Writing Assignment and Research Workbook

Making of the Modern World 4-6

Table of Contents

Academic Calendar 2009-2010 1

Writing Assignment Overview and Schedule 2-3

MMW Style Sheet 4-6

Writing a Successful Research Paper: A Simple Approach, by Prof. Stanley Chodorow 7-54

Research Question & Annotated Bibliography (RQAB)—Assignment Sheet 55

Model RQAB 56-61

Levels of Arguability Worksheet 62

Checklist for Approval of Research Question Submissions 63-65

Criteria for Evaluating Web Sources 66-67

Prospectus—Assignment Sheet 68-69

Model Prospectus 70-73

Prospectus Worksheet (1) 74

Prospectus Worksheet (2) 75-76

Checklist for Assessing the Prospectus 77-79

Prospectus Grading Guidelines 80

Significance Exercise 81-82

Final Paper—Assignment Sheet 83-84

Turnitin.com Instructions 85

Final Paper Grading Checklist 86-88

Final Paper Grading Guidelines 89

Research Guide

Library Resources 90-91

Evaluating Web Sources 93-94

Avoiding Plagiarism & Other Academic Misconduct 95-98

Helpful Advice for Avoiding Plagiarism

Making of the Modern World Program

Eleanor Roosevelt College Administration Bldg., Room 202 Email: ercmmw@ucsd.edu (858) 534-4935 Website: http://roosevelt.usd.edu/mmw/courses/index.html

1

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO

2009-2010 ACADEMIC AND ADMINISTRATIVE CALENDAR

FALL QUARTER 2009

Fall Quarter Begins............................................................................................Monday, September 21

Instruction Begins...............................................................................................Thursday, September 24

Veteran’s Day Holiday.......................................................................................Wednesday, November 11

Thanksgiving Holiday........................................................................................Thursday - Friday, November 26-27

Instruction Ends..................................................................................................Friday, December 4

Final Exams........................................................................................................Monday - Saturday, December 7-12

Fall Quarter Ends................................................................................................Saturday, December 12

Christmas Holiday........................................................................... ...................Thursday - Friday, December 24-25

New Year Holiday..............................................................................................Thursday - Friday, December 31-

January 1

49 Days of Instruction

60 Days in Quarter

WINTER QUARTER 2010

Winter Quarter Begins........................................................................................Friday, January 1

Instruction Begins...............................................................................................Monday, January 4

Martin Luther King, Jr. Holiday.........................................................................Monday, January 18

President's Day Holiday.....................................................................................Monday, February 15

Instruction Ends..................................................................................................Friday, March 12

Final Exams........................................................................................................Monday - Saturday, March 15-20

Winter Quarter Ends...........................................................................................Saturday, March 20

48 Days of Instruction

56 Days in Quarter

SPRING QUARTER 2010

Spring Quarter Begins........................................................................................Thursday, March 25

Cesar Chavez Holiday........................................................................................Friday, March 26

Instruction Begins...............................................................................................Monday, March 29

Memorial Day Observance.................................................................................Monday, May 31

Instruction Ends..................................................................................................Friday, June 4

Final Exams........................................................................................................Monday - Friday, June 7-11

Spring Quarter Ends...........................................................................................Friday, June 11

Commencement..................................................................................................Saturday-Monday, June 12-14

49 Days of Instruction

57 Days in Quarter

Independence Day..............................................................................................Monday, July 5, 2010

Labor Day........................................................................................ ...................Monday, September 6, 2010

Revised 12/15/08

2

MMW 4-6: Writing Assignment Overview

The Writing Assignment for MMW 4-6 repeats (in abbreviated form) the research and writing learned in MMW 3. Each quarter you will:

a. devise a debatable, open-ended level-three question about your research topic b. identify and discuss a scholarly debate about your question; c. propose an answer to your question and support it with an argument based on evidence. d. discuss the significance of your topic and of your thesis (in better understanding your

topic). The MMW Writing Assignment will be completed in three stages according to the schedule below: Each part of the MMW Writing Assignment must be completed and submitted in order to pass the course:

1. Research Question and Annotated Bibliography (RQAB):

5% of course grade

3-5 pages

Due at the beginning of section during Week 3 (Consult the MMW Style Sheet for Late Paper Policy that applies to all assignments). The last day that a RQAB will be accepted for grading and commenting is in section of Week 5. After this, the prospectus will be considered ―not completed‖ and, because all components of the writing assignment are required in MMW courses, will result in failing the course. Any exception to this deadline must be approved with specific and legitimate documentation in advance by your TA.

2. Prospectus:

10% of course grade

3-4 pages (not including Works Cited Page)

Due at the beginning of section during Week 6. The last day that a prospectus will be accepted for grading and commenting is in section of Week 8. After this, the prospectus will be considered ―not completed‖ and will result in automatically failing the course. Any exception to this deadline must be approved in advance by your TA.

Submit your graded RQAB with your Prospectus.

3. Final Paper:

20% of course grade

8-10 pages (not including Works Cited Page)

Due at the beginning of section during Week 10

Your final paper will only be graded after the RQAB and Prospectus have been completed and graded by your TA. Moreover, you must re-submit all previously graded assignments along with each new assignment (for instance, your graded RQAB with your Prospectus; your graded RQAB and Prospectus with your Final Paper). Save all of your graded work.

3

Acceptable Sources for a MMW paper: Your Final Paper will include work from a minimum of six (6) sources, including:

at least one (1) primary source

at least five (5) secondary sources, one (1) of which must be a scholarly journal article.

Primary Sources. A primary source is a document or physical object which was written or created during the time under study. These sources were present during an experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event. Some types of primary sources include:

ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS (excerpts or translations acceptable): Diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, news film footage, autobiographies, official records

CREATIVE WORKS: Poetry, drama, novels, music, art

RELICS OR ARTIFACTS: Pottery, furniture, clothing, buildings

Secondary Sources. A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. In the MMW paper, you must have a minimum of five secondary written by scholars in peer-reviewed publications, that is, publications that have subjected the author’s work to scrutiny by experts in his/her field. What academic sources WILL be accepted in the minimum required for the MMW paper?

Academic (non-fiction) books or chapters from those books. These books are typically published by university presses (University of California Press, Oxford University Press, Louisiana State University Press, etc.). If you are not sure, ask your TA.

Academic journals or quarterlies (found through the MMW Library Research Tool, ROGER (and any academic library) or via JSTOR

Some academic articles from academic web sites (i.e. those related to universities’ sites . The URL should contain ―.edu‖ in it, but you should consult your TA if you are not sure.

Articles (not abstract or reviews) from EBSCO, JSTOR, or Project Muse (see your TA for exceptions to this list).

Anthologies

What sources WILL NOT be accepted in the minimum required for the MMW paper? (These sources may be used, and should be cited, but will not count toward the minimum.)

Any readings assigned in the course

Abstracts, book reviews, and most introductions to fictional works

Textbooks

Books accessed via GOOGLE Books. GoogleBooks is a Search service that leads to sources that vary considerable in level of access and completeness. The aim of GoogleBooks is to help you discover books and learn where to borrow them, not to read them online for purposes of your research paper. You cannot download or print photocopies in a reliable manner.

Fiction books

Newspaper articles or articles found in popular magazines

Encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other reference work

4

MMW 4-6 Style Sheet for Writing Assignments

The following criteria apply to all papers written for MMW, including prospectuses, rough drafts, and other short writing assignments.

General submission criteria: • All papers must have a complete heading that includes your name, your section number, the

assignment number or title, and the date. • All papers must be typed and double-spaced. • All papers longer than one page must be stapled together. • The pages of all papers longer than one page must be numbered. • All papers must have 1" margins on all four sides. • All papers must use MLA documentation to credit all sources, including lecture and internet

material. See Ann Raimes’ Keys for Writers (KW) for documentation format. • All final drafts must have a title. Before you turn in any piece of writing, make sure that it adheres to all of the above criteria. You will lose one-third of a letter grade for each criterion you fail to meet; in the case of MLA documentation errors, you will lose one-third of a letter grade for each type of error you make consistently. The maximum credit you will lose for MLA formatting errors is one full letter grade, but please note that you can lose additional credit for heading and other errors. These penalties can add up quickly and lower your grade to subterranean regions. When this happens, you will not like it, so please make sure that it doesn’t happen.

Documentation (Photocopies) With both your prospectus and your final paper, you must also submit a photocopy or printout of each page cited in your work. On each page, highlight or underline the portion of the referenced work.

Late paper policy: All papers must be turned in to your TA, during section, lecture, or office hours. You may not turn in papers to the MMW office, nor may you put them in your TA’s mailbox. Papers that are left with the MMW Office or in a mailbox will not be graded. You will lose one-third of a letter grade for each day that a paper is late. Ask your TA whether a paper due in section may be turned in without penalty later in the day. If you will be unable to attend section or lecture on the day that your paper is due, it is your responsibility to make other arrangements for getting your paper to your TA. Remember that a weekend counts as three days; if your paper is due on a Friday and you don’t turn it in until Monday that will not be good.

Turnitin.com All students will be required to submit an electronic version of their final paper to runitin.com within 24 hours of submitting your final paper in section on the due date. The late paper policy will be applied to late submissions to turnitin.com. In certain cases, students may be required to submit their prospectuses to turnitin.com as well.

Spelling: Make sure that you proofread your papers carefully, as you will lose credit if you make numerous spelling errors. The policy for spelling-error penalties is as follows: You will be allowed one un-penalized error per

5

one to two pages of text; after that, you will lose one-third of a letter grade for every three spelling errors that you make. For example, a 1- to 2-page paper with three spelling errors would not be penalized, but a 1- to 2-page paper with four spelling errors would lose one-third of a letter grade. Similarly, a 3- to 4-page paper with four spelling errors would not be penalized, but the same length paper with five errors would lose one-third of a letter grade. Remember that the spell-checker is a useful device but that it will not save you from writing ―it’s‖ when you mean ―its,‖ or ―their‖ when you should write ―there.‖ If your inability to spell seems to be congenital and permanent, find a friend who can proofread your papers for you—but bear in mind that proofreading for spelling will allow you to catch a number of other errors and awkward phrases that would otherwise get past you.

