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THE IMPACT OF INDCS, NAMAS
AND LEDS ON CI‐DEV OPERATIONS
AND PROGRAMS
Report prepared by Perspectives Climate Research under
the guidance of a World Bank Ci-Dev team led by Leon
Biaou and including Felicity Spors, Harikumar Gadde,
Claudia Barrera and Klaus Oppermann
October 2016
Contents
THE IMPACT OF INDCS, NAMAS AND LEDS ON CI‐DEV
OPERATIONS AND PROGRAMS Error!
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Executive Summary 5
1 Introduction 7
1.1 Background ............................................................................. 7
1.2 Ci-Dev's scope of activities .......................................................... 9
1.3 New and evolving elements in international climate policy ................... 10
1.4 Objectives ............................................................................... 11
2 The political economy of (I)NDCs and the consequences for
Ci-Dev 12
2.1 Best case: a consistent hierarchy where ambition matches policy
plans 12
2.2 Baseline and mitigation scenarios without robust foundation ................ 12
2.3 Inconsistent patchwork of policies ................................................. 12
2.4 Activity overlaps and double counting ............................................ 12
3 From the CDM to the Paris Mechanisms: Risks and
Opportunities 14
3.1 From Kyoto to Paris: Learning from the CDM? ................................... 14
3.2 Scenarios of transition from the CDM to the SDM ............................... 15
3.3 Building on Programs of Activities for design of NAMAs and scaled-
up crediting under the SDM .................................................................. 16
4 Critical design elements of the SDM beyond the CDM 17
4.1 Sustainable Development in the SDM: growing but yet uncertain
relevance ........................................................................................ 17
4.2 Overall mitigation in global emissions ............................................. 17
5 Potential climate policy risks for Ci-Dev activities 18
5.1 Temporal aspects of risks ............................................................ 19
5.2 Political risks for CER accrual ....................................................... 20
5.3 Project operation disruption due to CDM obsolescence or low CDM
attractiveness compared to alternative mechanisms ................................... 22
5.4 Reputational and environmental integrity risk .................................. 23
6 Potential climate policy opportunities for Ci-Dev activities
pre 2020 24
6.1 Hybrid PoA-NAMA structures ........................................................ 24
6.2 Blending of climate finance with market mechanisms ......................... 24
6.3 New sources of demand for CERs ................................................... 24
7 Opportunities post-2020 25
8 Analysis of risks and opportunities at country level 25
8.1 Political risks regarding continued accrual of CERs ............................. 27
8.2 Project operation risk due to CDM obsolescence ................................ 29
8.3 Approach to the analysis regarding environmental integrity risk ............ 30
8.4 Results of the analysis ................................................................ 30
8.5 Summary of country-level challenges and opportunities ...................... 35
9 Conclusions and recommendations 36
References 39
Annex: Country analysis table 41
Perspectives
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Executive Summary
After the signing of the Paris Agreement, the policy landscape for the World Bank’s Carbon Initiative
for Development (Ci-Dev) has changed substantially. Host country governments will no longer look at
the generation of revenues from the Clean Development Mechanism alone, but need to assess the
requirements of (Intended) Nationally Determined Contributions ((I)NDCs), Nationally Appropriate
Mitigation Actions (NAMAs), and Low Emission Development Strategies (LEDSs). Given that host
country governments want to access international climate finance and may be interested to mobilize
mitigation co-benefits in the areas covered by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) while
becoming responsible for mitigation contributions of their own, they will now have to assess the specific
requirements from different sources in order to identify the optimal financial support they can secure
for achieving their mitigation outcomes. Against this background, the question arises whether Ci-Dev’s
objectives could potentially be affected by the new policy framework and how it could prevent or at
least reduce negative impacts. This is made more complex by the emergence of new market
mechanisms under the Paris Agreement’s Articles 6.4 (in the following called in this report Sustainable
Development Mechanism, SDM) and 6.2 (Cooperative Approaches, CAs) and the uncertainty whether
and how the CDM projects could be transitionned into these future mechanisms.
An immediate measure that Ci-Dev has put in place to ensure delivery of emission reduction credits,
regardless of the type of market mechanism that survives in the long run, is to ensure that the ownership
rights in the Emissions Reductions Purchase Agreements (ERPAs) for all Ci-Dev projects cover both
units under the CDM and the relevant new market mechanism that will exist after 2020.
In the short term until 2020, Ci-Dev should – in collaboration with other departments of the World Bank
group – promote the benefits of a continued use of market mechanisms. Thereby, the risk of
discontinuation of CDM projects due to lack of revenues from buyers other than Ci-Dev could be
reduced. Moreover, Ci-Dev should support rulemaking under the UNFCCC that ensures that as many
elements of the CDM as possible are taken up in the SDM, and that CDM projects are either directly
accepted under the SDM, or be brought into the SDM through a simple procedure. This can take the
form of submissions on the design of the SDM.
Ci-Dev should also monitor progress on CAs which could become an alternative route of continuation
of crediting of Ci-Dev programs post CDM.
This could be underpinned by Ci-Dev supporting “lighthouse activities”, i.e. programs of activity (PoAs)
that are particularly beneficial with regards to supporting the SDGs. Moreover, such lighthouse activities
could show ways forward regarding upscaling of mitigation – developing PoAs that are linked to the
setup of a policy instrument that eventually generates credits and / or that serve as cornerstone of a
NAMA.
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At the same time as it tries to ensure that the international framework is conducive to continued
operation of market mechanisms, Ci-Dev should proactively address those risks that could result in
activities delivering less than the contracted CER volumes due to overlaps between mitigation activities
included in NDCs and Ci-Dev activities. In other words ensure that if CERs are included in an NDC
target they are not also included in the Ci-Dev program, which if it occurred would trigger double
counting issues. In order to ensure its activities are always seen as additional, Ci-Dev should engage
proactively with host countries regarding the design of NDCs and strategies to attract climate finance.
Due to the status of the World Bank it is unlikely that governments would withdraw approval letters from
activities supported directly through the Ci-Dev for other purposes such as securing higher revenues
from NAMAs or retaining mitigation outcomes to ensure that their NDC target is reached. However,
these issues could become a significant deterrent for private project developers trying to replicate the
lessons learnt from the Ci-Dev experience. The degree of ambition required by the Paris Agreement
requires the full engagement of a broad range of project developers, and this needs a trustworthy
governance environment.
As the risks discussed are not proportional to host country climate policy engagement, we recommend
that Ci-Dev particularly engages with governments of countries with active Ci-Dev operational
engagement that also have ambitious NDCs and NAMAs and high levels of NDC conditionality on
climate finance such as Ethiopia and Rwanda to reduce the potential risks to Ci-Dev. Capacity building
that support government officials can help to generate realistic views on the complementarity of climate
finance flows. Moreover, Ci-Dev should support work on standardized crediting approaches to facilitate
the transition of Ci-Dev projects to the SDM whilst supporting NDC implementation. A “standardized
crediting framework”, which would build on several elements of standardization and simplification
(standardized baselines, additionality determination at the sectoral level, simplified MRV processes,
and a reformed project cycle), could become an effective approach to crediting at a scaled-up level.
Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda (Catgory A low risk) and also Senegal (Category B middle risk) offer
the highest level of opportunities for experimentation with innovative approaches to scaling up of
mitigation action toward NAMAs and INDCs and for piloting activities toward the SDM, especially
through PoAs serving as key basis for mitigation under a NAMA and. Feasibility studies and pilot
activities could be combined with capacity building toward crediting of policy actions. Given that the
significant mitigation policy experience in these countries reduces barriers to the actual implementation
of Ci-Dev projects, such an engagement is likely to have significant benefits
Overall, Ci-Dev has the opportunity to contribute to the development of new market mechanisms by
both showing that project and programmatic activities work on the ground, while supporting a conducive
national and international policy framework. Only such an integrated approach will ensure that market
mechanisms can play a crucial role in achieving the long-term goal of keeping global warming well
below 2°C.
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1 Introduction
1.1 Background
In the recent years, the global carbon market in the context of the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) has seen difficult times. Prices for CDM credits (CERs) plummeted by 95% between
2011 and 2013, and the market essentially stalled. Only a handful of governments are continuing to
buy CERs; total demand between 2015 and 2020 is estimated at around 77 million (UNFCCC 2016c,
p. 4-5). However, carbon market infrastructure such as CDM methodologies and governance
infrastructure is also being utilized to deliver results-based finance. One of the most notable initiatives
in this regard is the World Bank’s Carbon Initiative for Development (Ci-Dev).
Recent and future international climate policy developments may influence the operating conditions for
Ci-Dev. The Paris Agreement (PA, UNFCCC 2016d) provides a firm basis for the post-2020 global
climate regime, under which all countries are expected to contribute to greenhouse gas mitigation.
Almost 190 countries have submitted their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) for
mitigation and adaptation. As the PA contains a full article on market mechanisms, there is renewed
certainty that carbon market mechanisms will remain a key component of the portfolio of instruments
to reach the goals of the PA. Art 6.4 PA establishes a centrally governed market mechanism for
mitigation. The rules for this mechanism shall be based on the experience with the Kyoto Protocol
mechanisms including the CDM. The evolution of Art 6.4 – the Sustainable Development Mechanism
(SDM) as it is often called – might therefore be expected to interact closely with the ongoing reform of
the CDM. Some might aim to distance the SDM somewhat from the CDM in order to address some of
the CDM’s shortcomings. Additionally, Art. 6.2 enables countries to engage in a non-centrally governed
set of cooperative approaches (CAs) for mitigation. The mechanisms will give rise to Internationally
Transferable Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs). The degree to which international rules will apply to the
CAs remains to be seen; we expect this to be clarified by the UNFCCC negotiations before the entry
into force of the PA.
