intercultural and sustainable leadership: a professional program for emerging educational leaders

JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES, Volume 3, Number 1, 2009©2009 University of Phoenix

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) • DOI:10.1002/jls.20094 39

This research reports on an investigation into the changing perspectives of educational leaders from

the Asia-Pacific region attending an AusAID-funded Australian Leadership Award Fellowships (ALAF)

program hosted by Australian Catholic University’s (ACU National) Flagship for Creative and Au-

thentic Leadership (the Flagship). The ALAF program aimed to strengthen the capacity of educa-

tional leaders from the Asia-Pacific region to work more effectively in education systems and to better

manage the competing demands of governments, education bureaucracies, educational organiza-

tions, and funding agencies. The research focused on how the Fellows viewed leadership, and how

they viewed themselves as leaders before and at the conclusion of the program. What emerged was

a growing interest in intercultural leadership and the concern for sustainable leadership.

I N T E R C U LT U R A L A N D

S U S T A I N A B L E L E A D E R S H I P

A Professional Program for Emerging Educational Leaders

JACK FRAWLEY

In 2007, Australian Catholic University’s (ACU National)Flagship for Creative and Authentic Leadership hosted aleadership development program funded by AusAID, theAustralian Government’s agency responsible for manag-ing Australian overseas aid program, through theirAustralian Leadership Awards Fellowship (ALAF) pro-gram. The ALAF program aims to develop appropriatelytrained current and aspiring leaders from AusAID-eligiblecountries who in the short-to-medium term are in a po-sition to advance key regional policy issues.

Sergiovanni (2001), a leading writer on the school asa community, promotes the idea that educational lead-ers must master the “new basics” of leadership, whichhe describes as managing complexity, leading with ideas,and developing social capital. In addition to the new

basics, the concept of leadership capabilities (Duignan,2006) became central to the Fellows professional de-velopment experiences. The program was practice-basedand informed by leadership principles and practices—Sergiovanni’s new basics and Duignan’s “capabilities”—that shape effective educational leaders. It aimed toenable educational leaders to work more effectively ineducation systems and better manage the competingdemands of education bureaucracies and the systemsand their communities. The program expected thatALAF graduates would have a valuable impact instrengthening their own personal capabilities and thecapacities of their respective organizations. In addition,it was anticipated that a cross-cultural comparison ofeducation would assist them to better consider the

40 JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 3 • Number 1 • DOI:10.1002/jls

influence of culture on educational leadership and ad-ministration.

The program combined an academic program and aprofessional attachment arrangement, occurring overthree stages. In Australia at ACU National’s NSWStrathfield campus, Fellows attended stage one of theprogram. This was an intensive professional program,which included workshops, field trips, a conference, andprofessional attachments. Workshops included the top-ics of authentic leadership, educational leadership andresponsible governance, and cross-cultural perspectiveson educational leadership. Authentic leadership exam-ined the nature and characteristics of an organization’sculture and the challenges of encouraging, implement-ing, and sustaining change in entrenched cultures in achanging world. Educational leadership and responsiblegovernance examined issues concerning leadership andgovernance in contemporary educational contexts. Cul-tural perspectives on educational leadership explored thequestions: How is leadership understood by other cul-tures? Are there places where cultural values naturallyconflict with the requirements of local culture? Howcan local cultural expectations of leadership be accom-modated by Western leadership theories? What aspectsof leadership transcend cultural boundaries?

Research Problem and LiteratureOne of the ALAF program’s aims was to assist Fellowsin analyzing their respective leadership challenges usingvalues-based and ethical frameworks. Therefore, the re-search aimed to investigate if Fellows’ leadership per-spectives altered over the period of the ALAF program,and whether the changing perspective included an au-thentic dimension of leadership. Another ALAF pro-gram aim was to develop better understanding of theinfluence of societal culture on educational leadership;therefore, the second focus of the research was to de-termine if there were fresh ideas about the influence ofculture in forming leadership perspectives.

