I find sitting in a lecture hall listening to someone essentially summarize the main points of a textbook

to be not only boring but a waste of my time. Furthermore, exams that are nothing more than a memorization exercise do not accurately reflect or encourage the understanding of key concepts, the development of critical thinking, or cognitive synthesis of new ideas or theories developed as a result of studying the content. Worst of all, I have found this type of educational experience to sometimes dampen interest in the subject

rather than stimulate the student to explore the subject further. (Harrsch, 1998)

Harrsch, M. 1998.

How I think about the teaching episode

Teacher

Content Learner

Context

Knowles -- Andragogy

• Self-concept

• Prior experience

• Readiness to learn

• Learning orientation

• Motivation to learn

Principles of Adult Learning

• Learner - Centered• Personalized • Context Dependent for appropriate tools• Context leads to experiential reflection• Experience

What’s Important to Adult Learners ?

• Involvement

• Affiliation

• Teacher Support ( + / - )

• Task Orientation ( + / - )

What’s Important to Adult Learners ?

• Personal Goal Attainment

• Organization and Clarity

• Personal Influence ( Independence )

Experiential Learning Cycle

Experiencing

Sharing

ProcessingGeneralizing

Applying

Activity - Perceptual Modality - Learning

Didactic: Meaning External to Learner

Experiential: Meaning Internal to Learner

Read i i nngg

Lecture

Discuss

Case

Role

PPllaayy

Exp.

LLeecc

Insts

Therapy

Simulatn

Framing

• Adult problem setting process

• Situated Cognition*– Naming– Selection for attention – Selection for organization– Reflection– Perspective transformation

– *Wilson, Arthur L. “The Promise of Situated Cognition,” New Directions for Adult and Continuing Learning, no 57, Spring, 1993. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Reflective Process

• Donald Schon – Artistry of the professional– Reflection in action– Theories of action– Practice theories

– Refs: Donald Schon

– The Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, 1983

– Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1986

My research

POSITIVE POLE (student-centered orientation)• is enthusiastic about subject and teaching • should facilitate interactive discussions• should facilitate learning• consistently observes the learner and reviews their

progress• believe that for students to learn they must be involved in

their instruction• should say when uncertain or do not know about the

handling or background of a caseGelula, 1996

Gelula continued

POSITIVE POLE (continued)• act as a role model• be straightforward and honest with students• have good interpersonal skills

Gelula continued

NEGATIVE POLE

• emphasize as many teaching points as necessary

• effective teaching requires special educational skills and background theory

• should be meticulous in their teaching organization

• should be the expert

• should be dramatic in their teaching behaviors

• anyone can be a lecturer

What is involved in effective teaching

• clarity

• instructional variety

• ability of the teacher to engage students in the learning process

• teacher task processes

• methods by which teachers find ways to effect higher success rates among learners

(Borich, 1966)

Effective teaching in clinical medical education

• activities that promote active student participation

• preceptor attitude toward teaching

• emphasis on applied problem-solving

• student centered instructional strategies

• involving the student in the case

• communicating instructor expectations to the student

• stimulation of interest

• demonstration of skillful interaction with patients

• humanistic orientation

• emphasis on references and research

Effective teaching behaviors & characteristics common to classroom

and clinical education

• organization and clarity of the teacher

• group instructional skills

• enthusiasm and the ability to stimulate the learner

• ability to display content knowledge Irby, 1978

• clinical supervision regularly practiced

• personal clinical competence

• ability to model professional characteristics

Least effective characteristics in clinical medical education

• failure to provide adequate feedback to students

• failure to emphasize concerns of patients

• tendency to dwell on specific content as opposed to a problem-solving approach to patient care

Stritter & Hain, 1977

ENTHUSIASMENTHUSIASMWhat’s all this about

• Enthusiasm is what the student perceives

• enthusiasm is engendered by a caring teacher

– demonstrates interest in students (?caring)

– manifests careful and caring approach to their discipline and the subject

– cares about relationship of subject to the student’s world

– cares about relationship of subject to the real world

Teaching to Competence

Assisting

Monitoring

supervising

DemonstratingObservation Practice Performance

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

Teaching as discourse

“The learning process must be constituted as a dialogue between teacher and student, operating at the level of descriptions of actions in the world, recognizing the second-order character of academic knowledge . . .”

