HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY/Chapter 3-Cells & Tissues

Part I-Cells

Identified by _______________first as he looked at dead cork cells

Made of primarily 4 elements---_____________/other elements include Ca, I, Na, K..Some of these in water solution carry a charge ,at which point they are called_______________...Ca is used for blood clotting ,Fe to make hemoblobin, and I for Thyroid hormone

~60% water/cells are in a dilute water solution called___________________________________,derived from blood-HERE IS WHERE EXCHANGES BETWEEN CELLS & BLOOD TAKE PLACE!

Size ranges—2 micrometers-~1 meter Overall structure may be related to function

ANATOMY of GENERALIZED CELL-nucleus,cytoplasm,plasma membrane

1) Nucleus-_______________________-contains DNA which has info for making proteins-shape usually conforms to shape of cell

__________________________or________________________ fluid –filled space with nuclear pores penetrate through envelope-Contain jellylike nucleoplasm-other Nuclear elements suspended

_________________________-makes ribosomes Chromatin-DNA and chromatin that constitute dense

chromosomes during cell division

2)Plasma Membrane(cell membrane)

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Contains a phospholipids bilayer-“tail-to-tail” and proteins floating amidst this.-some having attached sugars---as channels- to allow particles in and carb tags to specify what molecules are admitted/some proteins act as carriers to move something out membrane

Also contains cholesterol-helps keep the membrane fluid Proteins may be enzymes or hormone receptors Polar heads of bilayer are Hydrophilic-

______________________ Nonpolar tails are Hydrophobic-avoid water General properties allows membrane to reseal easily The “sugar proteins” are _____________________ producing

the sugar rich or(sticky) known as Glycocalyx—-one of the many functions is to determine blood type,or as receptors for bacteria,viruses and toxins---see cancer connection p.68

Cell Membrane specializations:o Microvilli- Projections to increase surface area so

absorption occurs more quicklyo Membrane junctions :

1. _______________________-impermeable and bind to prevent leakage between cells(acts like a “zipper”)

2. _____________________anchoring junctions that prevent mechanical stress(eg.skin cells)-prevent being pulled apart—thickenings_PLAQUES-of adjacent cell membrane-by protein filaments-“guy wires”

3. ___________________________-(in heart and between embryonic cells)—function for communication----place where chemicals pass----connect to neighboring cell by CONNEXONS(hallow cylinders composed of proteins to span width between cell)

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CYTOPLASM-material outside nucleus and inside cell membrane-1)cytosol fluid;2)organelles 3) inclusions-chemicals possibly present,depending on cell type—usually stored nutrients of cell products-eg.pigment or glycogen

ORGANELLES: Most membrane bound ___________________________-changes shape and has a

double membrane-Inner cristae composed of enzymes and as well as dissolved in fluid-CARRY OUT CELLULAR RESPIRATION from which we get ATP-energy----many found in liver and muscle

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_______________________-have rRNA and mRNA is read here-tRNA-brings appropriate amino acid in to make PROTEINS…..some free in cytoplasm and some attached to ER

ER-endoplasmic reticulum-has fluid filled cisterns or coils1. Rough-has ribosomes and sends proteins out,as their intricate folding

occurs to area of cell in transport vesicles or for export(protein products)2. Smooth-used in lipid metabolism and detox of drugs etc.,(many in liver)

___________________________-stack of membranous sacs and exports proteins in SECRETORY VESICLES,then to plasma membrane-eg-digestive enzymes made by pancreas

______________________-membranous bags w/ digestive enzymes-for worn out cell structures

Perioxisomes -membranous sacs w/ oxidase enzymes that use O2 to detox poisons-like alcohol----also to convert FREE RADICALS to H2O2 and this is catalyzed to water….(What are Free radicals?-reactive chemicals w/unpr’ed electrons that can scramble proteins and nucleic acids….many in liver and kidney)

Cytoskeleton— network of protein structures,inc:1. Intermediate filaments-help desmosomes 2. microfilaments-involved in motility and shape- 3. microtubules-give shape and for cell divisions