Plagiarism and other academic misconduct (If in MMW 4-6, see Keys for Writers pp. 51-55; if in

MMW 4T, see Pocket Keys for Writers pp. 50-62) MMW requires each writing assignment to be the product of individual work. While we encourage you to discuss your ideas—and to share your sources of information—with others, we expect the words you submit for a grade to be yours. It is your responsibility to comply with the University’s rules concerning academic integrity. There are a number of forms of academic misconduct that you must be careful to avoid. One of these is plagiarism, which consists of using an author’s words, ideas, or facts, or of copying the sentence or paragraph structure of an author’s work, without acknowledging that author as your source. A similar form of misconduct is for two or more students to turn in copies of the same paper, or for one student to copy material written by another student. It is also a violation of University rules to submit substantially the same material in more than one course without prior authorization of all instructors involved. Fabrication of a reference—that is, taking material from one source but crediting that material to another or of making up a source citation—also violates University rules. (For more information regarding the rules governing academic misconduct, see the UCSD Student Conduct Code, available online at <http://ugr8.ucsd.edu/judicial/22_00.html>.) The University considers plagiarism and other academic misconduct to be serious academic offenses. Anyone whose paper appears to contain a plagiarized passage or to otherwise violate the rules on academic integrity will have his or her work reviewed by MMW’s Academic Coordinators and the professor. If the violation is found to be serious enough, the student could receive an ―F‖ on the assignment or an ―F‖ for the course (the academic sanction is determined by the professor) and the student’s file will be forwarded to the ERC Dean of Student Affairs. If the Dean determines that there is, indeed, academic misconduct she will impose a conduct sanction, the severity of which will depend on the extent of the misconduct. It is important to note that even a first offense can result in a quarter’s suspension and that the standard sanction for a second offense is suspension or permanent dismissal from the university. Any instance of academic misconduct can be recorded in a student’s file. Such a record might interfere with a student’s acceptance into law, medical, or graduate school, or might make that student ineligible for positions requiring a security clearance, such as a government internship. It is your responsibility to ensure that nothing in any of your papers is plagiarized; a decision to be careless about your research notes and not check your citations is a decision that can lead to a charge of plagiarism. Be careful to avoid unintentional plagiarism. For example, if you include a direct quotation in your paper—even one that’s only a few words long—you must be sure both to enclose it in quotation marks and to acknowledge your source with a parenthetical citation. Even sources with anonymous authors, such as many websites, must be credited in this way. Consult a writing handbook (like Keys for Writers) or talk with one of your instructors if you are unsure of exactly what is and what is not considered to be plagiarism, or if

6

you are unclear about the rules for the correct citation of sources. Make sure that you give credit to all authors and speakers whose work you use, and enclose all quoted material in quotation marks. As a rule, it is better to give too much credit than too little—so when in doubt, cite. We hope that you will never feel the need to plagiarize out of fear that your own work isn’t good enough. We expect students to write like students, not like professionals. What matters most is for you to demonstrate that you’ve thought about the material and that you’ve learned something from it. You don’t need someone else’s words to do that. Revised 8/3/09

7

Writing a Successful Research Paper A Simple Approach

Stanley Chodorow

Copyright © S. Chodorow 2008

[NOT FOR CITATION OR QUOTATION WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR]

8

Preface

This pamphlet summarizes the approach to teaching writing of the Making of the Modern World

(MMW) program of Eleanor Roosevelt College, one of the six undergraduate colleges of the

University of California, San Diego. MMW is a six-quarter (two-year) core sequence that covers

world history and civilizations from the evolution of human beings to the present. It is a multi-

disciplinary course taught by faculty members and graduate students from nearly all the departments

in the humanities and social sciences. In its second and third terms, the sequence incorporates an

intensive two-term writing program. The first term of the writing program (incorporated into MMW

2) aims to teach students to write expository essays. The second term of the writing program

(incorporated into MMW 3) aims to teach them how to write research papers. They write ten-page

research papers in MMW 3 through 6. This pamphlet presents the way we teach our students to write

the research papers.

I played a role in founding the college and MMW in the late 1980s, and I have been teaching in the

program for many years. Since its early days, the directors and faculty of the program have

developed and refined the writing program, especially the segment that teaches students to write

research papers. When I was Dean of Arts and Humanities and Associate Vice Chancellor at UCSD,

from 1983 to 1994, I was responsible for overseeing the writing programs of all the undergraduate

colleges – then five in number – and I often represented UCSD in university-wide meetings on the

writing programs. I came to view the program in Eleanor Roosevelt College as the best one in the

university. Its superiority consists both in its emphasis on writing research papers, which is the kind

of assignment students will get in upper-division courses, and in its hands-on, step-by-step approach

to teaching. Students in MMW 3 do not just receive an assignment and some advice about how to

carry it out. They must work with their discussion leaders and faculty to formulate a research

question, which the discussion leader must approve, and then submit research logs, a prospectus for

the paper, and a rough draft before handing in the final version. They receive a substantial response

to and a grade for each of these products of the process, so the grade for the research paper is a

composite grade.

I could not have written this guide without the support and contributions of Jackie Giordano, who has

for many years been the coordinator of the intensive writing program in MMW 2 and 3. During the

seven years we worked in the program together, Jackie gave me an understanding of its structure and

goals. When I fully understood the program’s approach and methods, I came to believe that the

program should be made available to students in other colleges of UCSD and beyond. Jackie and I

started working on the guide together, but her many commitments made it impossible for her to take

responsibility for co-writing it. Nonetheless, I have consulted her often, and she has made numerous

contributions, including providing me with the Prospectus Worksheet. The idea of the levels of

arguability of questions, an important element in determining what kinds of questions are suitable for

research papers, came from her. The pamphlet could not have been written without her help, and I

am deeply grateful to her.

In the later stages of writing, I have relied on Matthew Herbst, the Director of MMW, and Heidi

Keller-Lapp, who is responsible for managing the second-year of the sequence. Matthew and Heidi

have broad experience in MMW, and their suggestions for improving the pamphlet have been very

helpful.

9

My son Adam, a professor of law who has heard my opinion of his writings too long and too often,

read a draft of the pamphlet and made valuable suggestions; as they say, turnabout is fair play.

Finally, my wife Peggy read a draft of the pamphlet, and, as she did when she read my dissertation

decades ago, brought her outsider’s sensibility to bear on the academic curlicues of my prose and on

the organization of my presentation. She knows how to deliver a strong critique and encouragement

at the same time; it’s magic. I couldn’t do much without her.

SC

La Jolla, 2008

10

Table of Contents

Introduction: Writing Research Papers: An Overview

Synopsis of the Program and Timetable

Chapter 1. Finding a Research Area

Getting started – Choosing a general topic

Finding your paper topic within the general topic

Finding sources

Primary and secondary sources

Evaluating the credibility of sources

Chapter 2. Reading and Taking Notes

Reading critically

The mechanics of reading critically

Note-taking

Annotating

The problems with highlighting

Recording the necessary bibliographic information

Working towards a research question

Chapter 3. Formulating an Open-ended Research Question

Good questions

Why a narrow question?

Formulating your question

Levels of arguability

Question types

Working with a research question: Keeping track of evidence

Chapter 4. The Cycle of Reading: Gathering the information you need to answer your question

Your goals in doing research

Reflecting on your research question as you proceed

Chapter 5. Answering your question and constructing your argument

Sorting notes and texts

Write a working thesis

Organize the information you’ve found

Argument chart

Chapter 6. Using Evidence Effectively

Determining what counts as valid evidence

Using the work of others: Crediting your sources

Deciding how much evidence is enough

Chapter 7. Shaping the Paper: Writing a Rough Draft

Using a rough draft worksheet

11

Chapter 8. Revising the Rough Draft

Organizing the paper

Chapter 9. Copyediting and Final Revisions

Final revisions

Last suggestions

Final revision checklist

Conclusion

12

Introduction

Students often regard the assignment to write a research paper as a daunting task.

This pamphlet aims to show you that, if you break down the process of finding a topic, doing

research on it, and writing the paper, you will be able to do the assignment well. Writing a research

paper is actually pretty straightforward and simple. And, it involves intellectual skills that nearly

everyone has been using since they were children. Those skills include making an argument based on

evidence to persuade someone –a parent, teacher, coach or other authority figure – that your answer

to a question is good and sufficient. ―Why is your brother or sister crying?‖ ―Why don’t you have

your homework?‖ ―What were you thinking when you threw the ball to first base instead of home?‖

are questions that require fast thinking and slick talk. You have to come up with an argument

supported by evidence to persuade the one putting you on the spot that you are guiltless or what you

did was excusable. ―He took my ball, and I took it back. So he cried.‖ ―We had to take my sister to

emergency room, so I couldn’t get my homework done.‖ ―I thought there were two out, so getting the

guy at first would end the inning.‖

You do something similar in a research paper. You answer a question and support it with an

argument based on evidence that you have found through research. You want your reader to accept

your answer as right or at least plausible and interesting, resulting, if not in exoneration, then in a

good grade. So, this pamphlet will help you translate the skills you already have into the ones needed

to complete an assignment to write a research paper.

These skills will serve you in any course you take in the university. In all fields of knowledge, you do

research to answer a question. Scientists do experiments or make observations to answer questions.

Humanists and social scientists do research in libraries or through surveys and interviews to answer

questions. The techniques and settings for the research may differ from one academic discipline to

another and one project to another, but the basic intellectual process is the same. So, an approach to

writing a research paper that rests on the notion that research aims at answering questions is an

approach suitable to nearly all intellectual disciplines.

One of the myths about research papers is that to write a good one you have to get an inspiration or

an epiphany. The myth seems to suggest that when the light suddenly goes on the whole paper will

be laid out before you; you will be able to write it as if you were on automatic pilot. Any experienced

student, like your teachers, will tell you that ―sudden understanding‖ comes only after you’ve done a

lot of work. You are answering a research question; you do research to gather evidence to answer the

question; little by little, as you gather evidence, your mind organizes it into categories; then you sit

back and survey what you’ve found; at that point you might see a clear path to an answer to your

question that you can support with an argument about the evidence you’ve collected and organized.

When the pieces fall into place, you may feel that a light has gone on. In fact, the understanding you

now have rests on all the work you’ve done collecting evidence and thinking about the question and

its possible answers.

13

So, writing a research paper is just another job. You have an assignment with a due date; you have a

task to complete. Like any job this one requires work to get it done. The work is not difficult, and it

can be great fun. Doing the work requires a plan of action and the discipline to carry it out. This

pamphlet gives you a plan; you supply the discipline.

When you receive a paper assignment, you know the scope of the job you have to do. You have to

write a paper of a certain length, and you have a fixed amount to time in which to do the research and

to write it. The plan in this pamphlet breaks down this job into a number of steps that can be fitted to

a timeline leading from the day you get the assignment to the day you have to turn in the paper.

In introductory courses, teachers often give you the topic of your paper, but they rarely tell you what

question to ask and answer about that topic. (When teachers give you the question, they are in effect

giving you an exam, not a paper assignment; you just have a lot of time to complete your answer.)