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Figure 1: Emissions unit transfers under the Paris Agreement
The fundamental difference between the PA and the Kyoto Protocol is that mitigation responsibilities
are now defined through a bottom-up instead of a top-down system. Under the evolving PA framework,
all parties are free to define their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) according to general
principles, and international guidance is then fleshed out on the basis of “broad” consensus. The PA,
unlike the Kyoto Protocol, does not make a clear distinction between buyers or sellers of mitigation
units, which will affect supply and demand. While developing countries under the CDM had no
opportunity costs of selling emissions credits, under the Paris Mechanisms they will need to mobilize
other mitigation options to reach their NDC, provided that the NDC goes beyond business as usual.
Some observers fear that governments may be reluctant to sell credits at all. Moreover, the PA is
broader in scope allowing for different forms of market mechanisms which will compete against each
other. In this environment the future role of the CDM and crediting mechanisms in general is unclear.
After the Paris Agreement instruments specified by the Kyoto Protocol need to adapt to the evolving
climate framework initially defined by the Paris Agreement. Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions
(NAMAs) for example are not explicitly mentioned, however the Paris Agreement emphasizes the need
for the implementation of national mitigation actions, climate finance, sustainable development and
MRV. These are all important elements of NAMAs. High level commitments in NDCs therefore give
greater purpose and a sense of urgency to NAMAs. Similarly Low Emissions Development Strategies
(LEDS) after the Paris Agreement likely focus on providing support for capacity building and technical
assistance to enhance and support the achievement of NDC goals.
The definition of national mitigation targets through the NDCs, Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions
(NAMAs) and other mitigation policies result in increasing complexity, especially in terms of process
and accounting regulations This is likely to affect CDM projects and program (PoA) operations through
regulatory changes affecting their business models. Furthermore, climate finance is rapidly evolving
and there is great pressure in particular on the Green Climate Fund (GCF) to rapidly disburse its funds
of about 10 billion USD and demonstrate concrete outcomes. Some stakeholders have proposed that
the GCF should use the existing CDM infrastructure or even acquire already issued certified emission
credits (CERs) from the CDM. Given that the current pipeline of Ci-Dev projects relies on payment at
the generation of CERs as the core of its results-based finance approach, how the future development
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of a reformed CDM or its transitioning to the PA mechanisms will be done is crucial for the overall
outcome of Ci-Dev.
We assess the implications of INDCs, NAMAs, Low Emissions Development Strategies (LEDS) and
related instruments on Ci-Dev's objectives and present preliminary recommendations for addressing
potential risks for Ci-Dev's operations as well as potential opportunities in a policy environment that is
rapidly evolving on the international level as well as the host country level.
1.2 Ci-Dev's scope of activities
Projects in all African countries that receive International Development Assistance (IDA) as well as
those Asian countries classified as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) according to the United Nations
(UN) definition are eligible for Ci-Dev support (Ci-Dev 2013). Projects from 39 African countries and 9
Asian countries are thus eligible (see the annexed table for a complete list). A minimum of 75% of all
projects within the final portfolio shall be located in LDCs at the time of their selection and around 80%
of all projects should be based in Africa.
Ci-Dev projects are to focus on renewable energy and underrepresented sectors and to be innovative
and transformational in nature. The former category focuses on projects improving energy access. The
latter category can comprise several project types including electrification, improved energy efficiency,
and waste management. In general, Ci-Dev aims to support small to medium scale projects and
programs that demonstrate how carbon finance can benefit poor or vulnerable communities, deliver
development benefits alongside emissions reductions, and result in financial savings or welfare
improvements. All projects must become registered CDM activities or result in carbon credits that are
recognized by the UNFCCC – potentially including under the Paris Mechanisms.
As of June 2016, Ci-Dev has selected 13 CDM PoAs for technical assistance and CER procurement
over parts or their full lifetimes in the areas of energy access to sustainable energy including rural
electrification (grid extension, mini-grid, solar lighting and solar home systems), low-carbon cooking
and low-carbon water filtration in Sub-Saharan African countries. The Ci-Dev will close on Dec. 31,
2025 (see
Figure 2) and therefore following the Paris Agreement there are concerns about new risks; regarding
the use of credits which could be directed towards NDC compliance, and also regarding the status of
the CDM as a standard.
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Figure 2 Ci-Dev timeline
1.3 New and evolving elements in international climate policy
Most low income country INDCs are explicitly conditional on receiving international climate finance.
Efforts by countries to achieve their NDC targets can raise a number of questions regarding their
potential interference with other mechanisms and financing instruments in the international climate
policy landscape.
The importance of NAMAs established by the Bali Action Plan in 2007 may be strengthened following
COP 21 once countries need to take concrete action to achieve their NDCs. A credible role for NAMAs
in developing countries will however depend on the availability of international support. NAMAs can
represent a bundle of financial and regulatory measures seeking to reduce emissions within one
particular sector. They are quite varied in their combinations of measures – even including project-
based or programmatic mechanisms. In specific cases, NAMA implementation can have positive or
negative implications for the operation of CDM projects due to e.g. regulatory changes endangering
renewal for a second crediting period, or overlapping activities between NAMA and existing PoAs
resulting in public criticism of double counting of emissions reductions. PoAs and NAMAs in the same
activity area can, however, be designed in a way to reinforce synergies. An example of such a
combined approach can be found in Rwanda; its health NAMA (see Ngabo et al. 2013), which is being
developed jointly between DelAgua and the Rwandan Ministry of Health in form of a public-private
partnership, envisages shared responsibilities for roll-out and extensive MRV of water filters and
efficient cook stoves on the basis of programmatic CDM activates.
In the 2010 Cancun UNFCCC COP member states were encouraged to establish low emission
development strategies (LEDS) – a concept that can be seen as purposefully vague and which never
really took a concrete shape neither in later negotiations nor through commonly accepted guidance.
As such, LEDS can be viewed as broader and more comprehensive strategies and policies that define
a long-term trajectory, explicitly referring to issues directly relevant to climate change mitigation but not
in and of themselves representing regulatory changes.
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Similarly, sustainable development priorities can in most countries only be explicitly identified in the
approval criteria of the Designated National Authority (DNA) for CDM project proposals. Where Parties
have chosen to apply clear and transparent criteria, the criteria can serve as indication of these
sustainable development priorities. Changes in these priorities do, however, in principle not affect
ongoing CDM activities and as such are not of great relevance to Ci-Dev operations.
1.4 Objectives
We assess whether observed and expected developments in Ci-Dev eligible host countries and at the
level of international climate policy can have impacts on CER accrual to Ci-Dev or whether other risks
and opportunities could arise from the Paris Agreement. These questions are addressed both through
a general discussion of international climate policy developments and their implications on the
objectives of Ci-Dev as well as an evaluation of the 48 eligible countries with regard to the key questions
outlined in box 1.
Box 1: The three key questions of the country evaluation
1) Is there a real risk that host countries prevent project owners from selling CERs to Ci-Dev
because the host country governments want to use these CERs for compliance with their NDC,
effectively expropriating project owners and leading to lower CER availability for the Ci-Dev
CER pipeline than expected?
2) Is there a real risk that the CDM falls into obsolescence (i.e. the institutional and
administrative infrastructure for processing the CDM no longer operates) before the end of the
Ci-Dev purchasing program in 2024 as a result of:
i) a lack of market activity resulting in the stop of CER generation and issuances within
the Ci-Dev purchasing period of June 30, 2025 (See Figure 2)? Or
ii) countries utilising other market mechanisms rather than the CDM within the Ci-Dev
purchasing period (i.e. up to June 30, 2025 (see Figure 2)?
3) Is there a risk that the environmental integrity of CDM projects could be threatened by:
i) development of new national policies e.g. renewable energy targets, energy efficiency
targets etc. that could lead to the CDM projects being seen as business as usual by
media and the general public? Or
ii) concerns that CERs cannot be properly accounted for resulting in an increased risk
of double claiming (see textbox 2) because a host country lists
the emission reductions in the reports on progress regarding its NDC?
In chapters 2-7 below, we present currently evolving climate policy developments and their respective
risks and opportunities for Ci-Dev operations and objectives. Chapter 8 analyses risks and
opportunities at the country level through a systematic literature study of INDCs, NAMAs, LEDS and
related documents. Finally, chapter 9 offers conclusions and a number of specific recommendations
for Ci-Dev operations and further research needs.
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2 The political economy of (I)NDCs and the consequences
for Ci-Dev
2.1 Best case: a consistent hierarchy where ambition matches policy plans
The report assesses LEDS, the (I)NDC and the NAMAs since they all serve mitigation goals and in
the best case, work within countries at different hierarchical levels and combine as mutually supporting
and complimentary tools to facilitate national mitigation efforts: LEDS represent a long-term policy
vision over a long time horizon, (I)NDCs provide the quantified emissions reductions objectives while
NAMAs represent the sector-specific actions, which can attract international support to produce
measurable mitigation outcomes achieved by appropriate financial or regulatory policy instruments. In
the ideal case the ambition, which is often expressed by a mitigation scenario below the specified
business as usual scenario, matches realistic mitigation potentials of planned policies.