Fellows’ leadership perspectives were viewed as belong-ing to trait, behavior, situation, process, or values leader-ship theories. The trait theory holds the view that leadersare born with or have charisma or specific traits, abilities,and skills (Stogdill, 1974). The behavioral view of lead-ership is that leadership capability can be learned, ratherthan being inherent (Merton, 1957). The situational

theory sees leadership as a matter of situational demandsand the emergence of a leader as a result of time, place, and circumstance (Yukl, 1989). The process viewof leadership is that it is a process of dynamic interactionamong people and is essentially dissipative (Burns,1978; Bass, 1990). The values theory believes that lead-ership has a moral dimension with a focus on, and com-mitment to, ethics, purpose, values, and beliefs (Starrat,2004; Duignan, 2006). Authentic leadership, situatedwithin values theory, is “knowledge based, values in-formed, and skilfully executed” and requires “profes-sionally effective, ethically sound, and consciouslyreflective practices in educational administration”(Begley, 2001, p. 353).

For some, leadership remains too narrowly conceivedunless there is an attempt to understand it as being par-tially derived from, and influenced by, societal culture(Dimmock & Walker, 2005). In addition, there is aview that established educational leadership discourseis dominated by Western perspectives, oblivious to thecultural diversity that characterizes the contemporaryworld (Collard, 2007). As a counterpoint to theWestern domination of the leadership discipline, “in-terculturalism” has emerged as providing a more cul-turally informed view. Interculturalism “is an idea thatproposes an encounter between cultures that takes placefrom fundamental characteristics, matrices, and uniqueaspects of each individual culture” (Coll, 2004, p. 27).To be engaged in an intercultural process “is a releasingexperience for each of the cultures involved leading toan awareness of the limits that are inherent to our owncultures and worlds” (p. 28). From this basis, meaning-ful dialogue can occur in order to shape and negotiatedevelopment of the intercultural space. This requires in-tercultural reasoning that “emphasises the processes andinteractions which unite and define the individuals and the groups in relation to each other” (Abdallah-Pretceille, 2006, p. 476). Interculturalism is “a way oftalking about the knowledge systems of two culturesworking together” (Marika, Ngurruwutthun, & White,1992, p. 28), where the “work of analysis and of ac-quiring knowledge applies to others as much as to one-self ” (Abdallah-Pretceille, 2006, p. 477).

This research project focused on two main issues: de-velopment of leadership perspectives as a consequenceof a professional leadership development program,

hoped to achieve by completing the program. Fellowsreceived surveys via e-mail, and all returned their com-pleted surveys before the commencement of stage oneof the program. Survey questions focused on definitionsand views on educational leadership from Fellows andtheir organizations, as well as Fellows’ expectations ofthe professional development program.

Journals

Reflective writing was an opportunity for Fellows tothink critically about what they do and why. It offereda record of events and their reactions to them and dataon which to base reflective discussion. Engaging in openand collaborative discussion about the program and reg-ularly writing in their journal were viewed as processesthat enable Fellows to become reflective leaders. TheFellows’ journals provided an opportunity to make ex-plicit their position on a range of ideas and issues. Theirjournals were viewed as being a summary of daily ac-tivities connected to leadership issues and leadership de-velopment. Some important points were made prior tocommencing journal entries. Fellows were encouragedto make a journal entry every day, spending at least 20minutes daily making the journal entries. Journal en-tries were posted on SharePoint, an information portal,on a daily basis (although this was later revised to weeklyentries), which allowed Fellows and program staff to ac-cess the journals in order to discuss ideas and issues theFellows raised. In addition, writing guidelines consti-tuted a template for Fellows to describe learning activ-ities, evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of theirobservations, and plan how these events might beuseful, especially in terms of their leadership develop-ment. In total, Fellows posted 71 journal entries onSharePoint.

Metaphor Workshops

At the metaphor workshop, Fellows were presented withan Australian Aboriginal metaphor of education, theganma metaphor (Marika, Ngurruwutthun & White,1992). From this they were able to distill certain char-acteristics of how indigenous education was viewed in aremote context. Fellows then worked individually andin groups to develop their own metaphors, guided by anumber of steps and key questions. First, Fellows dis-cussed what characteristics they wished to describe.

JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 3 • Number 1 • DOI:10.1002/jls 41

and emergence of “intercultural leadership” as a coun-terpoint to the Western dominance of leadership theo-ries and practice. A third point unfolded within theproject: that of sustainable leadership.

Method

SAMPLE

At the time of their participation, ALA Fellows werefrom a number of Asia-Pacific region countries and were current leaders or influencers of education policyor reform, or aspiring midcareer high-achieving profes-sionals within their own sphere of influence. Educa-tional organizations nominated Fellows who came withthe full support of their workplace. In the 2007 ALAFprogram, there were two Fellows from Timor Leste, onea general practitioner providing health care at a smallclinic as well as being involved in some health workertraining, and the other a deputy director of student serv-ices at a teacher training institution. There were twoFellows from Vietnam, one an English language teacherat a provincial high school and the other a lecturer inEnglish language at a university. From Lao PDR, therewere four Fellows: one worked in the ministry, one inthe Faculty of Education at a Lao university, one as aproject officer for an NGO, and one as a lecturer at a provincial teacher training institution. There were twoCambodian Fellows, both of whom worked as projectofficers for an NGO. Of the 10, five were male and fivewere female, with an age range of early 30s to early 50s;all Fellows had postgraduate qualifications, with twohaving a master’s from an Australian institution.

INSTRUMENTS

The research tracked development of the Fellows lead-ership perspectives during the program using three datainstruments (surveys, journals, and a metaphor work-shop) and had two key foci: the Fellows’ leadership de-veloping views mapped onto a leadership matrixinformed by major leadership theories and a leadershipdiscourse on the influence of culture in forming lead-ership perspectives.

Surveys

Prior to arrival in Australia, Fellows completed a surveythat gathered their views on leadership and what they


An educational leader is the one who deploys human,

physical, and financial resources in a school. He [sic]

takes full responsibility for all the teaching and learn-

ing activities in the school, and liaises between the

school and higher levels of administration such as

the department and ministry of education and training.

Most of the Fellows’ views could be classified as fit-ting situational leadership theory. This theory suggeststhat the best action of the leader depends on a range ofsituational factors, including motivation and capabilityof followers. One Fellow believed that an educationalleader should

be involved in establishing direction, which means de-

veloping both a vision of the future and strategies

needed to achieve that vision. An educational leader’s

qualities should also include motivation and

inspiration—helping people energise themselves to

overcome problems, bureaucratic and other resource

barriers.

Another stated that a leader gets work tasks donethrough attention to the work team and individuals byapplying

the principle of leadership to empower his/her col-

leagues through tasks and responsibilities delegation,

motivation, coaching, role modelling and on-going

support. The leader has greater sensitivity in people’s

feeling and situation; concerns on process and fair-

ness where the decisions were made through a par-

ticipatory approach and democracy style and

emphasise relationships.

Viewing themselves as leaders, most Fellows fit thebehavior theory of leadership. One Fellow saw his styleas essentially managerial, with a clear role in “manag-ing, planning, organising, controlling, and evaluating.”Another stated, “I am able to empathise with subordi-nates and understand their problems” while anothersaid “to understand and motivate people, we must knowhuman nature.” Another spoke of his staff viewing himas a good leader because

I’m active, honest, sympathetic and calm. I am not

too serious or strict, and I’m punctual. I try to develop

myself to be industrious, honest, economical, and pa-

tient. I also like to express ideas to urge staff to be

They discussed how educational leadership is viewedand defined from within their own culture, paying at-tention to who is an educational leader, the kind of lead-ership needed within their own organizations, and whateducational leaders do. Second, Fellows developed ametaphor that addressed their ideas and concerns. Theythen illustrated the metaphor and finally shared, ex-plained, and discussed the metaphor’s main ideas.

ResultsThe data gathered from the survey, journal, and meta-phor workshop were collated, categorized, coded, andanalyzed. For the first focus—the degree of shift inFellows’ views on educational leadership—data weresorted and analyzed on a leadership matrix consistingof the five major leadership theories categories, namelytrait, behavior, situation, process, and values. The dataanalysis focused on how the Fellows viewed leadershipand how they viewed themselves as leaders before and atthe conclusion of the program.