Above the introductory level, assignments usually require you to find your own topic, specifying

only that it be suitable or relevant to the subject of the course. This guide assumes that you have to

define a topic yourself. It guides you through the process of doing that and then shows you how to

formulate a research question. It also gives you advice about taking notes on what you read, on

organizing what you discover through research, and on constructing an argument. You’ll see that the

work of writing a research paper can be done well by anyone with the skills needed to succeed in a

college preparatory or a college program.

What are the characteristics of a good research paper? The quality of a paper depends on many

characteristics—the quality of the question addressed, the quality of the argument made to support a

thesis (the answer to the question), the quality and amount of research done to find evidence that will

support the argument, the persuasive use of the evidence, the quality of the writing, and the care

taken in making the text presentable (spelling, punctuation etc.). An excellent paper has a sound

thesis and demonstrates that you have done a substantial amount of work. You cannot do the work in

a few days; you need to start early and to follow a schedule.

The work plan for writing a research paper starts with a broadly defined research area or topic from

which you will select a specific subject that interests you and that meets the requirements of the

assignment. You narrow the focus of your topic to the appropriate scope by looking for a specific

topic in a general one. After choosing a general research topic, you begin reading relevant scholarly

works. In a process described in Chapter 1, you look for a topic suitable to the length of the paper

you have to write and to the amount of time you have to do it. Reading critically is crucial to defining

a topic. Chapter 2 gives you some guidance in that set of skills. The process leads to the formulation

of a research question, covered in Chapter 3. Once you’ve reached this stage, your research becomes

focused on finding the evidence needed to answer the question and on scholarly works in which the

authors tried to answer the question or part of the question. As you proceed with this work, you will

usually revise your question in response to what you discover. Chapter 4 deals with this process of

refinement. Then, you sit back and try to put things together for an answer to your question. To do

this, you write a tentative answer to your question (a working thesis) and start to construct an

argument and line up the evidence behind it. Chapter 5 guides you through this stage of the work.

Chapter 6 deals with the questions, ―What’s the best way to use evidence?‖ and ―When do you have

enough evidence?‖ When you have constructed your argument, you are ready to write a first draft of

the paper. Chapter 7 gives you a rough draft worksheet and advice about this first stage of writing.

14

Chapters 8 and 9 take you through the processes of revising the rough draft and then polishing the

paper for submission.

Read through this short guide before you start your work on your assignment. A perusal of the whole

guide will give you an overview of what you have to do. Then, you can refer to individual chapters as

you proceed both to remind you of your tasks and to keep you aware of where you are in the process.

You write term papers under time pressure; we hope that this guide helps you keep on time and do

each task in as orderly a way as possible in the usually messy and chaotic environment of an

academic term.

15

Synopsis of the Program and Timetable

As soon as you receive the writing assignment

1. Find a research topic. Start with a broad topic within which you will expect to find the narrow

topic for your paper. (Chapter 1)

2. Start reading books and articles on this topic. As you read, note (in writing) the topics that

particularly intrigue you and all questions that occur to you about those topics. Take notes as you

read. When you find texts relevant to your topic, photocopy them or print them out. Record the

complete citation information for each text. (Chapter 2)

Six weeks before the paper is due

3. Formulate an open-ended question. Stop and consider what you have found. Look over all of the

texts and notes that you have accumulated. You will see several possible topics; choose one or two to

read on further. When you have settled on a topic, formulate a question that you would like to answer

in your research paper. This question will focus your work, which now aims to answer the question.

(Chapter 3)

4. Return to reading. This time, focus on texts that provide information directly relevant to your

research question. As before, photocopy (or save electronically) all relevant texts, with complete

citation information. Annotate the relevant parts of each text. Stop and Reflect: When you have

learned enough about your topic that you start to feel burdened by the weight of information, stop

and reflect on what you have found out. Write some pages of notes and commentary on your ideas.

Make sure to note all potential answers to your research question. Revise your question if you find

that your research does not lead to an answer to your original question. This process of reading,

reflecting, and sharpening your question is a cycle that is repeated for as long as you have to do it.

You continue to read, reflect, and sharpen your question until you need to move on to the writing of a

rough draft. (Chapter 4)

Three weeks before the paper is due

5. Write down a tentative answer to your research question. Your tentative answer is your

working thesis. Sort all of your notes, commentaries, photocopies, and so forth by sub-topic or

category of evidence. Arrange the categories in the order that will be most effective for arguing your

thesis. When you have put your evidence in order, you have the skeleton of your argument. Assess

whether you have enough evidence to support your argument. (Chapters 5-6)

6. Write a complete rough draft, including a works cited page (or pages), that answers your

research question by integrating all the results of your research, including your summaries,

16

notes, and reflections. (Note: if you have not already studied the style sheet that many programs

provide as part of the paper assignment, do so before you start writing your first draft. The style sheet

specifies how you should cite references, present your bibliography, set your margins etc. You could

lose grade points if you do not follow the specified style.) (Chapter 7)

Two weeks before the paper is due

7. Revise your rough draft. Print out your rough draft and put it away for a while (or turn it in, if

you are required to do so). After several days, thoroughly revise the draft for organization, clarity,

and explanation of evidence. Delete unnecessary sections. Note where you need to add more

evidence or explanation. Where necessary, do more research and provide more support for the

weaker parts of your argument. If your instructor or peers have commented on your rough draft,

make sure to incorporate or at least deal with their suggestions as you revise the draft. Make sure that

you have cited all of your sources and that your ―works cited‖ page is complete. (Chapter 8)

One to two days before the paper is due

8. Copyediting and final revision: Revise your paper for spelling, punctuation, grammar, and other

sentence-level concerns. (It often helps to read the paper aloud, which makes you aware of awkward

sentences and misused words. Note also that spell-checkers in computer programs will not highlight

words that are in the dictionary but are the wrong words in context.) Print out the paper. Give it one

last reading to make sure that everything is correct. (Chapter 9)

Congratulations: you have just successfully written a research paper.

17

Chapter 1

Finding a Research Topic

Getting started – Choosing a general topic

Many students see the choice of a topic as a big obstacle. They have to write a paper in a field that is

not their major interest and don’t know how to start. When the teacher has left it to you to find a

topic, you have the opportunity to write on a fairly wide range of subjects. If you are taking a course

on ancient Greece, you can’t write on modern France, but you might be able to persuade the faculty

member that a paper on modern French studies on some aspect of ancient Greek culture would be

acceptable.

So, start to look for a topic by thinking about your own interests. Are you interested in economics?

There are often paper topics that deal with the economics of a period, a region, even in the way a

literary author portrays or uses economics in a story. Are you interested in biology? The history of

diseases or the state of knowledge of biology and disease might provide a good topic. In history,

literature, sociology, and anthropology courses, and in many other fields, the opportunity to pursue

your particular disciplinary interests is there. So, start looking for a topic by considering the subjects

that interest you.

If you are using a textbook in the course, you could use it to start your search for a topic. Peruse the

chapter and sub-chapter headings. When you find something that interests you, read it and see if the

author’s bibliography gives you leads to other works that would get you deeper into the subject.

When you have a general idea of what might interest you, look in the library’s subject catalog for

titles that seem relevant and interesting. I have more to say on using the library later in this chapter.

The topic should be pretty broad so that you can read a variety of interesting materials. If the topic is

too narrow, you might not find much written about it. Students often pick a topic that interests them

but on which very little scholarship has been done or on which the existing scholarship is in a

language they do not know. By choosing a broad topic, you maximize your chance of finding

something interesting, possible, and substantial to work on.

Examples of general topics:

Women in 18th-century China

Social class and race in American (or European) cities

Adult literacy

Church communities and social class

Music in Classical India

The short stories of Joyce Carol Oates

18

Short stories published in The Atlantic Monthly during the 1930s

Food customs in Amazonian culture

Voting patterns in cities and their suburbs

Economic expansion in T’ang Dynasty China

Remember: You are looking for a topic that interests you and meets the criteria that the faculty

member set in the assignment. Start from your disciplinary or subject-area interests – science,

engineering, literature, visual art, law etc. – and consider what general topics relating to your

interests fit the course you are taking. The civilizations of ancient Mesoamerica had technology, and

there are many good questions to investigate relating to it. There were artists in nineteenth-century

Japan and many questions about what influenced their style and techniques or about the tastes of

their patrons and audiences. You will do your best work when you work on topics that reflect your

interests.

Finding your paper topic within the general topic

When you have an idea about what general topic you wish to work on, you should begin gathering

information on it. Today, many people start looking for information on the Web. However, the Web

has drawbacks as a source. First, most of the information on the Web is in short articles, which will

not give you the kind of broad overview you need. For example, Wikipedia articles tend to be brief

and focused on specific subjects. (Moreover, you don’t know the identity of the author, and the

articles often contain wrong or partial information.) Thus, starting on the Web might get you some

very basic information about some aspects of your topic, but just using the Web will often give you a

fragmented body of information of uncertain accuracy or value.

Finding a recent general book on the topic is the best strategy for getting started. The book will give

you an overview and a slew of facts about your subject – when things happened, in what order, who

did them etc. The author will have organized the material into a coherent narrative or analysis from

which you can get a grasp of the subject as a whole, and the author will have done a lot of scholarly

work for you. First, his or her bibliography will be a trove of resources for your project. Just reading

the titles of the works the author used will provide you with leads to where to look next. Second, the

author’s footnotes will be full of references to books, scholarly articles, and, perhaps, web sites tied

to the particular points he or she makes that you may want to do some more work on. The footnotes

add a great deal to what the bibliography will have taught you.

Your job at this stage is to find a specific topic within the general one that interests you. A big topic

is composed of many small topics, and as you read you should be looking for a few subtopics that

catch your eye. The thing most likely to snag your attention is a question about a subject. The author

will write something that does not satisfy you; you want to know more; or something the author

writes does not quite make sense. When a question occurs to you or you get an urge to know more,

you have an opening to a potential topic for your paper. You will find that questions occur to you at

critical points in a scholar’s work – points where the author explicitly disagrees with another scholar

(which indicates that the point is controversial), places where the author changes direction (usually

19

by using words like ―however,‖ ―but,‖ and ―although‖), and places where you think the evidence

cited to support a point doesn’t really do so.