2.2 Baseline and mitigation scenarios without robust foundation
Many INDCs (see Annex) are based on scenarios that were either not constructed with a real
assessment of mitigation potentials, where the assessment did either not consider NAMAs properly
(possible overlaps) or there are no NAMAs being developed at all. There may also be cases, in which
the NDC overestimates mitigation potentials. Finally there are cases, where the (I)NDCs were designed
with low stringency.
2.3 Inconsistent patchwork of policies
The reality in most countries is that LEDs, INDCs and NAMAs rarely are mutually supportive, due to
disconnected implementation and differences in fundamental assumptions e.g. regarding the
approaches applied to determine baseline scenarios. Furthermore some difficulties arise from the fact
that these instruments are often defined over different time horizons and some countries’ INDCs do not
even acknowledge the role of NAMAs. These inconsistencies are primarily due to the fact that there is
no common basis for accounting for NAMAs within national INDCs which are often developed by
different government agencies and external consultants each with very limited resources and
opportunities for vertical and horizontal integration. Besides limited time and financial resources,
institutional structures can prevent the necessary consultative processes from taking place. As
indicated in our subsequent country-level assessment, the level of coordination between climate policy
instruments varies significantly.
2.4 Activity overlaps and double counting
A major concern in this context is that overlapping activities result in either a late realization that
mitigation pledges were overambitious or that the same emissions reductions are continuously claimed
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twice or double counted and thus can result in a bad reputation due to low environmental integrity (see
Box 2).
Box 2: Double counting
Schneider et al. (2015) differentiate three principal forms of double counting: double issuance
– the issuance of two units for the same reductions, double use –either by the same country
or by two different countries - and double claiming of reductions – the accounting of the same
reductions both in a greenhouse gas inventory and in units towards attaining an external
mitigation pledge or counting the same reductions toward two different sectoral NAMAs. The
latter concept was brought into the UNFCCC negotiations by Prag et al. (2013). For achieving
environmental integrity all forms of double counting need to be eliminated.
Hood (2015) stresses the greater variety of flows of units under the PA that makes it more
difficult to prevent double counting compared to the Kyoto Protocol.
Figure 3: Different types of units created under the Paris Agreement
Source: Hood (2015)
Similarly, design of policy instruments in the context of NAMAs often insufficiently addresses
interferences between sectors. Figure 4 shows an overlap of mitigation activities between two NAMAs
with the activity electricity co-generation from landfill gas capture as NAMA in the renewable energy
and another NAMA in the waste sector. Without corrections for such overlaps, governments may
incorrectly calculate their mitigation achievements towards an INDC by simply adding up all the
mitigation reported by the NAMAs.
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Figure 4: Double counting in NAMAs leading to mitigation shortfall in NDCs.
3 From the CDM to the Paris Mechanisms: Risks and
Opportunities
The greatest macro-trend of relevance to Ci-Dev is the fragmentation of market mechanisms. Although
with the introduction of a centrally governed mechanism, the PA provides the basis to develop a
successor to the CDM and a broader set of bilateral mechanisms under the umbrella term CAs, the
uncertainty is now no longer whether market instruments will be part of the post-2020 regime, but
whether there will be a critical mass of countries which participate in the SDM to generate sufficient
supply and demand for emission reductions. Will there be a constructive linking between the CDM and
SDM, which could facilitate the transition of the institutional structure of the CDM to the SDM? Will
policies in the future build on CDM type of activities? Will there be a strengthened role for Sustainable
Development under the SDM? And finally, could emissions reductions units from the CDM be eligible
under the SDM?
3.1 From Kyoto to Paris: Learning from the CDM?
Explicit reference to “apply experience from Kyoto Mechanisms” (UNFCCC 2016d, para 37f Paris
Decision, PD) indicates that there is broad agreement among Parties to build on the successful reform
of the CDM. All the key elements of the SDM defined in Art. 6 would allow taking over of key procedural
and institutional structure elements of the CDM:
supervised by a body designated by the CMA (Art. 6.4)
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payment of adaptation tax (Art. 6.6)
authorization of public and private entities by Party (Art. 6.4b)
accounting for credit transfer in buyer and seller countries to prevent double counting (Art.
6.4c, 6.5)
And the rules, which are to be developed by CMA, shall according to para 37 PD (UNFCCC 2016d) be
based on principles that are also highly compatible with the principles underlying the CDM:
Real, measurable and long term mitigation (para 37b PD)
Specific definition of scopes of activities (para 37c PD)
Additionality (para 37d PD)
Verification and certification by DOEs (para37e PD)
All of this indicates that there is broad agreement among Parties to build on key principles of the CDM
including notably elements of standardization and the programmatic approach, on which Ci-Dev was
established. How far the actual mechanism survives remains to be seen given unease of various
parties, not least the EU regarding its performance and role in the future. Therefore, a critical question
for Ci-Dev regards the future of the CDM pipeline, and post-2020 eligibility of CERs.
3.2 Scenarios of transition from the CDM to the SDM
The transition from the CDM to SDM could result in one or a nuanced combination of the following
stylized scenarios depending on the SDM’s scope, i.e. whether it includes activities at project-,
program- or sectoral level:
1. Full acceptance of CDM projects and direct use of the CDM modalities and procedures under
the SDM. For example, the CDM Executive Board would become the SDM EB, CDM DOEs
would automatically become SDM DOEs, CDM methodologies for baselines and monitoring
become SDM methodologies and so forth. These rules would then be complemented by
modalities and procedures for crediting of mitigation policy instruments and sectoral
mitigation. CERs would continue to be issued after 2020. The likelihood of a direct acceptance
of the CDM under the SDM – as well as CER demand – would increase if the ongoing CDM
reform continues to progress and expands the scope of PoAs and enhances standardization
and simplification including of baselines, automatic additionality determination, and MRV: This
might alleviate the widely held perception that the CDM is regionally and sectorally biased,
inefficient and expensive, and its procedures are difficult to scale up.
2. Selective use of CDM modalities and procedures under the SDM, which is managed by new
institutions. CDM projects can apply for recognition under the SDM, and then issue SDM units
after 2020.
a. CERs issued before 2020 can also be converted into SDM units
b. Post-2020 CERs cannot be converted into SDM units (only full-on SDM projects
generate SDM units post-2020).
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3. No use of the CDM after 2020. There is no possibility to have CDM projects generate credits
under the SDM after 2020, as institutions and rules of the SDM would be completely distinct.
In such a scenario, CDM institutions would have to make the case for the CDM to be accepted
by some countries as Cooperative Approach (CA, such CAs would then be accepting CDM
credits: Climate finance institutions buying of CERs would probably run out due to the lacking
perspective of the CDM.
4. CDM continues in parallel to SDM post 2020. The CDM continues as a separate mechanism
under the umbrella of Art. 6 due to a wide interpretation of this Article. There will be a division
of labor between the CDM and the SDM that could take two forms:
- the former concentrates on crediting of projects and PoAs while the SDM focuses on crediting of
policies.
– the former can be accessed by a certain group of countries, e.g. LDCs, while the SDM is
accessible to middle income counties and emerging economies.
3.3 Building on Programs of Activities for design of NAMAs and scaled-up crediting
under the SDM
The interaction between national mitigation policies i.e. NAMAs and CDM activities or PoAs generates
challenges, but it has enormous potential to advance scaled-up mitigation action if implemented
correctly. Robust design of hybrid PoA and/or NAMA structures requires careful consideration of a
number of accounting, MRV and institutional aspects and the experience in such approaches is limited
(Michaelowa et al. 2015). A “standardized crediting framework”, which would build on several elements
of standardization and simplification (standardized baselines, additionality determination at the sectoral
level, simplified MRV processes, and a reformed project cycle), could become an effective approach
to crediting at a scaled-up level. This would in particular be helpful for activities that are geographically
dispersed or which require a certain scale for economic viability as is the case for rural electrification.
MRV and the CDM project cycle are areas where further standardization seems possible. Currently
progress has been made in standardizing baselines and additionality. To demonstrate the feasibility of
further standardization, the World Bank considers identifying a pilot activity from the Ci-Dev activities
in which all elements of a “standardized crediting framework” covering the baseline, additionality, MRV
and the project cycle would be applied in parallel to the regular CDM standards and procedures
Ci-Dev has actively contributed to exploring sustainable business models to support effective crediting
for energy access projects. These experiences are highly relevant exploring possible pathways for
transitioning from the CDM to the SDM.
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4 Critical design elements of the SDM beyond the CDM
Compared to the Kyoto mechanisms there are two aspects in which the SDM could be different: the
SDM could address SD in a more centralized manner and according to the Paris Agreement has to
contribute to global emissions reductions.
4.1 Sustainable Development in the SDM: growing but yet uncertain relevance
From a climate policy standpoint previously considered an “outside-topic”, sustainable development
has become a more important factor in the climate policy landscape: in 2015, the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) were internationally agreed (UN General Assembly 2015) and while their
role for the UNFCCC regime remains unclear, it can be expected that the SDGs will assume an
increasingly prominent role in measuring development and quite possibly also climate finance results.
On the domestic level, preferences for sustainable development are often expressed at various levels
of detail and often without real coherence between various policy documents such as the NAMAs,
INDCs or national energy- or climate strategies etc. In view of this growing importance, CDM host
countries – including those eligible for Ci-Dev support – could in principle require more stringent
demonstrations of how activities contribute to their SD as a precondition for renewal of activities for a
second crediting period. While this would incur some additional transaction costs, Ci-Dev project
activities are without exception extremely likely to comply with SD criteria due to the substantial social,
environmental and economic benefits that these activity types generate. We therefore do not view SD
criteria and indicators to become a problematic policy element for Ci-Dev operations. If their relevance
in operationalizing the SDM is greatly enhanced compared to past experience with the CDM (e.g. SD
criteria figuring as strong prerequisites to participate in the mechanism), it is possible that the SDM
would remain a very limited source of credits due to the additional challenges for project developers.