Centrioles- near nucleus-role in cell division Cilia- on some cells to move things-as in respiratory tract Flagella- whiplike---in sperm

CELL DIVERSITY-

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Trillions of human cells spell about 200 different cell types.Below are some of the specializations

1. Cells that connect body parts: ____________________-elongated shape;secretes cable –like

fibers;much ER and large Golgi to secrete proteins ___________________(RBC)carries O2 in blood;concave shape

gives surface area for O2 uptake,yet streamlined for flow-absent of other organelles so can carry much O2

2. Cell that covers and lines body organs:o _______________________hexagonal shape-allows packing

together in a sheet;filaments present to resist tearing3. Cells that move organs and body parts:

o Skeletal and smooth muscle-long and filled w/ contractile filaments-to move bones or change size of internal organs.

4. Cell that stores nutrientso ____-large spherical shape-from large lipid droplet in

cytoplasm5. Cell that fights diseases:

o ________________________-phagocytic-sends pseudopods to reach infection and infection digested by lysosomes

6. Cell that gathers info and controls body functions: ______________-(neuron)-long extensions for receiving

messages and transmitting;extensive plasma membrane7. Cells of Reproduction:

__________________female-largest cell in body __________________male-long and flagellated

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III. CELL PHYSIOLOGY--for metabolism,digestion,waste disposal,reproduction,growth,movement,and irritability

---MEMBRANE TRANSPORTSolution basics-

1. _______________________=homogeneous mixture of 2 or more substances

2. ________________________-does dissolving3. _________________________-gets dissolved

____________________________-nucleoplasm and cytyosol---containing sm amounts gases(O2 and CO2),nutrients,and salts in water solution_____________________________-continuously washes exterior of cells---many components,inc. amino acids,sugars,fatty acids ,vitamins/regulatory hormones and neurotransmitters,as well as salts and waste.CELL MUST OBTAIN THAT WHICH IT NEEDS FROM HERE AND REJECT REST.Plasma Membrane is ___________________________________-choosy in what is allowed in and kept out….also certain substance must remain in cell

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Movement in 2 ways:1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT—pass w/o energy

o ________________molecules move AWAY from areas where more concentrated;move down concentration gradient;hydrophobic portion of membranes resists diffusion,but particles small enough will go through pores-in MEMBRANE PROTEINS-This is simple diffusion-either they are small enough or lipid soluble

o __________________________-water diffuses through selectively permeable membrane-water resisted through nonpolar lipid core by pores called_____________________________-made by membrane proteins

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o Facilitated diffusion-needed substance-eg.glucose-lipid insoluble and too big for pores-protein membrane channel is used-transport vehicle

o _____________________-water and solutes forced through a membrane-or capillary wall by FLUID_HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE---usually by blood-is w/ a gradient,but the gradient actually MOVES the solution.The gradient is

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called a PRESURE GRADIENT….also used in kidney function

2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES-uses ATP-particles may be against gradient,too large,or lack a helper protein

o Active Transport-solute pump-ATP energizes protein carriers(solute pump)-carries amino acids,sugars ,and most ions----Sodium potassium pump vital to nerve transmission{excess Na ions outside and excess K on inside

o ______________________-w/ use of ATP moves large masses in or out(w/o crossing plasma membrane)

A. ________________________- moves large masses out-package by golgi into vesicles and ruptures outward

B. _________________________-moves the same IN—sends to lysosome…..Phagocytosis-eats bacteria and dead cell bodies

C. Pinocytosis—pinches in liquidsD. Receptor mediated endocytosis-plasma membrane

receptors target certain molecules

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Active Transport

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Exocytosis

Endocytosis

CELL DIVISION-cell reproduces

CELL CYCLE

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During interphase,cell must duplicate DNADNA REPLICATION/enzyme regulated—remember A_T and C_G each side serves

as template

MITOSIS-number of chromosomes you start with—diploid is same at end,then followed by cytoplasm division-____________________

1. PROPHASE -chromatin coils and shortens-CHROMOSOMES;centri-oles move to opposite poles and mitotic spindle form to form a railway for chromosome movement

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2. Metaphase -chromosomes line up at center

3. Anaphase-chromatids split and go to opposite poles

4. Telophase-chromosomes become thin again,spindles break down and 2 new nuclei

CYTOKINESIS separation occurs at

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_________________________maybe a multinucleated cell w/o cytokinesis.