For the second focus—tracking of an emerging lead-ership discourse on the influence of culture in formingleadership perspectives—data were collected throughthe use of metaphors and analyzed against a systemsleadership framework. System leadership is understoodas being exercised in five major domains: identity, edu-cation, stewardship, community, and future focus. Ineach domain, systems leaders demonstrate a range ofcapabilities: personal, relational, professional, and or-ganizational. These capabilities are founded on a value-based and ethical framework designed to integratevalues and culture into future education policy and de-cision making (Duignan, 2006).

SURVEY VIEWS

In the preprogram survey, two Fellows’ views reflecteda trait perspective on leadership. One stated that an ed-ucational leader is someone “who can bring light oreducation to everyone in society, and he [sic] is the manwho sacrifices his knowledge and ability to educationaltasks.” A number of the Fellows’ views could be classi-fied as fitting behavioral leadership theory, especially interms of the roles where people form expectations aboutthe roles they and others have in their organization. OneFellow stated:

Leste people from generation to generation, especiallytraditional leaders. The Vietnamese Fellows describedleadership as cay tre, the bamboo tree, to represent theirideal metaphor because of its qualities and its many uses,including from the everyday (toothpicks) to the spiri-tual, where during Tet (Vietnamese Lunar New Year)cay neu (a bamboo tree with decoration on top) is erectedin front of every house to drive away bad spirits.

DiscussionIn comparing the survey with the journal entries, onesees a definite shift in a general sense. Most of the pre-program surveys either focused on the mechanics ofleadership (exemplified by a behavioral theory of lead-ership) or highlighted the belief that the best action ofthe leader depends on the capability of followers. Later,through their journals Fellows began to reflect on the“new perspectives on leadership” and what this meantfor them personally. One journal entry noted, “ethicshelp guide a leader in his [sic] relationship with othersas well as his handling of the organization,” which cor-responds with the view that where leaders are commit-ted to values within the organization (Sergiovanni,1992) there is a moral commitment based on proactiveresponsibility, personal and professional authenticity,and an affirming, critical, and enabling presence toworkers and work (Starrat, 2004).

The metaphors expressed a number of values-orientedviews on leaders and leadership. One Fellow stated:

to lead means to influence, inspire, empower, and

motivate others, either educational workers, teachers

or even students, to contribute towards the effective-

ness or the success of the educational institutions or of

an educational program of which they are members.

They believed that educational leaders should leadothers so that they “treasure learning” and leaders should“always project positive philosophy of life and of learn-ing, including the attributes of optimism and enthusi-asm. They should be the kind of leader who maintainsa positive outlook and views challenges as opportuni-ties.” They also stated that “good leadership must comefrom the heart.” Several metaphors also suggested thateducational leaders work increasingly within intercul-tural systems, defined by one Fellow as about respecting


good role models in the faculty and work hard in

order to get promoted.

JOURNAL VIEWS

A review of the Fellows’ journals during implementa-tion of the program identified a change in perspectives.One Fellow stated:

Leadership is about making positive differences, no

matter how big or small the difference is. Leadership

is also about learning. He/she must be able to reflect,

to learn and create channels to receive honest, con-

structive feedback from people s/he works with. Re-

garding the application of the new perspectives on

leadership, we need to take into consideration our or-

ganization culture, be sensitive to what’s going on in

people’s minds, and take change slowly.

Another Fellow noted:

Ethics and values are relatively new terms for me.

I come to prize the practice of examining and building

my personal values and beliefs. They have really sig-

nificant implications for me as a member of society

and a future leader as well. So what’s the relationship

between ethics and leadership? They actually are in-

separable. The former underpins the latter. Ethics

forms the bulk of leadership process. A good leader

can’t afford to lack a sense of ethics. A person, let

alone a leader, without a set of ethics and values, is

incomplete. Ethics help guide a leader in his relation-

ship with others as well as his handling of the organ-

ization. How can she make a decision if not supported

by some ethical views?