Even if this was the case, ongoing CDM projects – and the standing of the Ci-Dev program – would in
all likelihood gain rather than lose – as the host countries would benefit from exploiting the freedom of
choice associated with the CDM’s lack of mandatory SD criteria.
4.2 Overall mitigation in global emissions
Article 6.4d PA asks that the mechanism is ”to deliver an overall mitigation in global emissions“. This
clause can be interpreted in various ways.
For ambitious NDCs and provided that the market mechanism is based on realistic baselines, the
mechanism delivers an overall mitigation in global emissions as it facilitates the achievement of the
ambitious NDCs. In that context, no further specific rules for the mechanism would be required to
achieve global mitigation, and no transaction costs or distortions would accrue.
In the case where at least some of the NDCs are not sufficiently ambitious, there is a risk that the
market mechanism leads to a cheap surplus of mitigation that could depress the price in the carbon
market to a point where it can no longer incentivise mitigation action. In this way less ambitious NDCs
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can negatively impact ambitious NDCs. To prevent this and to ensure that the mechanism delivers an
overall mitigation, various options have been proposed. All of them will increase the transaction cost of
the mechanism and crowd out efficient mitigation; some will also lead to distortions in the choice of
mitigation options. The simplest option would be to voluntarily cancel units instead of using them for
compliance with NDCs. Discounting of credits by a certain percentage would at least not lead to
distortions between different mitigation options and be transparent. The discounting should occur at
the point of accounting for traded credits. Introducing indirect discounting within methodologies (i.e. at
the production side of credits), e.g. through overly stringent baselines for calculation of mitigation
achieved by the mechanism would lead to differentiated impacts depending on the mitigation
technology and decrease efficiency significantly in some cases to the point of making crediting
instruments unviable.
Any approaches to introduce discounting or make baselines more conservative than under the current
CDM would impact Ci-Dev operations when crediting periods are up for renewal by decreasing CER
volumes.
5 Potential climate policy risks for Ci-Dev activities
In the following we specify the possible reasons for each of the three key risks listed in section 1.2 on
Ci-Dev operations identified above. Figure 5 illustrates the three principal risks to Ci-Dev operations
with regard to continued CER accrual.
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Figure 5: Policy level risks to CER generation for Ci-Dev
Circle 1 represents the risk that occurs if a host country’s DNA rejects the PoA or does not undertake
any efforts to maintain a regulatory environment conducive to a PoA’s continued operation, e.g.
collection of data required to apply the selected baseline and monitoring methodology, because it no
longer thinks that the CDM has a future. Circle 2 relates to the risk that due to discontinuation of the
Executive Board or the CDM registry administrator, no CERs can be issued any more. Circle 3 means
that the host country withdraws the approval letter because it decides to sell credits under a more
attractive mechanism, or because it needs the credits to fulfil its NDC. Circle 4 represents a non-
registered CDM project because it is no longer deemed additional after the introduction of a NAMA or
it is not able to qualify for a new crediting period. Circle 5 represents the risk of loss of credibility and
environmental integrity of CERs due to either perceived double claiming of mitigation by the CDM
activity and the host country or due to perverse incentives resulting from additional financial incentives
or regulations implemented via a NAMA. Circle 6 represents the risk that the CDM project is unable to
sell CERs to other buyers apart from Ci-Dev and the revenues received from Ci-Dev are insufficient for
the developer to continue its operation.
5.1 Temporal aspects of risks
On a fundamental level one can distinguish pre-2020 risks from post-2020. Risks regarding double
claiming under an NDC only become relevant after 2020 unless there is an “early action” provision in
the NDC. Given that the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol provides for a clear legal
situation with regard to the CDM, the risk that the CDM stops to exist before 2020 is virtually zero. If
scenario 3 materializes and the CDM ceases to exist post-2020, or CERs cannot be converted into the
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credits under the SDM due to formal regulations, Ci-Dev would depend on the emergence of new SDM
projects or a transition of former CDM activities into the SDM for acquisition of credits in 2020-2024.
Under scenario 1 where emissions reductions units from ongoing CDM activities are directly accepted
in the SDM after the 2020 milestone, Ci-Dev could essentially continue buying units from the same
activities. Under Article 6.2, alternative mechanisms with higher prices could already become relevant
before 2020 if there is no vintage limit on pre-2020 units. Mechanisms such as the Japanese Joint
Crediting Mechanism (JCM)1 could be such an example.
Future demand for CERs will affect viability of PoAs. It is possible that demand further declines, which
could put the financial viability of activities supported by Ci-Dev at risk and potentially force Ci-Dev to
purchase a larger share of CERs from such activities to prevent their termination.
There is also a fundamental risk regarding the post-2020 world, which concerns the very core of Ci-
Dev’s objective to enable carbon markets: if elaborating the accounting rules for new market
instruments does not progress until 2020, international market mechanisms in general could suffer from
insufficient clarity on how to use markets to contribute to NDCs. A trigger for such a development could
be a failure to agree on the interpretation on how to achieve the “overall mitigation of global emissions“
under the SDM specified in Art 6.4.d. Also if key countries are seen as not fully supporting
implementation of the PA, demand for credits from market mechanisms would evaporate and credit
price remain close to zero. Currently, the strong show of high-level support as observed e.g. by 175
Parties signing the Agreement on the first day of the signature period attenuates this risk. In addition,
the prominent positioning of market instruments in Article 6 and the high ambition along with the
transparency framework of the PA are further indications that this risk is low. Supporting an “early start”
phase of the SDM utilising existing activities, such as those under Ci-Dev could help define best
practice and improve the chances for a significant role of the SDM as an instrument for implementing
the PA.
We will now discuss the three key risks in detail.
5.2 Political risks for CER accrual
While we note that this risk is limited and very unlikely to occur, there are two possible reasons why a
host country might no longer want CERs to be allocated to CDM projects (see circle 3 in
1 The JCM is a bilateral crediting mechanism between Japan and selected – currently 16 – developing countries
for promoting mitigation (see Dransfeld et al. 2015a, b).
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Figure 5) that include
a) Counting the mitigation toward its own NDC (post-2020)2, or
b) Achieving a higher revenue from selling mitigation units outside the CDM (both pre- and post-
2020).
The driver for counting reductions towards an NDC might develop once NDCs become binding in the
post-2020 regime. Countries which have defined highly ambitious NDCs (see Annex) could potentially
come under pressure from domestic interest groups that are affected by mitigation policies to count all
mitigation achieved in the country towards its own NDC and thus alleviate pressure for further
measures for cutting emissions. If the NDC contains elements that are conditional to receipt of
international climate finance (which is the case in almost all Ci-Dev countries), the government could
argue that revenues from CER sale are climate finance, especially if no international climate finance is
allocated to the country. Therefore, it would feel entitled to expropriate project owners and incorporate
the corresponding revenues for implementing its NDC. This risk is amplified for public sector owned
Ci-Dev activities, as the government directly receives CERs, and therefore would not need to negotiate
with private sector project developers in case it decides to use CERs for NDC achievement. This
situation theoretically applies to several Ci-Dev activities e.g. the energy access PoAs in Ethiopia. The
situation could look as follows: the ambitious Ethiopian NDC is contingent on receiving a significant
amount of international climate finance. The government of Ethiopia has set up a dedicated institution
– the CRGE Facility – to administer incoming climate finance, and is developing a full suite of proposals
for the GCF. Assuming that these proposals are rejected, the government would now come under
pressure to fill the CRGE Facility through other means. It could declare that the revenues from sale of
2 If the recipient country cancels the CER there is no risk
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Ci-Dev PoAs should anyway have been unconditional grants to Ethiopia and thus the CERs become
state property.
However, given that Ci-Dev primarily operates in low-income countries, some of which have not even
determined quantified mitigation targets and all of which are unlikely to be heavily pressured in case of
underperformance, the risk that Ci-Dev host countries resort to withdrawing approval letters in order to
achieve their NDCs in the absence of international climate finance seems highly improbable. It is
probably more likely that countries would fail to fulfil their NDC and argue this is due to a lack of support.
Such a claim would not impact Ci-Dev activities directly but of course the perceived quality of the credits
would suffer from the default on the NDC.
The risk of the host government using the mitigation achieved by Ci-Dev projects towards its own NDC
is very limited given countries’ relationships with the World Bank Group and governments who are the
Ci-Dev financiers. The risk of a project owner selling to a different buyer other than Ci-Dev in order to
achieve higher prices despite existing purchase agreements depends on the price differential and to
which extent the rule of law would prevent breaking contractual agreements; again it is unlikely if the
seller wants to remain in international business. These risks might however be significant for non-Ci-
Dev buyers of CERs which lack the same standing in the host country as the World Bank. However,
this risk only occurs in countries that do not honour private property rights (see risk of doing business
ranking included in the Annex).
The key question is then at what level of political pressure regarding NDC implementation governments
would actually start to expropriate CER from buyers other than the World Bank. This question, which
goes beyond the scope of our assessment, could be evaluated in greater depth in a dedicated study.