You are looking for a question about your topic, not just a topic. You may be interested in a topic and

want to read about it, but you do not have the basis for a research paper until you have a question you

want to answer. You do research not just to collect information but to advance a position or thesis,

which is the answer to a question. Chapter 3 will introduce you to different types of questions, but

the basic point is that you are looking for a question that you can’t answer by simply looking in a

reference book or Wikipedia. A question such as, ―When was Abraham Lincoln elected to the Illinois

Legislature?‖ is of no use; you can answer it by looking in an encyclopedia. So, you are looking for a

question that cannot be answered so simply, such as ―What did Lincoln hope to accomplish in the

Gettysburg Address?‖ That question will take you to the text of the Address itself, to what we know

about how and when Lincoln wrote it, to why he thought it important for him to go to Gettysburg to

deliver the speech, to questions about why he made it so short when his contemporaries were in the

habit of giving speeches that lasted more than an hour, and so forth. On this topic, and its subtopics,

you’ll find a great deal of scholarly work and many different opinions. This kind of open-ended

question is perfect for a research paper.

Finding sources

You probably know how to search the Web. You type a search term into a search engine and then sift

the hundreds or thousands of responses you get. Some will be relevant, but most will not. If the

search term was reasonably specific, the items that come up at the top of the list are likely to be the

most relevant to your interests. By defining your search terms, you impose order on what is actually a

chaotic environment and increase the likelihood that you will find relevant information quickly. The

Web’s content is vast, but, in many fields of knowledge, it is not even close to comprehensive and

useful.

In contrast, libraries contain materials chosen to represent the best information on a wide range of

subjects, including nearly all of the kinds of subjects one deals with in research papers. Libraries

purchase only a small percentage of what is published each year, but they typically acquire the works

that matter to the academic disciplines. Librarians vet what they purchase. They go for materials

from publishers or sources that have established and respected processes for screening what they put

out. Today, librarians also add web sites to the library collection by creating links between their

library web pages and the sites of organizations – such as scholarly associations or government

agencies – that screen the content of their sites in a way similar to the way good publishers screen

manuscripts.

Library collections also have a formal organization created by librarians and represented in the

catalog, which is now an electronic catalog in almost every large library. Librarians catalog books by

author, title, and subject. They have developed the list of subjects over more than a century of

cataloging. In the electronic catalog, you can look up books by author and title, but those search

modes only work if you already know what you are looking for. When you start the research for a

paper, you do not know that yet.

20

When you look at a catalog entry, you see a list of the subject areas that the cataloger thought the

book fit under. If you had searched by one of those subjects, the book would have come up as one of

your search results.

Here is an example (from the UCSD library):

The cataloger has put this book under the subjects ―Southern States – History 1865-‖ and Southern

States --Social Conditions.‖ Had you searched the subject catalog under ―Southern States,‖ this book

would have appeared among your results. The catalog entry of every book inthe library contains

these kinds of subject identifiers.

Typically, you do not have to put the exact subject title into the library’s search engine. It can accept

approximations, such as ―U.S. South‖ for ―Southern States,‖ but the closer you are to the ―official‖

subject titles, the more certain you will be that you’ll find all the resources the library has on that

subject. You may have to enter several variant names for the subject you have in mind to be sure that

you’ve found everything there is to find.

In addition to the traditional subject title search, the electronic catalog allows you to do a keyword

search. In that kind of search, the computer lists all works that contain the keyword in their titles or

subject categories. If the library has a digitized copy of a work, then the search engine will actually

search the entire text for the keyword. This kind of search gives you a mixed blessing, because a

general search term can turn up thousands of items. Yet, a well-defined term could produce a very

complete and good list of everything relevant to your library. A keyword search has the advantage of

freeing you from established list of subjects in the cataloging system.

As with the search engines used to find things on the Web, library catalog search engines list the

search results in order of relevancy, as judged by the built-in rules that govern the engine’s operation.

In most cases, the books or articles that contain your search phrase in the title or those listed in a

category from the subject catalog will be listed first, followed by works in which the phrase occurs

many times in the text and then by those in which it occurs only a few times etc. Before you start

running around the stacks to find items your local library has, you should look over the whole list.

But, you should expect to find the most relevant and important materials for your subject at the top of

the list.

21

Primary and secondary sources

In many fields, scholars distinguish between primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are

writings, documents, or artifacts (paintings, household utensils, machines, etc.) produced in the time

and place that you are studying. So, if you are reading about foot-binding in China, primary sources

would include writings from the period when it was done (ninth or tenth century through the early

twentieth century), contemporary medical texts dealing with the consequences of binding, examples

of shoes used in binding, and so forth. Secondary sources are scholarly works on your topic. A

history of foot-binding is a secondary source.

You will find a great deal of primary material in secondary sources. Historians, literary scholars, and

others cite primary sources to support their arguments. On some topics, you will find most of the

primary sources you need only in secondary sources. For example, if you are working on the

experience of slaves in the African slave trade, you might have to rely for primary sources on

historians who have gathered and translated those sources in their works.

The distinction between primary and secondary sources may not be useful in some social science

disciplines. Many works of anthropology or sociology rely on observations, surveys, and interviews.

The notes on the observations, the survey instruments, the raw data representing the answers of

respondents, and the transcripts of the interviews could be called primary sources, while the

interpretation offered by the observer, surveyor, or interviewer could be considered secondary

sources. But in these disciplines the writer of the secondary source is often a participant in the

creation of the ―primary‖ sources. When you are working in a field that relies on participant-observer

techniques, you have to focus on the data presented, and on the way it was collected, assembled, and

used by the author.

Evaluating the credibility of sources

When you walk into a campus library, you make certain assumptions about what you will find there.

You assume that the collection was selected by people who know how to judge the credibility of

sources, who know good scholarship from bad, and who choose the good and reject the bad. You can

use the materials you find in the library of a good academic institution with a lot of confidence that

your instructor and others will regard the sources as serious works of scholarship. However,

remember that serious works of scholarship can be seriously flawed. Later studies may undermine or

overturn early ones. Scholars sometimes have axes to grind and use their sources to prove the point

they want to make. It is always wise to read reviews of scholarly books or to find articles that

respond to or build on earlier works and, therefore, at least implicitly review the quality of the earlier

studies. Scholarly reviews, usually published in scholarly journals such as the American Historical

Review or the American Journal of Sociology, provide critical appraisals of books. The reviewers

give you an idea about what the book covers and then tell you how the book relates to earlier

scholarship on the subject and finally appraise the quality of the author’s argument and the use of

evidence.

Of course, selective and reliable as it is, the campus library is no longer the only or even the principal

source of information for a research project. Many of you do most of your research on the Internet,

22

where the credibility of sources is very uncertain. If you must be cautious when assessing books in

the library, you have to be vastly more cautious when dealing with Web resources.

The Internet is a great city with millions of sites in it, and more sites are being added every day.

Every site has an address, but when you arrive at most sites you cannot assume that you will find

credible information there. However, the addresses of some sites give you a clue to their credibility.

Sites sponsored by universities or their libraries (which are in the .edu domain), by government

institutes or agencies (.gov), and by well-known scientific societies (such as the American

Psychological Association or the American Political Science Association, which are usually in the

.org domain) can be taken to be credible with the same confidence – and the same caveats – as the

works found in an academic library. You are reasonably safe if you stick with such sites, though the

.org domain contains a lot of sites to be wary of. If you want to use other sites but do not know

whether they are reliable, ask some basic questions.

Does the site tell you who created it and who sponsors it? What can you find out about these

people or institutions? When was the site last updated?

Does the site tell you how the information was collected? For example, The Constitution

Society has a web site that contains documents and writings pertinent to the history of

constitutions, especially the U.S. constitution. The site gives you the provenance of each

document, so you know how they got it and what it represents. Because of copyright

restrictions, such sites will often digitize an old translation of a work. Knowing that will

allow you to get an idea of what an author was saying and then, if you wish to cite the work,

to search for a more recent translation in the library.

How is this information on the site managed? Is it kept up to date? If it offers a database that

continually changes, how can you cite it so that the reader of your paper can find the

particular data you used?

As you read works on your topic, you will develop a different kind of judgment of scholarship. By

reading critically, you will sift the information and opinions on your topic and begin to form your

own opinion about which primary sources are most credible and which secondary authors most

persuasive. So, judgment of the credibility of sources proceeds from the question, ―Should I read

this?‖ to ―Do I think this source is reliable or relevant?‖ to ―Do I agree with this author’s selection

and interpretation of the primary sources or evidence?‖ The characteristics of critical reading are the

topic of Chapter 2.

23

Chapter 2

Reading and Taking Notes

Once you have collected sources for your research project, you will have to read through all of them,

looking for material that you might be able to use in writing your paper. To do so effectively, you

will have to read those sources critically.

Reading critically

To read critically is to engage the text actively. You start with questions already in mind. What is the

author trying to prove or argue? What kind of sources did the author use? What is the author’s point

of view? How does the author make his or her argument? Is it persuasive? As you read the works you

have collected, you will also want to look for differences of opinion about the topic. Do the authors

you read agree about what question needs to be answered about the topic? Do they use the same kind

of evidence? When you compare them, do the authors differ in the emphasis they place on one part of

the body of evidence or another? If they come to different conclusions – that is, propose different

theses – why? What arguments lead the various authors to different conclusions?

The main tasks of critical reading are:

Identify main ideas: For each new text, ask yourself: ―What are the author’s main points?‖

―What is the author’s point of view?‖ Try to find out something about the author and

publisher of the work. Do they have political or other biases that you should look out for as

you read? Pay attention to the date of publication. Every field of scholarship has a history; if

you understand that history, you have an advantage in understanding what you are reading.

Every scholar has a point of view. He or she may adhere to a particular tradition in the field,

such as a way of reading texts or a preconception about what certain words and phrases

mean. You’ll find that many authors who write about religious subjects – even historians –

come to their subject with beliefs that determine how they interpret the sources. You’ll also

find that the treatment an author gives a subject is often subtly influenced by his or her

political views. An author who believes that people ought to be able to rise above their

circumstances to achieve success in society – a view usually associated with conservative

politics in the United States – may interpret evidence about the bureaucracy’s examination

system in eleventh-century China as showing that the sons of poor farmers could rise to the

top of society and that Chinese society in that period was open to talent. An author who

believes that most people are trapped by circumstances and need help to break out of those

circumstances – a view usually associated with liberal politics in the U.S. – might interpret

the same evidence from China as showing that poor boys only rarely broke the bounds of

their poverty to rise into the ranks of the elite. The same evidence interpreted in opposite

ways because of the different points of view of the authors.

Here’s another example. In the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century,

scholars tended to see the emperor Augustus as a restorer of order in Rome after 14 years of

civil war and his reign as the foundation for the success of the imperial regime that followed.