Both of these views are situated within the values cat-egory, with their focus on the moral and ethical di-mensions of leadership.

METAPHOR VIEWS

Within the program, Fellows explored cultural defini-tions of leadership through use of metaphors. Fellowswere asked to refer to their own societal culture, espe-cially symbols, monuments, images, and emblems, toconstruct a metaphor for educational leadership. Thesemetaphors included leadership being a kaibauk (a TimorLeste crescent crown that is a symbol of power, author-ity, justice, and equity), which has been worn by Timor


from within, and appreciate the values and cultures ofothers.

ImplicationsThe ALAF program had a number of interrelated goalsabout educational leadership, among them assistingFellows to analyze their respective leadership challengesusing values-based and ethical frameworks in order tointegrate values and culture into future education pol-icy and decision making. Another goal was to developFellows as dynamic, visionary, and reflective leaders whocomprehend and facilitate innovative approaches to ac-ademic excellence. The program has a number of im-plications in terms of its contribution to sustainingleadership development of Fellows, their respective or-ganizations, and their countries, and for further explo-ration of intercultural leadership practices.

SUSTAINABLE LEADERSHIP

The shifts in Fellows’ perspectives revealed in this re-search have implications for how the alumni Fellowswill sustain leadership development at the regional,countrywide, organizational, and individual levels.AusAID states that there is no one single way to achievesustainability and that “each individual program or proj-ect should define its own sustainability strategy on acase-by-case basis” (AusAID, 2000, p. 1). For Fellows,there are implications for how they will apply a values-based approach to sustaining leadership development.Sustainable leadership:

matters, spreads and lasts. It is a shared responsibil-

ity, that does not unduly deplete human or financial

resources, and that cares for and avoids exerting neg-

ative damage on the surrounding educational and

community environment. Sustainable leadership has

an activist engagement with the forces that affect it,

and builds an educational environment of organiza-

tional diversity that promotes cross-fertilization of

good ideas and successful practices in communities

of shared learning and development [Hargreaves &

Fink, 2003].

AusAID’s Better Education policy states that “educa-tion provides the foundation for economic growth andself-reliance. It has additional benefits in health, gover-nance, gender equality, stability and security, and in

and appreciating the different cultures and allowingthem to flourish with creativity and dignity within in asystem, and that these systems should reflect variouscultures and identities, be based on cultural values, beinclusive and harmonious, and be synergetic.

Stephenson (2000) described capabilities as all-around human qualities, an integration of knowledge,skills, personal qualities, and understanding used ap-propriately and effectively—not just in familiar andhighly focused specialist contexts but also in responseto new and changing circumstances. Duignan (2006)identified capabilities as more than simply possessingparticular knowledge and skills or having the potentialto do something. It means demonstrating that one canactually do it. Duignan (2006) made a distinction be-tween competency and capability, the former beingabout delivering the present as based on past per-formance and the latter about imaging the future andbringing it about. According to Duignan (2006), sys-tems leaders demonstrate a range of capabilities, which he lists as personal, relational, professional, andorganizational.

From an analysis of the metaphor data, mappedagainst systems leadership capabilities, a gap emerged.Some statements on culture are listed in leadership ca-pabilities; for example, under organizational capabilities:

Models cultural sensitivity—shows sensitive discern-

ment with regard to human and cultural differences,

and consideration and empathy for those who may

not share their perspectives or preferences [Duignan,

2006, p. 154].

The metaphor workshop data, however, suggest thatthese categories of leadership capabilities—personal,relational, professional, and organizational—are notsufficient in that they fail to fully embrace culturalperspectives; they ignore, to a certain degree, the sig-nificance of culture on leadership development; andthey continue to privilege the Western perspective.The metaphor data suggested that systems leadersshould possess—or work toward gaining—certainintercultural capabilities. The metaphor data proposethat an intercultural educational leader is one who hasthe capabilities to analyze and realizes, communicateand inspire community, work in a team and developsynergy, knit together individuals and groups, blend

learning opportunities, critical discussion, and reflec-tion for Fellows to consider these perspectives. Throughvarious methods, Fellows displayed a notable change intheir views over a six-month period and singled out in-tercultural leadership as an area that needs further re-search and development. What also emerged was agrowing interest in how leadership development can besustained.

