we Sometimes we think we know more than we

actually know.actually know. Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias

Paying attention only to evidence that confirms Paying attention only to evidence that confirms your belief.your belief.

The Scientific AttitudeThe Scientific Attitude

31

The scientific attitude is composed of The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity curiosity (passion for exploration), (passion for exploration),

skepticismskepticism (doubting and questioning) and (doubting and questioning) and humilityhumility (ability to accept responsibility (ability to accept responsibility

when wrong).when wrong).

32

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Critical thinking does not accept Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.arguments and conclusions blindly.

It examines assumptions, discerns It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and hidden values, evaluates evidence and

assesses conclusions.assesses conclusions.

33

Scientific MethodScientific Method

Psychologists, like all scientists, use Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct the scientific method to construct

theories that organize, summarize and theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.simplify observations.

34

AA Theory Theory isis an explanation that an explanation that integrates principles and organizes integrates principles and organizes

and predicts behavior or events.and predicts behavior or events.

For example, low self-esteem For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.contributes to depression.

TheoryTheory

35

AA Hypothesis Hypothesis is a testable prediction, is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable often prompted by a theory, to enable

us to accept, reject or revise the us to accept, reject or revise the theory.theory.

People with low self-esteem are apt to People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.feel more depressed.

HypothesisHypothesis

36

Methods of Research:Methods of Research:ExperimentationExperimentation

Like other sciences, experimentation is the Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychology research. Experiments backbone of psychology research. Experiments

isolate causes and their effects.isolate causes and their effects.

Exploring Cause and EffectExploring Cause and Effect

37

Many factors influence our behavior. Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments Experiments (1)(1) manipulatemanipulate factors that factors that interest us, while other factors are kept interest us, while other factors are kept

under under (2) control(2) control..

Effects generated by manipulated factors Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.isolate cause and effect relationships.

Exploring Cause & EffectExploring Cause & Effect

38

An An Independent VariableIndependent Variable is a factor is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The manipulated by the experimenter. The

effect of the independent variable is effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study. the focus of the study.

Independent VariableIndependent Variable

39

AA Dependent Variable Dependent Variable is a factor that is a factor that may change in response to an may change in response to an

independent variable. In psychology, it independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental is usually a behavior or a mental

process. process.

Dependent VariableDependent Variable

Scientific PsychologyScientific Psychology ObjectivityObjectivity

Can we ever get true objectivity?Can we ever get true objectivity?

ReplicabilityReplicability

Testing theoretical predictionsTesting theoretical predictions

FalsifiabilityFalsifiability

41

Other Methods of Other Methods of ResearchResearch

Case StudyCase Study Natural ObservationNatural Observation SurveySurvey

42

ComparisonComparisonBelow is a comparison of different Below is a comparison of different

research methods.research methods.