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Stages of Mitosis

Figure 3.15(cont)

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS-_________________-DNA segment with info for one protein(polypeptide chain)DNA is stuck in nucleus so copies some of info onto mRNA—mRNA forms a RNA version of DNA template(note U replaces T----so A-U and C-GThis is decoded or interpreted by rRNA-at ribosometRNA brings in appropriate amino acids to assemble protein at ribosome___________________________-transfer of DNA base sequence into complementary mRNA segment-each 3 amino acids are a triplet and complement on mRNA is called a_____________________

DNA mRNAA UA UT A

C GG CT___________A

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T__________AC__________GG___________C

Translation- DNA info translated into amino acids----tRNA brings in an anticodon to complement codon and this brings in correct amino acid

FIGURING OUT AMINO ACIDS- --Use genetic code:

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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

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Human Anatomy and Physiology---Chapter 3 notes Part 2-BODY TISSUES

BODY TISSUES

_________________cells in a group that are similar in structure and functionBasically 4 types and functions:

1. covering(epithelial)2. movement(muscle)3. support(connective)4. control(nervous)

I. Epithelial TissueThis is the lining,covering(cover free body surfaces and _____________________of the bodyFunction in protection,absorption,filtration and secretion.

SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIUM 1. fit together closely to form continuous sheets(except glandular)-bound by

tight junctions and desmosomes2. has one free unattached edge-_________________________-exposed to

body’s exterior or cavity of an organ3. lower surface rests on a ___________________________________-

structure-less material secreted by both epithelial and connective tissue that is abut the epithelium

4. no blood supply of own--__________________-and depend on diffusion from capillaries

5. normally regenerate easily

CLASSSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM -1st name indicates basic # of cell layers

1. ___________________________-1 layer of cells2. ____________________________-> 1 cell layer

CLASSSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM -2nd name indicates shape of cells1. _______________________-flattened like fish

scales(squam= scale)2. cuboidal-shaped like dice3. columnar-like columns(stratified epithleial at free surface,not basement layer)

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SIMPLE EPTHELIA—apsortion,secretion,and filtration-not protection Simple Squamous Epithelium -rests on

basement membrane,fit closely,usually forms membranes for filtration or diffusion

---found in lungs,walls of capillaries

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----also found in ___________________________-slick membranes in ventral body cavity and organs

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imple Cuboidal Epithelium-also fit closely together on basement membrane--in glands and ducts,walls of kidney tubules and surface of ovaries

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Simple Columnar Epithelium -also close together

--___________________________ make a lubricating mucus-entire digestive tract---called __________if line body cavities open to exterior

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Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium --on basement membraneSome cells shorter than others and nuclei give impression of different heights—false impression that its stratified

- Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium- in respiratory tract –goblet cells help trap dust=

STRATIFIED EPITHELIA—durable and protect Stratified Squamous Epithelium -most

stratified Epithelium---several layers

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-squamous at free edge and more columnar or cuboidal close to basement-sites that receive abuse like-________________________________________________________________

Stratified Cuboidal –typically 2 cell layers and Columnar Epithelium-basal cells vary in size and shape----both types rare in body-mostly in ducts of large glands

Transitional Epithelium -modified stratified squamous in lining of a few organ(bladder,ureters and urethra---which are all subject to stretching)

-basal layer cuboidal or columnar;at free surface vary)eg. When not stretched has many layers-ability to slide past each other and change shape yields function

Glandular Epithelium --product called __________________(also refers to verb)-usually protein in water

1. _____________________glands-lose connection to surface and called ________________-secrete hormones into blood-eg.thyroid,pituitary and adrenals