5.3 Project operation disruption due to CDM obsolescence or low CDM attractiveness
compared to alternative mechanisms
A second risk is that the CDM as a tool for evaluating mitigation outcomes internationally and nationally
becomes obsolete as host countries are busy embracing new opportunities in the climate finance (e.g.
applications for support by the GCF) and carbon market areas or the activities no longer comply with
new eligibility requirements (e.g. the SDM in case of scenario 3 – if it is not compatible with CDM
activities). As a consequence, regulatory bodies for CDM projects or PoAs could simply discontinue
and CER issuance could be stopped post-2020. Governments might also revoke letters of approval
(see circle 1 and 2 in
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Figure 5). This could result in a deterioration of CDM activities in one country or even spill over into
other countries in the region – especially in the case of multi-country PoAs. Whilst this risk is
conceivable both in a pre and a post-2020 world and largely a function of a country’s general capacity
and willingness to take coordinated action for climate mitigation as expressed by our evaluation of
countries in three categories (see Annex), it is limited since such a collapse would undermine investors’
confidence in the international regulatory regime. If this risk was to materialize it is only envisaged in
countries that are characterized by limited human capacity in government institutions, bad governance
and a low degree of trust. Also countries undergoing a dramatic shift in government might be prone to
that risk, because the new government wants to distance itself from activities undertaken by the
previous government.
Before 2020 all Ci-Dev emissions reductions are CERs under the CDM. After December 31, 2020, Ci-
Dev will purchase and renegotiate emissions reductions units under a standard comparable to the CDM
agreed upon by Parties or between Ci-Dev and the program entities. Such a renegotiation would
require consideration of eligibility for a new non-CDM standard that may be required for the post-2020
volumes, and further sovereign approval (such as LOAs in the CDM). At the same time it would allow
to take up analogue commitments with the same stakeholders if their respective activities could
produce SDM units post-2020.
If a host country sees the CDM as losing relevance or being subject to continuous market uncertainty,
it might dismantle regulatory capacities or realign them towards domestic policy action (e.g. NAMAs)
and the implementation of NDC targets or the wish to focus on attracting climate finance from large
funding sources such as the GCF. This risk is real, and to some degree already occurring. On the other
hand, there are also opportunities associated with integrating programmatic activities with NAMAs if
such hybrid approaches are designed carefully.
5.4 Reputational and environmental integrity risk
Broadly speaking, trust, reputation and environmental integrity of market instruments are interrelated
issues and currently an important challenge. This challenge directly relates to the implicit objective of
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Ci-Dev to reliably reduce emissions through high-quality projects. Public perception plays an important
role: Environmental integrity could suffer as a result of inadequate efforts to prevent double counting
(see circle 5 in
Figure 5). Double counting can take various forms3, including double counting in a narrower sense of
actually simply counting the same CER twice, but also varieties such as double claiming of emissions
reductions on both the policy-level (i.e. NAMAs and NDCs) and level of Ci-Dev projects, or on the level
of Ci-Dev projects and that of other carbon market mechanisms (bilateral instruments such as the
Japanese Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM). Perverse incentives could potentially result from financial
support through policy instruments other than the CDM being offered to project developers or project
operators potentially creating a public image that no additional emissions reductions are taking place.
This public perception issue is however attenuated by the visibility of co-benefits resulting from activities
supported by Ci-Dev and we do not expect perverse incentives to become an issue in this context.
Once former Non-Annex-1 countries are bound to mitigation commitments in their NDC post-2020,
countries might fail to prevent double claiming of emissions reductions if they have not properly
implemented registries to account for the corresponding emissions credits. In such an instance,
emissions reductions could be issued for the Ci-Dev project while still being counted by the host country
3 We apply the same definitions for the various forms of “double counting” as Schneider et al. (2015) –
see textbox 2.
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towards its NDC. A more severe form of double claiming would occur if Ci-Dev projects would also be
registered under a bilateral market mechanism such as the JCM. While there currently is no overlap in
JCM activities with Ci-Dev and it does not seem likely that the specific activity types supported by Ci-
Dev could also be funded by the JCM, and by other such bilateral mechanisms if they emerge. It is
therefore important to monitor such developments and work to avoid double claiming as any such
overlap could do damage to the reputation of the Ci-Dev program.
Additionally, an image risk could emerge outside of influence of Ci-Dev potentially already before 2020,
if public attention is drawn toward emerging instruments with potentially uncertain environmental
integrity under the CAs and the reputational damage spills over to market instruments in general. Buyer
countries might as a consequence back away from both the CDM and the SDM. Finally, it is also in
principle possible that the SDM does not evolve into a credible mechanism and that provisions on
accounting at the UNFCCC level are not sufficiently stringent, leading to double counting of emissions
reductions in host countries, which have unconditional mitigation targets.
6 Potential climate policy opportunities for Ci-Dev
activities pre 2020
While generating risks, international climate policy developments can also present opportunities for Ci-
Dev activities. We first look at the short term until 2020.
6.1 Hybrid PoA-NAMA structures
While some pilot activities have attempted combined approaches (Ngabo et al. 2013), to utilise the PoA
to provide incentives for scaling up mitigation within the enabling environment of a dedicated policy
framework, this is yet largely untested territory (Michaelowa et al. 2013). the potential for this model to
be scaled up to meet NAMA objectives could be enhanced by international support through pioneering
institutions in partnership with governments and private sector participations, and could also potentially
include Ci-Dev.
6.2 Blending of climate finance with market mechanisms
While in the past, there was an “iron curtain” between the CDM and the Global Environment Facility,
blending of climate finance with market mechanism revenues is becoming increasingly accepted. There
are numerous opportunities for such blending, particularly with regard to overcoming investment
barriers due to a lack of experience with the currently evolving new market instruments. Units under a
pilot-phase SDM could potentially already be used by climate finance institutions pre-2020, which
would help prevent that these institutions “reinvent the wheel” for results-based finance.
However, the GCF’s is expected to take the issue of environmental integrity seriously and therefore will
be unlikely to apply anything but robust baseline and monitoring methodologies in a manner that is
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comparable across projects. Given challenges in upscaling its project pipeline, by acquiring and retiring
CDM – and later SDM - credits the GCF could rapidly demonstrate mitigation results in an
internationally recognized manner. In this sense, climate finance could act as bridge to support market
mechanisms based mitigation activities and address investment barriers that are preventing projects
occurring in underrepresented countries, in a period in which demand from compliance with mitigation
targets is lagging – until new demand resulting from increased ambition resulting from NDCs can drive
prices higher.
Demand for credits from Ci-Dev projects would increase the likelihood that these projects perform.
6.3 New sources of demand for CERs
New uses of the CDM that could lead to additional demand (UNFCCC 2016c), coming from domestic
carbon pricing schemes in developing countries, but also from new sectors such as aviation: While for
aviation it is unclear what quality criteria would be applied, demand could be as large as 40% of
available CERs in 2020-2030 (970 million CERs) as estimated by Thompson Reuters analysists
(Garside 2016). Domestic developing country policy instruments that could potentially generate
demand to keep credits in the country will most likely only concern more advanced developing countries
and are thus not relevant for Ci-Dev. As mentioned, there are several approaches to embed CDM
activities in NAMAs and thus also in NDCs (Michaelowa et al. 2015). In view of the need for best-
practice examples how the SDM or CAs could be operationalized, early action pre-2020 potentially with
banking of credits will increasingly become important. Here the countries that declared the support for
market mechanisms in Paris – the EU but also Canada, New Zealand Norway, Switzerland, and the
US are critical in providing resources for such pilot schemes.
7 Opportunities post-2020
Post-2020 a whole new situation regarding supply and demand is to be expected. Demand for credits
from those NDCs that are ambitious could be substantial, but potential buyer countries (primarily
developed countries) have so far not publicly clarified what types of international emissions credits
would be eligible toward their NDC nor are their NDCs sufficiently ambitious – both compared to the
global ambition level – resulting in approximately 2.7°C by 2100 (UNFCCC 2015) and their domestic
mitigation potentials as estimated by most observers. The ambition of the PA enshrined in its long-term
goal and the inclusion of a review mechanism could over time result in improved ambition in NDCs of
buyer countries. Greater ambition could be supported if emissions reductions from the SDM are
cheaper than further reductions domestically and are not perceived as having environmental integrity
issues. Ci-Dev could in this context demonstrate best practice in developing sustainable business
models for scaled up activities with high development benefits and such development would fully align
with the objective of Ci-Dev to act as a market enabler.
At the same time the situation regarding supply is also expected to change: Differentiation could reduce
supply as fewer countries and sectors are eligible to export units with demand for emissions reductions
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domestically in developing countries, especially emerging economies, growing due to the new
obligations. Ongoing Ci-Dev activities could demonstrate to international donors how results-based
mitigation can work effectively.
Many stakeholders expect crediting of policies and NAMAs post-2020 as illustrated by the growing
number of publications on this (Wooders et al. 2016). Ci-Dev could be playing a pioneering role in
developing appropriate methodologies that contribute to a high environmental integrity of the SDM and
other scaled-up mechanisms.
8 Analysis of risks and opportunities at country level
We have analysed the INDCs of all 48 Ci-Dev eligible host countries bearing in mind the potential risks
that could arise for Ci-Dev operations discussed in section 5. For this purpose, we have chosen a
number of categories (mitigation ambition, baseline transparency, and baseline stringency,
commitment of government, stakeholder consultation, governance, and PoA participation) and rated
each country according to comparable metrics for each category (see Table 1). We have used these
metrics in combination in order to assess respective risks for each of the three main country-level risks
identified toward Ci-Dev operations. Besides these categories of analysis based on a content analysis
of countries’ official climate policy communications we have categorized countries according to the
overall sophistication of their climate policy ensemble.