(Diana Laurillard, 1993)

Discursive characteristics of teaching

• Teacher’s and student’s conceptions should each be accessible to the other

• teacher and students must agree on learning goals for the topic and task

• teacher must provide an environment within which students can act on, generate and receive feedback on descriptions appropriate to the topic goal

(Laurillard, 1993)

Adaptive characteristics of teaching

• The teacher has the responsibility to use the relationship between their own and the student’s conception to determine the focus of the continuing dialogue

(Laurillard, 1993)

Interactive characteristics of teaching

• The student must act to achieve the task goal

• the teacher must provide meaningful intrinsic feedback on the actions that relate to the nature of the task goal

(Laurillard, 1993)

Reflective characteristics of teaching

• The teacher must support the process in which students link the feedback on their actions to the topic goal for every level of description within the topic structure

(Laurillard, 1993)

Structure of Observed Learning Outcome

Bigg’s SOLO Taxonomy

1 Prestructural irrelevant information, or no meaningful response

2 Unistructural answer focuses on one relevant aspect only

3 Multistructural answer focuses on several relevant features, but they are not coordinated together

(in Ramsden, 1992)

Bigg’s SOLO Taxonomy

4 Relational the several parts are integrated into a coherent whole: details are linked to conclusions; meaning is understood

answer generalizes the structure beyond the information given: higher order principles are used to bring in a new and broader set of issues

5 Extended abstract

Student and teacher roles in the learning process

• Apprehending structure• Integrating parts

• Acting on descriptions

• Using feedback

• Reflecting on goal-action-feedback

– Look for structure– Translate & interpret

Relate goal to discourse– Derive implications, solve

problems, test Ho’s to produce descriptions

– Link T’s redescription to relations between action & goal to produce new description

– Engage with goal; relate to actions & feedback

Aspects of Learning Process Student’s Role

(Laurillard, 1993)

Student and teacher roles in the learning process

• Apprehending structure

• Integrating parts

• Acting on descriptions

• Using feedback

• Reflecting on goal-action-feedback

– Explain, clarify structure, negotiate topic goal

– Offer mappings, ask about internal relations

– Elicit descriptions, compare, highlight inconsistencies

– provide redescriptions, elicit new descriptions, support linking process

– Prompt reflection; support reflection on goal-action-feedback

Aspects of Learning Process Teacher’s Role

(Laurillard, 1993)

Learning: deep and surface approaches

• Emphasis on recall • application of trivial

procedural knowledge• excessive material • poor or absent feedback• lack of independence in

studying• cynical messages about

rewards

• Teaching and assessment foster active and long-term engagement with learning tasks

• clearly stated academic expectations

• stimulating teaching which demonstrates teachers personal commitment to subject

Surface Deep

(Ramsden, 1992)

References

•Borich, Gary (1996). Effective Teaching Methods (3rd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.

•Gelula, Mark (1996). What Do Faculty Believe: Using Q-Method to Inform Faculty Development of Medical Faculty. Paper presented to the 12rth International Conference on Subjectivity, October 3-5, 1996.

•Harrsch, M. 1998. Quoted in William R. Klemm (1999). “Will Distance Education Really Revolutionize Higher Education?.” The Technology Source (January). http://horizon.unc.edu/TS/vision/

References (continued)• Irby, David (1978) “Clinical Teacher Effectiveness in Medicine,” J

Med Ed., 53:808-815.

• Irby, David (1991) “Characteristics of Effective Clinical Teachers of Ambulatory Care Medicine,” Academic Med., 66:54-55.

• Laurillard, Diana (1993). Rethinking University Teaching. London: Routledge.

• Ramsden, Paul (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London: Routledge.

• Stritter, F. and J. Hain (1977). “A Workshop in Clinical Teaching,” J. Med. Ed. 52:155-157.

• Stritter, F. and J. Hain and Grimes (1975). “Clinical Teaching Reexamined.” J. Med. Ed. 50:877-882.