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2. _____________________glands keep ducts and secrete to epithelial surface-eg sweat and oil glands,liver and pancreas

II.Connective Tissue-connects body parts-mostly involved in protecting,supporting,and binding

1. Variations in blood supply-most well vascularized(except tendons and ligaments)2. ________________________________many different types of cell including this

some nonliving materialo Produced by connective tissue and secreted to its exterior has

1)structureless ground fibers w/some adhesion proteins(like a glue attaching cells to matrix fibers in ground substance) and large polysaccharides(trap water as they intertwine---varies to gel-like to rock hard-a water reservoir)

o Fibers—inc. collagen(white)-strong , elastic(yellow)-stretches and recoils,____________________-fine collagen inside soft organs-like spleen……

o Matrix allows it to form soft packing,weight and withstand abuse

TYPES Of CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Bone -__________________tissue-bone cells in cavities

called ______________________(“pits”) surrounded by hard matrix w/Ca salts and collagen-PROTECTS

Cartilage -less hard and more flexible1. ___________________________________most common-

abundant collagen w/rubbery matrix-blue-white—in larynx,attaching ribs to sternum and covers end of many bones to form joints(fetal skeleton mostly hyaline)

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2. ______________________________________-compressible-in cushion-like discs between vertebrae

3. Elastic cartilage -eg.external ear Dense Connective tissue-or dense fibrous collagen crowded

between rows of fibroblasts-fiber forming cell----tendons(muscle to bones and ligaments that connect ___________________________

Loose connective Tissue -softer w/ more cells and less fibers than any other (except blood)

1. ____________________soft,pliable-cobweblike that protects body organs---lamina propria(soft) underlies all mucous membranes-fluid w/loose fibers(Areola=small open space)---much water and salts-“tissue fluid”----subjected to _______________-swelling-often fill w/phagocytes

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2. _________________-fat-areolar tissue in which fat cells predominate(signet ring cells)------makes up subcutaneous tissue-insulates and protects from exterior and protects some organs(eg.eyes and kidneys)

3. Reticular Connective tissue reticular fibers and cells that look like fibroblasts-make stroma or bed for free blood cells in lymph organs

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4. Blood- vascular tissue-matrix is blood plasma-fibers are soluble proteins---covered in ch 10

III. MUSCLE TISSUE-movement1. Skeleta l-packed connective tissue sheetsvoluntary-flesh ---cells long,cylindrical and multinucleate w/striations---muscle fibers

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2. Cardiac -in heart-pumps blood-has striations,but uninucleate,short,branching cells---W/______________________where branches fit together by gap junctions-to allow ions to pass-giving electrical impulse---INVOLUNTARY

3. __________________________________-(or visceral)-no striations visible,single nucleus and spindle shaped cells-contract and expand for organs(relaxation-enlarges)----contract more slowly

---_______________________________-wavelike motion that moves food in small intestine

IV.Nervous Tissue-contains __________________

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Neurons receive and transmit electrochemical impulses

_________________________-insulate-protect

TISSUE REPAIR-1. by Regeneration-replace w. same type of cells2. fibrosis-repair by dense connective tissue---scar tissue-depends on

damage and severity Capillaries become permeable-income clotting proteins and

other material(clot exposed to air becomes a scab0 ____________________tissue forms-delicate pink tissue

made of new capillaries that grow into damaged area-fragile Surface epithelium regenerates-beneath scab

3. What happens in healing?DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF CELLS AND TISSUES

Importance of cell division(except neurons) At adulthood only certain cells regenerate-

epithelial,liver only for tissue replacement/heart and nerves become mostly amnitotic-

Aging process begins once maturity is reached—possibly net effect of “chemical insults”;some think influenced by radiation;and some think it is genetically programmed

List some tissue changes of aging-see p.104

___________________abnormal mass of dividing cells-benign or malignant

Hyperplasia-growth due to hormone or irritant Atrophy-decrease in size—if loss normal

stimulation-eg. with unused muscles

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