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Table 1: Approach for ratings within each category (sources and results are detailed in Annex)
Definitions LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Emission reduction target in INDC
Less than 15% reduction from baseline
15-40% reduction from baseline
>40% reduction from baseline
Baseline transparency
No methodology for BAU scenario outlined.
Reference to international methodological guidelines applied, however, no detailed description of methodology and used inventory data
Detailed description of methodology and inventory data used (alternatively, direct reference to policy paper with such a BAU estimation)
Baseline stringency
Multiplication of emissions by more than 3 between 2010s and 2030
Multiplication of emissions by 2-3 between 2010s and 2030
Multiplication of emissions by less than 2 between 2010s and 2030
Commitment of government
No description of responsibilities or institutional arrangement for operationalization and implementation of INDC
Reference to responsible ministry and/or governmental agency, however, no further elaboration on institutional arrangement to ensure implementation of INDC or clear indication that the INDC is aligned with national (climate) strategies, policies and priorities
Reference to responsible ministry and/or governmental agency and outline of institutional arrangement to ensure implementation of INDC and clear indication that the INDC is aligned with national (climate) strategies, policies and priorities.
Stakeholder consultation
No stakeholder consultation mentioned
Stakeholder consultations mentioned, however, no clear participatory process and no information on kind of stakeholder outlined
Inclusive and participatory stakeholder engagement during INDC preparation Engagement foreseen for implementation including specification of stakeholder types (public, private, NGO, international experts, etc.)
Governance Ranked below 160th Ranked between 100th and 160th
Ranked above 100th
PoA participation 2 and less PoAs 3-4 PoAs Over 5 PoAs
8.1 Political risks regarding continued accrual of CERs
The rationale of the assessment of the risk that CERs do not continue to accrue due to host country
government action is described in the figure below.
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Figure 6: Factors affecting risk that CERs do not continue to accrue due to government action
The following categories of the assessment are factors that could aggravate or attenuate this political
risk.
Ambition, baseline conservativeness and transparency
In order to evaluate the level of risk of a government withdrawing an approval letter due to an overly
ambitious mitigation target, we have assessed countries' INDCs regarding their real level of ambition,
which results from information on a) the level of conservativeness of the INDC's baseline as well as
the actual overall mitigation target. Given that many INDCs are not transparent with regard to their
baseline definition, we have also assessed their level of transparency in order to also allow for a better
understanding of the uncertainties associated with the baseline definitions. In many instances the INDC
baseline is defined in an earlier biannual update report or a national communication. Where this is the
case, we have assessed the baseline definitions presented in these documents with the same objective
of analysing stringency and uncertainty of the mitigation target in relation to the baseline in order to
gauge how strongly a country could come under pressure to count emissions reductions from the
corresponding activities toward its own NDC. If a country has overly ambitious policies or targets in
place in a sector in which Ci-Dev is active, this could aggravate the risk of expropriation as the host
country could seek to stop the operation of a PoA in order to incorporate the same activity and its
emissions reductions in its policy. Given that this would represent an act of bad governance only
conceivable in countries with a known record of disrupting business, this assessment category is only
relevant in combination with a low score in the risk of doing business ranking (‘Ease of doing business
report’ (World Bank 2016). see below).
INDC Quality and Reliability
In order to assess potential conflicts or overlaps between sectoral efforts that could lead to a significant
difference between sectoral mitigation potentials and the national mitigation target defined in the INDC,
potentially affecting both the environmental integrity and the risk of withdrawing the letter of approval,
NDC ambition
Conditional contribution
If climate finance is not
forthcoming, risk increases
Unconditional contribution
If mitigation outcomes are less
than expected, risk increases
Good
governance
Respect of ownership and
contractual relations
Quality of climate policy instruments
Reliability of baseline & mitigation
potentials
If policy scopes overlap, risk increases
Positively correlated to risk
Negatively correlated to risk
Negatively correlated to risk
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we have qualified the robustness of the planning process leading up to the publication of the INDC.
Our assessment of “robustness” is based on an assessment of: whether an adequate stakeholder
consultation process had taken place, whether the country was rather a latecomer or early mover in
presenting its INDC, the level of government that was involved in the process and the INDCs'
consistency with previously existing climate policy instruments.
Overlap of policy scopes
The higher the number of policy instruments and the lower the degree of coordination between them,
the higher the risk that the overall mitigation achieved by them is overestimated because both direct
and indirect effects are counted twice (see Figure 4). We therefore look at the overall numbers of policy
initiatives undertaken.
8.2 Project operation risk due to CDM obsolescence
Potential obsolescence of the CDM due to lacking host country engagement.
Previous experience and success with PoAs
Existence of a robust CDM and in particular a PoA pipeline is a strong indication of the current
regulatory environment’s attractiveness for mitigation action. Countries with a strong track record and
positive experiences with market mechanisms overall are more likely to continue efforts to maintain
that positive environment also when other climate policy efforts (climate finance for NAMA
implementation or the SDM etc.) kick in.
Regulatory environment for project developers: Ease of doing business ranking
A stable regulatory environment for project development and operation in the host countries is an
important determinant of the continued supply of CERs in Ci-Dev projects. To include this factor in our
analysis we have included the country ranking of the World Bank’s ‘Ease of doing business report’
(World Bank 2016). The ranking provides a snapshot of the current regulatory environment for business
activities across all economic sectors, but does not represent an indication of a country’s honouring of
international agreements.
Governance capacity: Quality of INDC, NAMAs and LEDS
To better understand the level of efforts each host country is putting in advancing policies that could
affect Ci-Dev activity types (energy access, renewables and improved domestic energy efficiency) we
have evaluated the quality of INDCs, screened for the countries’ NAMA development and concrete
measures toward achievement of LEDS. The preparation of NAMAs in particular indicates the level of
advancement of a country’s mitigation policy toolset. Thus, the efforts into NAMA development are also
a key factor in our determination to which category a country belongs to. Numerous countries have
neither publicly put forward plans for NAMAs nor LEDS. High capacity can mean a great ability and
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willingness to undertake credible mitigation action; this is thus ultimately a key indicator for reliability of
host countries.
8.3 Approach to the analysis regarding environmental integrity risk
At the country level, potential environmental integrity risk is viewed to be influenced by the already
mentioned overlaps of (potential) Ci-Dev activities with NAMAs under development, which could result
in double claiming. In addition, the countries’ level of interest in bilateral mechanisms, and the countries’
interest in market mechanisms as described in the following are key factors.
Mitigation policy overlaps with Ci-Dev activities
Among those countries that have publicly presented NAMAs or LEDS, we have identified potential
overlaps with Ci-Dev activities, which should be monitored for their impact on operating conditions of
Ci-Dev projects. In areas, in which such overlaps most likely will be advancing CDM projects (such as
sector-wide measures incentivizing renewables) the risk of regulatory barriers is attenuated, while the
risk that activities become non-additional and the risk of perverse incentives is increased. In some
instances such an overlap could indicate greater likelihood that the host country will seek to discontinue
operation of a PoA in order to include the same activity in its policy.
Risk resulting from bilateral mechanisms: is the country currently a JCM host country?
Countries, which host bilateral mitigation actions, could – if they do not set up proper registries for the
corresponding emissions reductions – create a potential for double claiming. Currently the only such
mechanism is the Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) by initiative of the Japanese government. Several
of the Ci-Dev eligible countries are also JCM host countries (Ethiopia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos,
and Myanmar), however no actual project activities have been set up in these countries. But –
especially in countries with limited capacity to set up a registry and create transparency in accounting
emissions reductions – developments with regard to the JCM should be monitored.
INDC and Market Mechanisms
In order to assess to which extent a country is at risk to inadequately prevent double counting of
emissions from CDM projects and measures taken to achieve their INDC, we assess whether the INDC
documents provide an indication of the countries willingness and ability to address double counting.
Furthermore, a key question is whether a country indicates willingness to use market instruments for
achieving its (I)NDC.
8.4 Results of the analysis
The complete results of the analysis following the approach outlined in Table 1 are found in the Annex
including a traffic-light indication of the conclusions in regard to the key risks previously outlined in
section 5.
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In the following, we are now presenting some key highlights along the structure of presenting country
examples in the three country categories according to countries’ level of sophistication of climate policy
instruments and related governance capacities: Country type C having presented an INDC with limited
specificity and no significant supporting policy documents, country type B having prepared and
published an INDC and having engaged in concrete mitigation activities such as development of
NAMAs, and having a certain level of CDM activity, whereas country type A can boast a fully-fledged
national greenhouse gas reduction strategy and has utilized many climate policy instruments in a
mutually reinforcing manner to achieve real mitigation and sustainable development co-benefits.
8.4.1 Country type C: least advanced mitigation policy instruments
The countries with the least developed climate policy toolsets and the most limited capacity for
governance on climate change mitigation among Ci-Dev eligible countries are: Benin, Burundi,
Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC), East Timor, Eritrea, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Laos, Liberia, Madagascar, Mauritania, Myanmar,
Niger, Sao Tome & Principe, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, and Yemen. Of those countries,
particularly DRC, Cote d’Ivoire and Madagascar could gradually become more relevant due to a high
mitigation potential linked to hydropower, biomass utilization and efficiency improvement in cities, but
their governance challenges will likely prove limiting factors. Myanmar could also become an
increasingly attractive host country as it is likely to improve its governance in the future due to the
ongoing political transition.