In the late 1930s, Ronald Syme reconsidered the sources and painted a much darker picture

24

of Augustus’ reign, emphasizing his suppression of political opposition, his restrictive and

puritanical social program, and his effective use of propaganda to create the rosy picture that

previous historians had accepted as true. Syme’s approach was influenced by his observation

of contemporary Germany, where the Nazis were doing many of things Augustus had done.

A critical reading of Syme’s book would note his disagreement with his predecessors and the

different way he read the sources, and it would raise the question, ―If Syme was influenced

by his observations of contemporary Germany, what influences affected the way earlier

historians had treated Augustus?‖ Earlier historians did not have the example of Nazi

Germany (and they regarded Germany as paragon of civilization), and they interpreted

Augustus as a reformer trying to restore Roman society while they recognized that he

subverted Rome’s republican traditions. Before Syme, historians might have had Bismarck in

mind when they considered Augustus.

Take note of patterns: In historical, sociological, and anthropological research, look for:

recurring phenomena (such as the boom/bust cycle in market economies or the way people

answer questions about their families); characteristics common to peoples of different times,

classes, or cultures (such as the treatment of minority or immigrant groups or the

representation of certain themes in art); themes that are repeated by a variety of scholars

(such as the interpretations of Augustus noted above). In literary research, look both for

themes – such as the desire for power, the ways love affects relationships over time, and

hypocrisy – and for the language authors use to express or represent those themes. Authors

use language to represent as well as to tell a story. Metaphors, similes, metonymy (the use of

the name of a characteristic part of a thing to represent the thing itself, such as ―crown‖ for

―the king and his council‖), and other figures of speech convey the way the author wants you

to understand the story. (J.H. Hexter provided a great example of the importance of language

when he showed that in The Prince, Machiavelli almost always put ―the state‖ in the position

of an object of a verb. For Machiavelli, the state was a thing to be seized, protected, built-up,

lost etc. Hexter’s observation gave readers a new understanding of what the sixteenth-century

author meant to say in his classic work of political theory.)

In addition, you can look for meaningful connections between events and developments in

the period in which an author wrote and the content of that author’s work. For example,

Thomas Hobbes wrote a ―scientific‖ treatise on the origins and nature of political

communities, while his contemporaries were founding the Royal Society in London. Was

there a connection? Did the new movement in what was then called ―natural philosophy‖

have an effect on Hobbes? In research on psychology or economics, look for: the nature of

the data used and the theories or models on which the author’s interpretation rests. In

disciplines like these, scholars often start with models or theoretical frameworks that affect

both the way they select evidence and the conclusions they draw. In psychology, scholars do

experiments on animals and people to test hypotheses about personality types and how

people learn or make judgments. Pavlov’s famous experiments with conditioning dogs by

rewarding certain behaviors led to hypotheses about the environmental factors that affect

human behavior. Do people respond to questions differently in a messy space as opposed to

an orderly one? Experiments show that they do. Economies are vast, complicated machines,

and economists collect and analyze data to test models about how it works. To what stimuli

25

do people respond when they spend or save or invest their money? The economist starts with

a theory or model of stimuli and response and looks at data about how people behave in

various conditions to test it. A critical reader looks for those underlying schemes, because

they will help him or her understand and take an independent view of the scholarship.

Look for problems or contradictions: Scholarly works will provide you with much of the

information on which you will base your own argument, so it’s important to assess the

quality of information that each source provides. When reading a scholarly work, look for the

ways in which the author constructs his or her arguments. Does he provide sufficient

evidence to convince you of his thesis? Do her assertions follow logically from the evidence

she provides? What is the author’s disciplinary perspective, and how does it affect his or her

argument? Does the author consider, and then rebut, arguments arising from other points of

view? Any problems or contradictions that you find can alert you to potential problems with

the author’s research and lead you to topics or directions for your own research.

Pay attention to the treatment of a work by other scholars: When you first read it, you

may take a work seriously, because it was written by an apparently credible author, published

by a good academic press, and chosen for inclusion in a good research library. Later, you

may find that most scholars writing on the topic regard the work as seriously flawed. Be alert

to the judgments that scholars make about each other’s works and the reasons they give for

their opinions.

Follow the trail of scholarship: No search of the library catalog will identify everything you

need or should read for your project. As noted in Chapter 1, the scholars you read have done

a great deal of work for you and recorded it in their footnotes and bibliographies. Take

advantage of what they’ve done. Pay close attention to the works that the authors cite in their

footnotes (or endnotes) and bibliographies. You can follow a trail of scholarship from a

recent work to earlier works and from works that are central to the topic you are currently

reading about to works that touch on that subject tangentially but that may become important

for you as you define your topic and shift your focus. You start your research by working

with the subject catalog of your library or the search engine of an online library, but you

pursue your research by following the trail blazed by earlier scholars.

The mechanics of reading critically

Note-taking

By taking notes as you read you will keep up with what you are reading. When you take notes, you

have to think about what the authors are saying and about your response to their work. Making notes

is a vehicle for your engagement with the texts. Here’s some advice about doing it:

Avoid merely summarizing the content of the text. Instead, summarize the text’s main

ideas. For an article, record the author’s key argument and the main points of that argument.

For a book, summarize the main idea of each chapter (it’s useful to note the chapter titles)

and how each of the chapters relates to the overall argument of the book. If you find that a

26

source contains so many useful pieces of information or so many tantalizing ideas that you

want to copy large parts of it into your notes, then it’s better to photocopy and to annotate

key pages. (More on annotation later.)

Note key people, events, terms, dates, and phenomena. These will provide the factual or

evidentiary basis for your research paper. As noted earlier, you will find many primary

sources cited in secondary studies, because the authors will cite those primary sources as

evidence. When you use primary sources that have been incorporated into scholarly works,

make sure to cite both the original document (the primary source) and the secondary source

from which you took it. (More on citing your sources later.)

Record your responses to the text. When you do, consider the following questions:

Questions about the author:

What is the author’s research question?

What is the author’s answer to the question? (The answer is the author’s thesis.)

How does the author argue that the thesis is right?

What evidence does the author provide to support the argument?

Who is the author’s intended audience?

For what purpose was the text written?

How does the author shape the argument to persuade his or her audience and achieve

his or her purpose?

How might the author’s purpose have affected how he or she selected and used

evidence?

Which alternative arguments does the author address and how does he or she rebut

them?

How persuasive is the author’s argument?

Questions about the text:

What questions does the text raise and which ones does it answer? Why is the text important to your research?

How does the material connect with what you already know or have already read?

Does it support or contradict what you have learned so far? Does it raise new issues?

Which ideas do you find interesting—and why do they interest you?

Annotating

As noted, there are times when it is useful to annotate a photocopied text instead of, or in addition to,

taking notes on it. To annotate is to make notes on the text in the margins. Annotate in pencil or in

light-colored ink that doesn’t obscure the printed text. (Note: Generally, as noted below, highlighting

is a bad practice, but here is a place where you might use a highlighter.) Mark the sentence that a

marginal note relates to.

27

Useful annotation techniques include:

Underlining, bracketing, or highlighting main claims (and noting, for example, ―th‖ for

―theme‖ or ―arg‖ for ―argument‖ in the margin)

The Problem with Highlighting

Highlighters are handy, especially when annotating, but use of them tends to get out of hand. They

make you think you are reading critically when you are not. You are just marking up the text. Using

highlighters

reduces the likelihood that you will interact critically with the text. Highlighting doesn’t

allow you to distinguish between a main idea and a detail. If all you do is highlight, then it

will be difficult for you to identify the key ideas, evidence, and arguments of the text when

you are reviewing what you have discovered through research.

defers critical reading. When you highlight, what you are really doing is saying to yourself ―I

don’t know what this means, but it looks important‖ or ―I’ll read this over again more

carefully later on,‖ whereas to read critically is to engage the text as you read it.

makes the process of review inefficient. If all you’ve done is highlight blocks of text, then

when you review what you’ve read you won’t know what those blocks were about or why

you thought they were important unless you read them over again. In essence, highlighting

forces you to read everything at least twice: once when you highlight it and again when you

have to go back and find particular pieces of information or ideas. At some point, you have to

make notes about what you regard as significant about each text you read.

increases the possibility that you will use too many quotations in your paper. A paper

composed of a string of quotations is a very bad paper. When you highlight passages

throughout the works you read, you may end up writing a paper that is just a collection of

readings. You’ve presented the findings and ideas of others but not your own thinking.

Doing research is a sustained act of criticism, of finding and assessing information and

arguments as you develop your own ideas. To the extent that highlighting interferes with that

intellectual process, it undermines your entire effort. To overcome what highlighting

produces, you might have to do your reading all over again.

Recording necessary bibliographic information

One of the biggest problems in doing research is keeping track of what you have read. Research

requires a great deal of clerical work. Take the time to record the complete bibliographical

information on every work you read.

There is nothing quite as frustrating as remembering that you read the perfect quotation to clinch

your argument but forgetting where you read it. When that happens, and every scholar can give you a

list of his or her own experience with incomplete notes, you have to spend hours going through what

28

you’ve already done in hopes of finding the source or you have to give up the quotation. In many

cases, you will spend the hours, fail to find the source, and then have to forego use of the material. In

the worst cases, you’ll have to revise your argument, and perhaps your conclusion, because the piece

you sort of remember is crucial to making the argument work.

Keeping accurate records of what you read and attaching the bibliographic information to your notes

and to pages copied from sources will not only save you time and perhaps save your argument but

also prevent you from committing plagiarism. When they are caught using others’ words without

quotation marks or citation, or when they paraphrase another’s words or use others’ ideas without

citation, students often say that they must have just copied text from their notes into their paper. No

plagiarism intended. Unfortunately, that’s also no excuse. Plagiarism consists in using someone

else’s work without acknowledging it. It can be intentional or unintentional. The latter may be less

culpable than the former, but both intentional and unintentional plagiarism will lead to charges being

filed and to a penalty that might be severe. If you do not know the source of your notes, you can’t use

them.

Here is the sort of information you need to record for everything you read:

For books, the information includes the author(s), complete title, place of publication, name f

publisher, and date of publication.

For articles in journals or magazines, it includes author(s), complete title, name of the journal

or magazine, volume number, issue number, date of the volume or issue, and page numbers.

Specific volumes of journals and magazines are usually numbered by year – so, for example,

the American Political Science Review for 2008 is volume number 102 (vol. 1 was published

in 1906). The common practice is to refer to journals by volume, year, and page number.

For Web resources, the URL, the author or authority that produced the site, whatever

pathways a reader would need to find the material you are using. Remember that many web

sites are dynamic, constantly in flux, so you might need to note who or what organization

maintains the site, how often it is updated etc. If you are worried that the information you are

taking from a site will have been altered, moved, or removed by the time your reader goes

looking for it, then print it out, noting the date and the exact location at the time you used it.