ReferencesAbdallah-Pretceille, M. (2006). Interculturalism as a paradigm forthinking about diversity. Intercultural Education, 17(5), 475–483.

AusAID. (2000). Promoting practical sustainability. Canberra:Australian Government Publishing Service (AGPS).

AusAID. (2007). Better education: A policy for Australian develop-ment assistance in education. Canberra: AGPS.

Bass, B. (1990, Winter). From transactional to transformationalleadership: Learning to share the vision. Organisational Dynamics,19–31.

Begley, P. T. (2001). In pursuit of authentic school leadership prac-tices. Leadership in education, 4(4), 353–365.

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper and Row.

Coll, A. C. (2004). The intercultural challenge. Bangalore: Pipal Tree.

Collard, J. (2007). Constructing theory for leadership in intercul-tural contexts. Journal of Educational Administration, 45(6),740–755.

Dimmock, C., & Walker, A. (2005). Educational leadership: Cul-ture and diversity. London: Sage.

Duignan, P. (2006). Educational leadership: Key challenges and eth-ical tensions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hargreaves, A., & Fink, D. (2003). Sustainable Leadership. PhiDelta Kappan 84(9), 693–700.

Marika, R., Ngurruwutthun, D., & White, L. (1992). Always to-gether, yaka gäna: Participatory research at Yirrkala as part of thedevelopment of a Yolngu education. Convergence, 25, 23–39.

Merton, R. K. (1957). Social theory and social structure. New York:Free Press.

Sergiovanni, T. J. (1992). Moral leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Starrat, R. J. (2004). Ethical leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.


fostering effective states” (2000, p. 5). Therefore, high-quality educational leadership at all levels is a priorityimperative, pivotal for improving educational, social,and economic outcomes in developing countries. Im-proved education systems and improved quality of ed-ucation rely on visionary, influential, and competenteducational leaders. The program Fellows will play animportant and significant role in supporting sustain-able leadership in their contexts.

INTERCULTURAL LEADERSHIP

The exploration of cultural definitions of leadershipthrough use of metaphors points to the existence of anintercultural space where leadership is informed by boththe particular cultural context and Western leadershiptheories and practice. Interculturalism, as described by the Fellows, is concerned with the intersection andlinking of cultural “worlds,” the “space” in which theoverlap occurs, and the teaching and learning that takesplace within this space. The ALA Fellows’ journey intoan emerging discourse around intercultural leadershipindicates the need for further discussion and research.

LimitationsThe results of this study are limited to one leadershipprogram out of a total of 45 funded by AusAID during2007. The Flagship’s 10 Fellows represented four coun-tries, while the totals for 2007 programs were 370 Fel-lows from 22 countries. The Flagship’s program differedto a certain extent from those offered by other organi-zations in that it focused on educational leadership,while other 2007 programs addressed leadership issuesin a number of areas, including health, politics, policing,and journalism.

Future ResearchFellows commenced the program with certain technicalviews on leadership and leaders, ones that reflectedmainly behavioral and situational leadership theories.Through the Fellows’ exposure to stimulating views andexperiences in the field of educational leadership, and through facilitating Fellows’ reflective practice, a shiftwas noticed. What also became evident was the need for a greater emphasis on intercultural leadership. Theprogram did not aim to instruct but rather to facilitate


Jack Frawley is Senior Research Fellow with AustralianCatholic University’s Flagship for Creative and AuthenticLeadership. He has a Ph.D. from the University of WesternSydney and has research interests in intercultural leadership,adult education, and Australian Studies. Jack may be con-tacted at [email protected].

Stephenson, J. (2000). Corporate capability: Implications for the styleand direction of work-based learning. Sydney: Research Centre forVocational Education and Training, University Technology Sydney.

Stogdill, R. (1974). Handbook of leadership. New York: Free Press.

Yukl, G. A. (1989). Leadership in organisations. New York: PrenticeHall.

intercultural and sustainable leadership: a professional program for emerging educational leaders

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