The key country challenge in this group is the low level of governmental capacity for designing and
implementing mitigation policies and consequentially the limited awareness with regard to technical
issues such as double counting. In addition, there could potentially be a risk of a flawed understanding
or limited public awareness to protect ownership of mitigation outcomes from CDM activities – in
particular in countries with limited to zero CDM activities. Beyond, countries in this group could have
the highest risks related to erratic government decisions even at internationally visible levels such as
the scope of NAMAs (where existing) or INDCs.
Most countries in this category do neither have ambitious targets nor conservative baselines. Those
that have not made their baselines transparent might be clarifying them through a later revision of the
NDC. Sierra Leone appears to have both an ambitious target and a conservative baseline, and could
thus be at risk of wanting to appropriate emissions reductions from CDM activities.
Given that many countries in this group are in somewhat unstable political circumstances, the CDM
often not being a high political priority, and given the limited experience with CDM activities, the risk of
regulatory changes negatively affecting CDM activities in the country is highest in this group.
Particular countries in this category could benefit from building capacities to access carbon markets in
the future, if their political stability and general governance situation allows for this. The focus in these
countries should be to strengthen basic capacities through engagement in cost-effective projects of
smaller volumes without taking an overly great risk of investing into projects that could likely be
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discontinued due to reasons beyond the influence of the program. However, if other regulatory barriers
are to be expected due to insufficient governance capacity, such capacity building efforts can also
easily be lost. For ensuring high effectiveness in achieving mitigation action, Ci-Dev might focus its
efforts among countries in this group to those which show the most tangible governmental support for
CDM projects. Unfortunately none of the countries in this category have any relevant CDM experience
in activities supported by Ci-Dev. Efforts in these countries should in particular take the risks from
bottlenecks in dysfunctional regulatory processes into account (e.g. no LoA, no licences or permits for
implementation). The risk of doing business ranking could provide some limited indication as to this
type of operational risk, but actual knowledge of the situations in the respective institutions is necessary
for a robust assessment of which countries could be best advanced.
8.4.2 Country type B: intermediate mitigation policy instruments
The middle category is the largest one; it includes: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burkina Faso,
Cambodia, Cape Verde, Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Nepal, Nigeria,
Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The countries in this category tend to have
developed at least a relatively specific INDC and can demonstrate some level of activity regarding
NAMA development in particular sectors. In addition, at least a few CDM projects are operational,
indicating that the governmental capacity and the regulatory environment in general appears sufficient
for continued operation of CDM projects. However, many of these countries have general difficulties
with regard to good governance or limited government capacity to implement robust mitigation action.
As observed in the INDC development process of some of the countries, data is insufficient and many
have not defined quantitative targets.
In these countries, however, by far not all sectors are addressed by detailed NAMA feasibility studies
or concrete policies4. The estimation of mitigation potential in these sectors thus does not have a strong
foundation. Those countries in this category which have a conservative baseline and ambitious
mitigation targets5 could therefore be most at risk of appropriating CERs occurring from CDM activities
in the country if they overestimated their real mitigation potential or ability to induce the corresponding
emissions cuts.
Nigeria has a large mitigation potential and a highly ambitious target on off-grid solar electrification: its
unconditional scenario includes providing 13 GW of renewable electricity to rural communities currently
off-grid – an effort which is in line with one PoA in Ci-Dev’s support pipeline (see Annex). At the same
time the country also is known for its severe governance challenges. While such a country should not
be the place for experimentation, it could reliably host Ci-Dev activities as the track record of PoAs in
the area of household energy shows. In such a case developments on NAMAs and INDC
4 For the assessment of the NAMA pipeline refer to the Annex.
5 This includes Cape Verde, Gambia and Zambia
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implementation should be watched, as they could represent both an opportunity for project developers
as well as a risk for ongoing activities.
With its NAMA concept on biomass energy, Burkina Faso has reached the in-depth appraisal phase of
the NAMA Facility. However the development of the NAMA concept has stalled due to lack of clarity
on the institutional responsibilities. If the NAMA eventually goes forward, it could represent both an
opportunity to advance energy-related activities in Burkina Faso, but due to its broad energy-sector
scope could also affect the PoA for dissemination of bio digester systems included in the Ci-Dev
pipeline. Given that at this preliminary stage of NAMA development no specific policy instruments have
been defined, its consequences are unclear. The NAMA could arguably improve the business
environment e.g. facilitating access to financing and thus strengthen competition in the market, but
given the slow pace of the NAMA development it is unlikely that severe changes will occur in the near
future.
Cambodia has a robust record of CDM activities, however the general governance situation is
challenging. Cambodia is also one of the active JCM host countries. While the PoA activities could lend
themselves for Ci-Dev involvement and while there is no current threat, activities in Cambodia should
be watched for future NAMA developments and JCM activities that could undermine credibility of CERs
or reliable continuation of PoAs.
Gambia has no real experience in the CDM, a high ambition and stringent baseline in its INDC and is
willing to use market mechanisms to achieve its target. It has an explicit objective of increasing rural
electrification through renewable energy in its set of NAMAs. If Ci-Dev were to become active in
Gambia e.g. by exploring synergistic NAMA development based on a PoA) it would need to make sure
that Gambia will not view CDM activities as both a source for domestic mitigation as well as revenue
from sales of CERs.
Ghana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Nepal, Malawi, Nigeria, and Senegal have some experience in Ci-Dev
relevant PoA activities, limited ambition in their INDCs and no overlap with NAMAs. These are countries
which could be further considered for PoA activities, and in which no specific policy changes are to be
expected resulting from INDCs and NAMAs. For assessing their potential, the specific focus should be
on the particular business environment for developing energy related activities and the climate policy
track record. Bhutan, Senegal, Ghana and Zambia stand out for their good governance and in particular
Senegal has a robust and long-standing climate policy engagement, so our recommendation is to
further screen for potential activities in these latter countries.
The key challenges in the group of countries in category B are due to the greater number of NAMAs
and related policies that concern mitigation activities, which can cause interferences and
inconsistencies between sectors or toward the INDC due to potential flaws in the design process.
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8.4.3 Country type A: advanced mitigation policy instruments
The countries with the most advanced climate policy toolset include Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda and
Uganda.
The key challenge in this country group could be the countries’ ability to attract potentially large sums
of climate finance, which could draw some attention away from CDM activities in particular if the general
level of support for market instruments is weak. In addition, countries in this group could be
experimenting with new forms of developing NAMAs (e.g. hybrid PoA-NAMA), which would require
addressing a number of accounting issues. The same experimentation could however also attenuate
the risk of neglecting CDM projects, in particular if such a NAMA draws part of its revenues from CER
sales. Overall, the risks from appropriation or regulatory barriers seems most limited in this group, due
to an advanced governance capacity and transparency, as well as proactive international engagement
in the UNFCCC, which causes greater exposure to international scrutiny.
Ethiopia developed a far-reaching Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy in 2011. It has
a very ambitious policy to keep its energy system on a low-carbon path. A dedicated CRGE Facility
tries to coordinate climate finance mobilization, NAMAs and carbon market mechanism engagement.
However, Ethiopia’s attempts to mobilize GCF funding have so far been unsuccessful, although the
Ministry of Finance has received both GCF and Adaptation Fund accreditation in March 2016. A GCF
proposal has been prepared by the Ministry of Energy that covers off-grid energy access technologies
that are relevant for Ci-Dev activities. Potential linkages between the draft GCF proposal and Ci-Dev
PoAs could be explored by Ci-Dev in order to set a precedent for linking carbon markets and climate
finance, as per the most recent CMP annual guidance to the CDM EB.
Uganda has been a pioneer in applying the concept of a renewable energy feed in tariff in a poor
developing country context. Moreover, it has used the CDM from its earliest days, often in close
collaboration with the World Bank. The Ci-Dev has two Uganda based activities in the pipeline and we
recommend to build further on these activities.
Rwanda has a coordinated approach to NAMA development and climate finance mobilization through
skilled government agencies. It is the first country that has been able to access the GCF’s Project
Preparation Facility. While the country will only communicate a quantitative mitigation target in 2017,
this is appropriate and indicates a willingness to present robust numbers on the basis of sufficient
information. It has strong sectoral targets and in particular foresees measures to roll-out solar mini-
grids, enhance energy efficiency. Having participated in exploring innovative combinations of PoA and
NAMA for improved cook stoves and water filters (Michaelowa et al. 2013), Rwanda could be an ideal
country to pilot such scaled-up actions that draw on both instruments in a complementary manner. The
key question is how emissions reductions will be counted toward the various stakeholders involved in
such public-private partnership activities in order to prevent double counting, while creating the right
incentives to engage on costly activities such as distribution, capacity building and MRV at household
level. Given that the indicated climate finance needs are relatively large and given that the INDC
indicates the countries willingness to use market instruments, such a hybrid programmatic-NAMA
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design needs to be done in a clear understanding that the government of Rwanda will not be able to
receive both international support and full ownership over the mitigation units.