For a paper written for a course, being able to provide your teacher with a printout that has

full information might save you from a lot of trouble.

In general, err on the side of completeness. Everyone who has done research can recount the costs of

sloppiness in recording bibliographic information. Those costs include spending hours searching for

the information while a footnote waits to be completed or having to rewrite an argument because you

cannot find the source of information or of a quotation crucial to solidifying a part of the argument.

For some, the cost has included accusations of plagiarism, when, desperate to complete the work – as

students facing a deadline often are – the writer just includes the material without proper citation.

When you are doing research, you must keep the best records you have ever managed to keep.

Working towards a research question

29

During the early stages of working on a research paper, your main activities will be: to read widely;

to take notes on and respond to what you are reading; and to ask questions about what you are

reading. For the first few weeks, don’t worry if your topic changes several times. The best research

always seems to be ―accidental‖: you’re in the library or online looking for something, and you just

happen to find a book or a topic that fascinates you. Getting to the library early and reading widely

will help you find a topic that really engages you. For the first weeks of your research, expect to read

through a great deal of stuff, to take a lot of notes, to make many photocopies and annotate

copiously, and to write a large number of exploratory paragraphs that lay out ideas for the paper.

These paragraphs are unlikely to make it into your paper, but they will help you find and develop a

topic suitable to the length of the paper you have to write. It is only after you have accumulated a

great deal of information that you can start to organize your work into a coherent topic that will

produce a good paper. A coherent topic is a good research question; answering the question is the

objective of the research you will do once you have it. So, the question determines what kind of and

how much research you have to do. Formulating a research question is the subject of Chapter 3.

30

Chapter 3

Formulating an Open-ended Research Question

You reach a crucial stage six weeks before the paper is due. At that point, you have to bring some

order to what you have been reading and thinking. If you have been reading critically, you will have

a list of questions in your notes. Now, you select, from all of the potential research questions you

have accumulated, one narrow, open-ended question. That question will provide the basis for your

research paper. The thesis of your paper will be your answer to the question; your argument will

make a persuasive case that your answer is right or at least better than other possible answers.

You will need to choose a research question that will lead you to do research that will produce a good

argument. What sort of question is that?

Good questions

You want a question that can be answered but not definitively. That is the definition of an open-

ended question. You will propose an answer to such a question and make a case for it. A great deal of

professional scholarship, the sort done by your faculty, does the same thing, answer questions that

have been or might be answered in more than one way.

A research paper is not a report. You want to avoid writing a report. In a report, you set out the

information you’ve found and perhaps make some comments on the way scholars have gathered or

treated that information. In a report, you show that you’ve read and understood a body of material. In

a research paper, you set out to answer a question of your own devising. You will report on what

scholars have said about aspects of the question, but you will be using their work and the work you

do with primary sources to make a case for a thesis. Good research papers go beyond merely

reporting information about which scholars already agree; they advance claims that are still open to

debate, supporting those claims with evidence and argument.

The answer to an open-ended question can be strong or weak, supported by a strong or a weak

argument. A good thesis is one supported by a good argument. A good argument persuades because

the evidence supports it.

Here are some examples of open-ended questions, and the academic fields in which they would be

posed:

What benefit do male birds of paradise derive from having such elaborate and colorful

plumage? (Evolutionary Biology)

Why do people continue to smoke even though they’ve been warned about the dangers

cigarettes pose to their health? (Neurophysiology, Psychology, Sociology)

What was the primary cause of the American Civil War? (History)

How can James Joyce’s short story ―The Dead‖ be interpreted? (Literature)

31

None of these questions can be answered definitively, but each of them has several plausible answers

that can be supported with evidence and argument. In other words, advancing and supporting an

answer to any of the questions—to any open-ended question—necessarily means making an

argument, which is your principal work when writing a research paper.

Basing your research project on an open-ended question thus provides two benefits. First, it gives

you something interesting to figure out, so that your research becomes a process of discovery and

persuasion that has some suspense to it. Can you find evidence to support the answer to the question

you would like to give? Can you convince your readers to accept your answer? Second, it enables

you to write a strong research paper that advances a compelling argument.

Research questions come in all sizes. Some good research questions need a book-length answer

based on years of research in out-of-the-way archives or months of work in a laboratory. Others can

be dealt with in short papers or articles. You have eight to twelve weeks to produce a ten-to-fifteen-

page paper. You will need a question suitable to that task.

Why a narrow question?

Ten to fifteen pages, although it might seem endless to you, is really not very much space in which to

make a compelling argument. You will need to narrow the scope of your topic and question in order

to ensure that you can adequately explain your answer in the permissible number of pages. For

example, you might be interested in how the rulers of the Roman Empire succeeded in establishing

hegemony over conquered states. What, then, would be a sufficiently narrow research question for

you to pursue in a ten- to fifteen-page research paper?

Much too broad: How did Rome maintain control over its empire?

Still too broad: How did Rome maintain control over Egypt?

Still too broad: How did Rome maintain control over Egypt in the first century B.C.E.?

Better: How did Julius Caesar and Marc Antony affect Cleopatra’s governance of Egypt?

Even better: How did Marc Antony affect Cleopatra’s governance of Egypt?

Formulating your question

Part of the process of reading critically is to record all of the questions that occur to you during your

research. Some of those questions will lead to good research projects; others will be less productive.

Using the following criteria will help you decide which questions are most likely to be productive.

Levels of arguability

You can rank types of questions in order of increasing arguability—that is, the degree to which you

can make arguments supporting answers to them—as follows:

Level 1: Questions that can be answered with knowledge you have right now

Level 2: Questions that can be definitively answered with scholarly research

32

Level 3: Questions to which an answer can be proposed based on scholarly research but that

cannot be answered definitively

Level 4: Questions that cannot be addressed with scholarly research either because of a lack

of evidence or because they ask something that cannot be answered by citing evidence

You want to find a level-3 question—an open-ended question—on which to base your research.

The level at which you frame your question will determine the success of your research project.

Answering a level-1 or a level-2 question (such as ―What types of weapons did Julius Caesar’s troops

use?‖) will only produce a report, since scholars no longer disagree about the answer to that question.

Answering a level-4 question (such as ―Did the majority of Roman citizens really believe that the

emperor Augustus was a god?‖) will only produce speculation, because suitable evidence (such as

diaries or other records of citizens’ opinions) does not exist. Other level-4 questions (such as ―Was

the emperor Augustus a god?‖) cannot be answered with research, because the answers to such

questions rest not on observable, testable evidence but on beliefs. If you want to produce a strong,

interesting research paper, you must start with a level-3 question.

Question types

Apart from question level, there are a number of ways to categorize questions. One useful scheme

distinguishes among five main types of questions: of fact, value, policy, definition, and causation.

The general characteristics of these question types are:

TYPE GENERAL FORMAT EXAMPLE

Fact Did it happen? Is it true? Did Archimedes show the people of

Syracuse how to burn the Athenian

fleet by focusing the rays of the sun

with mirrors?

Value Is it good or bad? Which criteria do

we use to decide?

Was Athenian democracy more ―fair‖

or egalitarian than other systems of

government operating during the fifth

century B.C.E.?

Policy What should we do about it? What

should be our future course of action?

(Historical version: What should have

been done about it? How should they

have acted?)

How can we reduce the number of

single parents in American society?

(Was the execution of Socrates

justified?)

Definition What is it? How shall we interpret it? What was the political significance of

Sophocles’s Antigone? What is the

meaning of ―separation of powers‖ in

the U.S. Constitution?

Causation What caused it? Or, what are its

effects?

What events led to the way Madison

phrased the First Amendment to the

Constitution?

33

Note that you could argue for an answer to any of the above questions; they are all arguable. Even a

claim of fact isn’t necessarily ―true‖; rather, it may be a claim that must be supported with evidence

and argument. (For example, the simple question, ―When was Socrates born?‖ cannot be answered

by reading his birth certificate. A historian must argue for a date based on the available evidence,

which is far from conclusive.) Thus, any of the above question types could be framed as an open-

ended, level-3 question.

Categorizing questions according to type has several benefits. First, if you are finding it difficult to

formulate a clear question, you might find it helpful to format your query in terms of a general type.

More important, after you have formulated a question you can focus your research by considering the

kinds of evidence that most effectively support an answer to the type of question you are asking. The

following chart summarizes what you will need to learn in order to give a plausible or persuasive

answer to each type of question.

TYPE GENERAL FORMAT NECESSARY EVIDENCE

Fact Did it happen? Is it true? If you are asking ―Did X happen?‖ you

will need to know:

• What evidence do we have that X

happened?

Because the evidence is likely to be

unclear, what other things do we know

about the period, about the actors,

about the institutions and so forth that

might help us interpret the evidence

for the event itself?

• How have scholars used the evidence

in arguing that X happened or did not

happen and why do they differ on the

issue?

Value Is it good or bad? Which criteria do we

use to decide?

• If you are asking ―Is X good?‖ you

will need to know:

• Factual information about X

• An understanding of the criteria

scholars use to judge the value of

things like X

• The way scholars use the criteria to

judge whether a thing like X is good or

bad

• Existing scholarly opinions about the

value of X

Policy What should we do about it? What

should be our future course of action?

(Historical version: What should have

been done about it? How should they

have acted?)

If you are asking ―what should have

been done about X‖? you will need to

know:

• Factual information about X

• Other scenarios for what could

plausibly have been done about X

• The criteria scholars use to judge the

efficacy of policies like those proposed

to solve the problem of X

• What positions scholars and others

(such as policy makers) have taken on

X

34

Definition What is it? How shall we interpret it? If you are asking ―How shall we

interpret X?‖ you will need to know:

• Factual information about X

• Relevant scholarly criteria for

interpreting phenomena such as X

• Existing scholarly opinions about the

meaning of X

Causation What caused it? Or, what are its

effects?

If you are asking ―How did X affect

Y?‖ you will need to know:

• Factual information about both X and

Y

• What Y was like before X occurred

• What Y was like after X occurred

• What factors other than X might have

affected Y

• Existing scholarly opinions about

whether or not, and how, X affected Y

Note that every topic has many different aspects. For example, if you are asking, ―Why did

Europeans become dominant in the world in the early nineteenth century?‖ you might frame an

answer by comparing economic, technological, or cultural development in Europe and other major

civilizations of the period. Each of these approaches to the question will require different kinds of

theoretical models, different kinds of evidence, and different bodies of scholarship. Likewise, if your

topic is European technological achievements in the eighteenth century, you might ask, ―What effect

did technological development have on the European family?‖ or on the success of colonization or on

economic development or on the growth of science or on cultural attitudes (think of Marx’s claim

that the growth of manufacturing deprived the people of their personal relationship to the production

of goods).