8.5 Summary of country-level challenges and opportunities
Countries which demonstrate clear challenges in particular categories such as good governance or
past experience in CDM activities may quite clearly not be the best targets for effective mitigation action
under Ci-Dev but could benefit from targeted capacity support. Other risk categories need to be
addressed on a country-by-country basis to judge the potential effectiveness of interventions to
leverage mitigation action. Nevertheless, some tendencies regarding the categories of countries in
which particular opportunities or risks are more or less pronounced can be identified:
If mitigation effectiveness is the overriding objective, countries in category C may only be addressed
through a targeted approach focussing on those countries with the most experience in CDM projects,
and where an improvement of governance is likely in conjunction with the existence of a significant
mitigation potential. At the same time, interventions by the World Bank Group have the unique potential
to address some of these country-specific challenges and to enable them to access international
carbon markets and climate finance in the long run: Here, fundamental aspects are most important,
namely the functioning of the CDM process and regulation as indicated by previous experience in the
CDM. Secondly, the evolving country risk levels resulting from conflict or corruption as generally visible
in international news media should be seen as an overriding factor. Thirdly, in view of limited
governance capacity, overlaps of potential activities with mitigation policies should be assessed
carefully, given that these can provide for both an improvement of the business situation, as well as a
risk of creating perverse incentives.
In countries featuring in category B, the approach could be a bit more opportunity-oriented: By
focussing on countries with high interest in activities bringing together mitigation and development as
expressed through their NAMA pipelines or sectoral targets high government commitment can be
harnessed to mobilize action also if CDM experience to date has been limited. Nevertheless, from the
beginning, the conversation surrounding CDM activities should manage expectations with regard to
counting emissions reductions toward the NDC, and work to address this in contractual arrangements.
This would reduce the risk of future withdrawal of approval letters by the host country after 2020 in
order to meet its NDC. This country category could benefit significantly from capacity building on CDM
MRV. Hereby, technical capacity under the emerging SDM could emerge as a co-benefit.
Countries in category A offer the highest level of opportunities for experimentation with innovative
approaches to scaling up of mitigation action toward NAMAs and INDCs and for piloting activities
toward the SDM, such as through hybrid design of NAMAs building on PoAs. Feasibility studies and
pilot activities could be combined with capacity building toward crediting of policy actions. Given their
level of coordination and previous efforts, we recommend to focus such experimental action on
Ethiopia, Rwanda and Uganda, LDCs with a critical mass of experience and political will on which to
build. Pilot activities could become extremely relevant as best-practice examples for policy action under
the SDM and show that even LDCs are ready for scaled up SDM action. Countries participating in such
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pilot activities could greatly benefit from the resulting capacity building effect, while good pilots improve
the reputation of emerging carbon markets benefiting all potential host countries.
9 Conclusions and recommendations
Uncertainties regarding CER accrual to Ci-Dev before 2020 are much lower than for the post-2020
period. Except the unlikely sudden emergence of a large new buyer of CERs or VERs at high prices,
risks are rather limited. At the same time, CDM reform and negotiations over SDM modalities and
procedures will continue and influence each other. If the SDM is seen as natural continuation of the
CDM, CDM project owners will expect a natural transition of their activities into the SDM. Given the
strong support for the Paris Agreement (175 Parties having signed the Agreement on 22nd April 2016),
there is a realistic possibility that the PA may actually enter into force earlier than expected. This may
imply a more immediate clarification of the relationship between the CDM and Art. 6 mechanisms.
During the pre-2020 period demand for CERs and other units that can be expected from NDCs will
become clearer, including for using CDM as a building block for RBF mechanisms (similar to the Ci-
Dev approach), e.g. through the GCF. This relates both to the newly emerging domestic need for
emissions reductions in developing countries as well as the developed countries’ willingness to fulfil or
top up their NDCs with international units.
Post-2020, risks for Ci-Dev activities increase substantially. If the SDM is not seen as seamless
continuation of the CDM, CDM projects would need to be used to generate ITMOs under Article 6.2 or
the generation of CERs would stop in 2020. Issuance for pre-2020 CERs can stretch up to 2023 or the
end of the Kyoto Protocol true-up period for the second commitment period. As NDC implementation
periods start in 2020, governments will have a higher interest to scrutinize which share of the mitigation
is sold abroad in form of credits and which share is retained domestically. However, this will only
become politically salient in 2023 when the first stocktake of NDC progress is undertaken, but
particularly when the end date of the first NDC approaches, which generally is 2030.
Our recommendations can be differentiated into those for the short term (up to 2020) and long-term.
As an immediate step, Emissions Reductions Purchase Agreements (ERPAs) negotiated under Ci-Dev
have already anticipated various developments regarding the transition toward the SDM by including a
relatively open description of what emissions reductions could be used for compliance with the ERPA
post 2020. The wording “standard comparable to the CDM agreed upon by the Parties” might have to
be refined further in order to prevent that counterparts argue that the post-2020 mechanisms are “not
comparable” and thus can retain credits.
In the short term, the ambivalent situation regarding support for market instruments and the difficult
market situation of the CDM putting those activities that do not benefit from similar support at risk of
being discontinued dominates. We thus recommend Ci-Dev to take an even more active role in
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promoting the important benefits of market instruments as key implementation mechanisms for the
Paris Agreement. This should be done by highlighting the quality of projects supported by Ci-Dev and
encouraging other donors to maintain or increase support for ongoing activities in order to boost trust
in market instruments. As political negotiations on the SDM advance in the next 2-4 years, Ci-Dev can
support project owners by providing essential information and capacity building to maximise the
chances for transferring activities into the SDM in the post-2020 market. Furthermore related capacity
building from Ci-Dev could also benefit Ci-Dev host countries and enhance their capacities in taking a
proactive role in the UNFCCC negotiations.
As a lighthouse initiative, Ci-Dev can demonstrate that the CDM structure works and should serve as
a blueprint for developing the SDM and a benchmark for cooperative approaches as well as showcase
that links to climate finance could contribute to scaling up and replicating market based activities. In
order to do this, we recommend Ci-Dev monitor decisions on NDCs with regards to carbon markets, in
particular the SDM regarding possibilities for transferring activities from the CDM to the SDM so that
projects can be assured a continued carbon revenue and Ci-Dev can continue acquiring similar shares
of units from each PoA beyond 2020.
In those countries that foresee use of a bilateral mechanism such as the JCM, Ci-Dev should be
monitoring for any overlap in actual implementation of activities in order to ensure that registries to
account for emissions reductions to address the issue of double claiming, apply best practice and
effectively prevent that CDM emissions reductions directly benefit from such a bilateral mechanism. At
the same time, the CDM provides clear regulation that effectively prevents activities generating CERs
to be counted toward other mitigation obligations – bilateral mechanisms therefore in the authors’ view
do not represent a risk to the public perception of the integrity of Ci-Dev activities.
In the medium to long term, we recommend supporting pilot activities regarding the advancement of
scaled-up action e.g. through embedding of PoA-style activities in NAMAs or through exploring the
possibility for crediting policy actions. Ci-Dev could enhance its visibility as an innovative program
piloting new and important concepts of mitigation policy. Such innovative approaches could in particular
be pursued in countries of category A and in particular Rwanda’s previous experimenting with
combining PoA and NAMA lends itself as a highly interesting starting point for a PoA-based NAMA
approach, whereas Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy strategy and high level of coordination
lends itself to explore possible top-down policy crediting concepts. There are different models of such
integration that can be explored, namely using the PoA “infrastructure” merely to guide activities
developed as a NAMA or to buy CERs from PoAs to demonstrate verified mitigation results under a
NAMA or to have both components side-by-side.
In Ci-Dev eligible countries it is still early days to anticipate how NAMAs will evolve and specifically
affect the business environment of ongoing CDM activities. Both in the short and the long term, a
monitoring of those cases in which we have identified an overlap with the scope of the Ci-Dev program
could allow identifying challenges to project operation or possible occurrence of perverse incentives.
Within each host country, Ci-Dev could help project owners understand evolving regulatory implications
of NAMAs as they are being developed over time.
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Given the emerging topic of blending climate finance sources we see the need for research to explore
the impacts of competing pricing for emissions reductions from different climate finance sources.
Specifically the question needs to be answered whether economic efficiency can be achieved while
development benefits are delivered effectively, or whether trade-offs between these two objectives
cannot be avoided. Furthermore, we recommend exploring the types of incentives that project
participants are facing, by modeling complementarities amongst various types of finance for an actual
Ci-Dev project and the different possible approaches for the blending of finance under varying price
assumptions.
In view of the importance of credible mitigation commitments and the debatable quality of some INDC’s
baselines, there is an opportunity for Ci-Dev to highlight its experience supporting methodological work
on baselines. Ci-Dev could be assisting key countries in revising the baselines of NDCs and NAMAs,
building on the program’s experience in standardized baselines. Energy access methodologies as
preferred by Ci-Dev are among the most highly standardized in the CDM toolkit, and are therefore the
ideal pilot sector for sectoral crediting approaches that could become more relevant once the PA
becomes effective. Furthermore, Ci-Dev could be providing important capacity building support at the
intersection of carbon market activities and policies to ensure robust MRV and accounting system
design and contribute to innovative approaches thus also harnessing possible synergies with other
initiatives of the World Bank such as the Transformative Carbon Asset Facility.
In selecting future activities for Ci-Dev to support, we recommend Ci-Dev projects to be selected and
developed strategically by ensuring best compatibility with the most robust and credible greenhouse
gas mitigation instrument that emerges in the climate policy landscape over the coming years. This will
in all likelihood be the SDM. Furthermore Ci-Dev can contribute to making the SDM a credible
mechanism by highlighting best-practice examples under the CDM and undertaking pilot activities for
crediting of policies based on the methodological toolset of the CDM. At the same time, we recommend
supporting a selected group of countries standing out for their proactive engagement in negotiations to
achieve their interest in a reliable market mechanism by maintaining an open information exchange on
key issues regarding Art. 6.
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Annex: Country analysis table
See separate excel file