Working with a research question: keeping track of evidence

One good way to get to a research question that will serve your needs is to start early trying to

identify questions. Write down each research question that occurs to you as you get into the research

process. Keep a separate file for each one, and record or photocopy all of the evidence you find that

might help you to answer the question, along with your annotations, notes, and comments. By the

time you get to the stage where you have to make a choice, you’ll have a lot of possibilities to choose

from.

35

Chapter 4

The Cycle of Reading: Gathering the information you need to answer your

question

Once you have a good question, you will be able to focus your further reading. You now will read

primary and secondary sources that you think will help you answer your question. You will also be

able to review what you read earlier with the question in mind. You will find it amazing what you see

in previously read texts once you’ve got the focus that a research question provides.

As you go back to reading, you will probably have some idea about how you want to answer the

question – that is, what your thesis will be – and that will help you choose what to read. However,

keep an open mind. You may discover that your first impressions about how the project will turn out

are wrong and that you arrive at a different conclusion after doing your research.

Your goals in doing research

The answer to a research question rests on an argument that is, in effect, a series of demonstrations.

You demonstrate that something is true, which leads you to a demonstration that another thing is

true, leading eventually to the answer to the question. Each demonstration involves making a claim

and then arguing that it is true or at least likely. The argument you make to support each claim

consists of citations of evidence and reasoning.

Here is an example. If your question is, ―What was the original purpose of the Parliament in

England?‖ you will start with a claim about when the institution was created, citing evidence that

shows when that happened and referring to the work of scholars who have written about it. Then, you

must make a claim about what the evidence produced by and about the early Parliaments shows

about its purposes or function. One claim could be that the kings created Parliament as a political

body to help them govern. Another claim could be that communities in England – counties and towns

– had acquired such economic power that they forced the kings to call Parliaments to hear their views

on national issues. Yet another claim might be that whatever the kings had in mind, the principal

business of the early Parliaments was the hearing of petitions and law cases that members brought to

the meetings. So, the Parliaments were not so much political bodies as courts, the highest in the land

because the king headed them. As you work towards an answer to your question, you need to argue

for or against these claims or hypotheses, presenting the evidence that supports or contradicts each of

them. You will build the argument for your thesis from claims and the demonstrations of their truth

or likelihood. You should structure your argument – that is, the order in which you treat the claims –

to make it flow logically toward the conclusion you have drawn from your research.

36

This example shows that an argument is not necessarily completely positive. Sometimes, you build

an argument only of claims that you think the evidence and sound reasoning support, but that is not

common. Most often, a good argument deals with claims – representing possible answers to your

question or the sub-questions it raises – that you want to reject as well as those you think are

supportable. The claims are hypotheses, and you try to support or knock down each of the hypotheses

you consider. The rejected claims or hypotheses are counter-arguments, and they strengthen your

main argument by showing that you have considered other possible answers and by dealing with

evidence that you have decided is not significant but that a reader might point to if you didn’t.

(Imagine your reader saying, ―Oh really? What about these documents that show that…‖ If you have

considered counter-arguments, you have shown or at least argued that those documents don’t

undermine your answer to the question.)

Your question guides you in figuring out what you need to know to answer it. What background

material will you need to cover? What kind of claims will you have to make or deal with? and What

points will you need to make?

If, for example, you wanted to address a question about how a European city, such as Florence,

responded to the great plague of 1348, you would need to consider:

The general history of the plague

The kind of evidence we have – records, histories, literary works – that tells us something

about the plague in Florence and what the Florentines knew about its causes and progress

What these different sources said about the Florentines’ response to the plague, both when

they were anticipating it and when it finally hit them, and how the authors’ goals and points

of view affected the way they portrayed the response

What scholars have written about the response of the Florentines to the plague

Reflecting on your question as you proceed

As you continue reading, you may revise your research question several times. You may find that

you cannot gather what you think is the right kind of background information. You may find that you

cannot give a plausible explanation, with supporting evidence, of one of the points you thought you

would have to make to answer the question as you formulated it. You may recognize that your

question is too big; you would need too much time and too many pages to answer it. The focused

reading that you do at this stage of your work will take you into the heart of the argument that will

support a satisfactory answer to your question. Whenever you feel that you’ve got a mass of

undigested material – information that you know is relevant to your topic but that you do not feel in

control of – stop and reassess where you are.

At these stopping points, you should try to organize your notes and write some paragraphs or pages

setting down your view of what it all means. Then, you should look at your research question again.

How do the materials you’ve collected and the thoughts you’ve had help you answer the question?

Do you have to revise the question? You can only answer a question if you find relevant information.

37

You know that you have relevant information if you can use it to argue that an answer to the question

is at least plausible, if not compelling.

You also need enough information. It will do you no good if you find material to answer one part of

the question but not another. Thus, if you were working on Florence and the plague, you might have

found evidence of religious responses – church attendance, processions in the streets, the

government’s appeals to the saints – but not much evidence about what the physicians were telling

people or the way the hospitals functioned. So, you would have to revise your question to focus on

the religious response to the disease. While you are doing your focused reading, you have to pay

close attention to what you need to answer your question, and you have to stop occasionally to sort

your findings and think about the results of your research. These stops for ordering and reflection

will speed your research and make it better. You will not get off course, and you will not spend time

reading texts that do not serve your purpose.

38

Chapter 5

Answering Your Question and Constructing Your Argument

About three weeks before your paper is due (or about two weeks before you have to submit a rough

draft) you will have to transform all of your notes and ideas into a coherent draft. You can

accomplish this task by working through the following steps.

Sort notes and texts

Gather together all of the material you’ve generated in the course of your research: notes, copies of

pages from primary and secondary sources, and pictures. Sort the material into piles representing

different aspects of your topic. You might have one pile for introductory information and one for

each part of your argument. Each batch of materials might include notes on the primary and

secondary sources, copies of pages you judged significant when you read them, and notes recording

your own thoughts as you did your reading.

Sorting your research materials accomplishes a number of goals. First, it allows you to review all of

the information you’ve gathered, alerting you to any gaps in your research and reminding you of

some things you might have forgotten. Second, it reveals the way you now think you will argue the

case that your thesis is sound. Third, it constitutes a first step in putting together a rough draft. The

order into which you organize your piles of information will become the order in which you present

that information in your draft.

Write a working thesis

As often noted, the thesis of your paper will be the answer to your research question. You might

already have formulated a thesis as you did your research; if not, you will most likely find that it

comes to you as you organize your notes. Write down your working thesis, stating it in a few

declarative sentences. For example, here is a plausible working thesis that responds to the question of

Florentines’ religious response to the plague of 1348:

Florentines regarded the plague as a divine punishment not only of themselves but also of the

established church. So, they stayed away from the churches and paid no heed to the bishop

and his priests. Instead, they joined informal, intensely religious groups that practiced new

rituals and held views that the church regarded as heretical.

Note the specificity of this thesis; it goes beyond a broad response – ―The Florentines became more

religious as a result of the plague‖ – to elaborate how they became more religious. The more specific

you can make your working thesis, the easier it will be to write your rough draft and the more

focused and coherent that draft will be.

Note also that this thesis tells you a lot about what you have to argue in your paper. You have to

explain, at least briefly, traditional religious practice and the organization of the church in Florence.

39

Then, you have to show that the citizens began to engage in all sorts of new practices and rituals and

held unorthodox beliefs (perhaps promulgated by lay preachers wandering around the city during the

plague). Finally, you have to show that the bishop and his hierarchy of officials considered these

practices and beliefs heretical.

Note, finally, that this statement is a working thesis; it is only a provisional thesis, one that you might

change as you think through your research material during the course of writing your draft. Use your

working thesis as a guide but don’t be afraid to change it if further reflection convinces you that

you’ve found a better answer to your question.

Organize the information you’ve found

Once you’ve formulated a working thesis you can refine the organization of the material you’ve

collected. As you put your information in order you will create the outline of your paper: the train of

information and explanation that leads readers from your research question through the main points

of your argument to your conclusion or answer to the question.

The structure of the paper

Just as your argument should flow logically from point to point – that is, it should have a logical

structure – so your paper as a whole should have a structure. If you write an outline of your

argument, you should be able to see the structure easily, and it should have a shape. In fact, you can

think of your paper as a building. The roof (thesis) cannot stand without supporting columns (an

argument based on evidence). The whole rests on a foundation (the research question). As you

organize your paper, keep in mind that every bit of information—every fact or claim that something

is a fact—and every argument must contribute to supporting the thesis (roof).

[Diagram not available.]

40

As in real architecture, some elements of your structure might serve more than one purpose. One

piece of evidence might support two or more different aspects of your argument. For example, if you

are writing about the Ottoman adoption of gunpowder technology, you might use a document to

show when that happened and then go on to argue that the Ottomans got the technology from the

Swedes. In making that argument, assuming that you do not have direct evidence (such as a

document from the Swedish ministry of war saying that they had provided cannons to the Ottomans),

you would have to show that there was a plausible mechanism (a spy network, the capture of an

artillery unit etc.) through which the transfer of technology could have taken place. In making the

case for the plausibility of your version of what happened, you would almost certainly find that some

of your evidence, such as the documents you use to argue about the date of the technology transfer,

could also be used to support an argument about how the transfer took placeSo, your paper should

have a formal structure. Here are the components of that structure:

The Introduction:

Introduce the topic – what is it, why is it interesting?

Provide background information (orient your readers, assuming a general audience)

State the research question (implicitly or explicitly but clearly; your reader should know what

the question is)

Allude to the controversy over the question (Why would anyone ask the question in the first

place? What difference would one answer make as opposed to another answer? Why don’t

scholars or people agree on an answer? What are some of the different answers that have

been offered and what arguments have been advanced to support those answers?) What’s the

significance of the question?

State your thesis

The Body of the paper:

Make your argument. The argument will be made up of parts that follow from one another (if

I’ve shown X to be true or highly likely, then we can see that Y is also true or highly likely).

Each element of your argument should be backed up by evidence and discussion

As noted in the last chapter, you may summarize one or more other arguments that have been

offered to answer your question followed by your rebuttal. If you discuss other arguments,

deal with the way the evidence is used in them.

You may anticipate and refute possible criticisms of your argument. (Doing this supplies

counter-arguments when other writers have not done it for you. However, do not make up a

weak or outlandish counter-argument. That is a called a ―straw man,‖ and it weakens rather

than strengthens your own argument, because it makes the reader think that your thesis

cannot stand up to a real challenge.) \

Note that you should occasionally remind the reader why your question is significant, why he

or she should care what the answer is.

41

The Conclusion:

No new points or evidence!

Tie together your argument

Expand on the significance of your argument (the ―so what?‖): how does your argument help

readers to understand your topic better?

Argument chart

Here is a useful bookkeeping tool for organizing your paper:

Question: What was the Florentines’ religious response to the plague of 1348?

Working thesis: They disregarded the established church and created new religious groups, new

rituals, and new ideas.

Evidence/Data Claim Explanation and

supporting

sources

Counter-

argument

and supporting

sources

(optional)

Rebuttal and

supporting

sources

(optional)

Descriptions of

religious behavior

New behavior,

new rituals

People thought

the church was

corrupt and

God was

punishing the

people for their

adherence to it

People were just

crazed by fear

Literature written during and

after the plague

Can be

interpreted as

explanation of

popular attitudes

Literary writers

reflected the

views of their

audience

Different

interpretations of

the literary texts

Sermons by the bishop and

clergy

Shows that they

were concerned

with what the

people were

doing and their

rejection of the

church

Bishop and

clergy would not

have been

concerned if they

regarded the

people merely as

crazed with fear

Reports of sermons by lay

preachers

The new

religious groups

were unorthodox

People no longer

followed the

dictates of the

traditional clergy

42

Chapter 6

Using Evidence Effectively

The proper use of evidence is the key to writing a good research paper. If you take the proper

approach to the evidence, you will almost automatically create a coherent argument that moves

towards the answer to your research question. So, what constitutes a proper use of evidence?

Determining what counts as valid evidence

Some evidence is obviously relevant; other evidence requires a demonstration or argument to show

that it is relevant. If you are asking about the date of an event and no primary source gives it to you,

then you have to approach the question obliquely. A dated document that refers to the event gives

you a date before which the event must have occurred. Other dated documents might give you

information that shows that the event had to have taken place after they were written. Consider again

the question, ―When did the Ottomans acquire gunpowder?‖ An account by a chronicler writing in

1453 (when we know that they had cannons, because they used them against Constantinople that

year) might mention a battle in 1449 in which the Ottomans used cannon. You could argue from that

text that the Ottomans had the technology by 1449. How could one determine when the Ottomans

actually learned of the technology and began experimenting with it? The records of the Sultanate

might have entries, dating from the mid-1440s, that could be interpreted as commissions to

ironworks to produce prototypes of cannon. But, the records might not be clear enough to clinch the

case. So, you would have to argue that the records do refer to cannon and can be dated to about 1445.

You can use a good deal of space in a research paper arguing that a document, a picture, a story told

by a contemporary, and so forth, is valid evidence for a claim you are making. You give reasons why

this piece of evidence supports your answer to the question you are considering, while another piece

of evidence does not. You’ll find as you read scholarly works that much scholarship concerns

questions of which evidence is relevant and that the way a scholar answers these questions of

relevance determines the answer the scholar gives to the research question he or she is trying to

answer.

Using the work of others: crediting your sources

In all research projects you will gather the findings and opinions of others who have gone before you.

As you would want to be given credit for your discoveries and ideas, so you must give credit to all of

those whose work you have used.

You will use the work of others in several ways:

You will borrow passages from others’ work—that is, you will quote them or paraphrase

their words. You must cite that source precisely, usually in a footnote or endnote. (If you are

quoting, use quotation marks.) The citation should include the name of the author, the title of

the work from which the passage comes, the place of publication (if a journal article, the

43

name of the journal), the name of the publisher, the date of publication, the page on which the

passage can be found.

You will use sources used by others or brought to your attention by others. You must

acknowledge that you learned of these sources from such and such a scholar, citing the place

where he or she published it or cited it in the same way as you would cite a quotation from

the scholar.

You will borrow ideas or arguments from others. You must cite the author from whom you

got the idea. Often, a proper citation will have not only a plain citation to the book or article

and page number(s) where the scholar expressed the idea but also an explanation of the way

the author used the idea. The explanation can be especially useful if you are using the idea in

a way different from the way its originator did. Then, your careful citation will help your

reader distinguish your ideas and contributions from those of your sources and help your

reader give you credit for what you’ve done.

You lose nothing by citing the work of others properly. Indeed, by doing so you show that you are

part of the tradition of scholarship in your subject, that you understand that scholarship, and that you

are making an independent contribution to the subject. By honoring those whose work you have

used, you honor your own work.

To credit the authors you have read properly, you must keep excellent bibliographic records as you

do your research. Always start by recording complete information about the publication – author,

title, place where it was published, publisher, and date (or, for journal articles, the title of the journal,

volume number, and date). Then, record the page number of every note you take from that source. If

you keep good records, you will minimize the possibility that you will use another’s work without

attribution, and you will save a great deal of time when you sit down to write your paper. You will

not have to go back to the library to look for the source of quotations or comments that you want to

use.

To prevent yourself from inadvertently using another’s words, do not copy text from your sources

directly into your notes without marking the passage clearly – usually with quotation marks – as a

quotation. If you just copy the sentences or phrases into your notes, you are unlikely to remember,

when you finally get around to using the information in your paper, that they were not your words.

One good way to avoid using another’s words without attribution is to avoid copying text verbatim

into your notes. If you put the book or article you are reading aside, or turn it over, before you make

your note on it, you ensure that the information you are recording from it passes through your mind

on the way to the page. You must still note the bibliographic data identifying where you got the

information, but you probably won’t have to worry that you are inadvertently quoting someone

without proper attribution.

Deciding how much evidence is enough

To make it clear what this decision is about, consider some examples. First, a scholar makes a claim

and cites a document to support it. Readers look up the cited text and discover that he did not cite the

whole relevant passage. He did not use the evidence fairly.

44

Second, a scholar may make a claim and cite a single sentence from a primary source to support it.

There is no other evidence to cite. Readers may judge that there is not enough evidence to support the

scholar’s claim.

Third, a scholar does hundreds of interviews for a study. In her published study, she reviews the

interview process, gives statistics on the interviews, explains the way the questions were asked, and

then asserts, explicitly or implicitly, that the particular interviews she cites in making her argument

are representative of the whole survey. If her peers think that she interviewed a sufficient number of

people and that she has provided enough information about the overall results of her interviews, then

they are likely to accept that she has used her evidence properly. There is enough of it, and it is fairly

treated.

There is no bright-line rule to guide you in deciding when you’ve made your argument and need say

no more. To say that you need just enough evidence to be convincing or to make your case is not

much guidance. So, try to put yourself in your reader’s position and imagine what sort of and how

much evidence would persuade you that your argument is sound. By asking how much evidence is

enough you will keep in mind the need to explain the evidence and your principles of selection, so

that your reader does not second-guess you. The explanation of how you have used the evidence is

also an argument that you’ve used the evidence fairly and that there is no other evidence out there

that either is relevant or would alter the answer to your question.

You want to construct a persuasive argument. An argument that ignores some of the evidence will

fall and bring you and your ideas down with it. An argument that cites too much evidence wobbles at

least and often obscures the points you are trying to make. Young writers often want to cite every bit

of information they found during their research. They did all that work and want to show it off.

However, an argument loaded with a superfluity of evidence becomes digressive, leading into

discussions that have nothing to do with the thesis being argued. Or, it becomes unpersuasive

because the superfluous evidence creates the impression of special pleading. A repetitive or

digressive argument is not an effective argument, because it diverts the reader’s attention to the

repetitiveness or digressions and away from the case being made.

However, if you are selecting evidence from a large mass of material that you’ve discovered, you

have to explain to the reader why you think the evidence you’ve selected is sufficient. Such an

explanation will consist in arguing that what you’ve selected is representative of the material you did

not cite as well as that it proves your argument. Such an explanation is an argument that you have

used the right amount of evidence in the right way; it is not too much or too little, and it is used fairly

– that is, you have not left out information that would support a thesis different from yours and have

not taken quotations or ―facts‖ out of context. In political campaigns, candidates often take

quotations from their opponents or from government reports out of context, thereby distorting their

meaning. Scholars occasionally do something similar to shore up a weak argument – quoting part of

a text while leaving out the part that shows that the quoted text does not really say what the scholar

wishes it did. In general, you need to persuade your reader that you have not used the evidence just to

make your argument come out the way you wish. If you think you have used the evidence fairly, then

you probably have. If your answer to your question has become more important to you than the

evidence you’ve found regarding it, as often happens with politicians, then you probably have not

used the evidence fairly or persuasively.

45

Chapter 7

Shaping the Paper: Writing a Prospectus and a Rough Draft

Once you’ve organized your materials, you will have to write a rough draft. Sometimes, you will be

required to write a prospectus before you create the rough draft and sometimes you will find it useful

to write a prospectus as a way to prepare yourself for writing the rough draft. You approach both a

prospectus and a rough draft in the same way, so I will treat them together.

It is at the point writing a draft that many writers bog down, uncertain about how to proceed. The

worksheet at the end of this chapter will help you get started. You can use it in any of the following

ways:

As a template for writing a prospectus, if your assignment asks you to provide one or if you

think it would be useful to you as a starting point for writing your draft

As an aid in solidifying your argument, helping you to see what its ―moving parts‖ are

As a guide for structuring your rough draft

As a tool for evaluating your rough draft during substantive revision

A prospectus is a very brief summary of your paper. A rough draft is a first attempt at actually

writing the paper. Thus, a prospectus is almost like an outline, except that you write out your

question, thesis, and arguments in full sentences. The advantage of writing a prospectus, as opposed

to an outline, is that when you try to write out your arguments, you often find that you need to hone

the way you are making them. A prospectus is practice for the rough draft, which is more than

practice for the final version of the paper. The rough draft is the basis for the paper you will turn in.

Your rough draft should be longer than the target length of the final paper, which means you should

put into it most, if not all, of the material you have found through your research. The reason you want

to write a long rough draft is that when you revise it to produce your second draft, you want to be

paring it down, not adding new material. New material added when you write a second draft is

rough-draft writing. If you have a second draft that contains significant new material, what you really

have is a mixed draft. Some of it has been honed and improved over the rough draft; some of it is just

as rough as what you started with. The point of writing a rough draft and then editing it is to hone

your argument – tighten it, assure that the argument flows logically, improve your use of evidence,

get rid of extraneous material, and so forth. If you have added significant new material while revising

your rough draft, then you’ve gone back to the first stage of your writing and have to start the

revision process over again. If you just go on without starting over, your final paper will not be very

good.

46

Using a rough draft worksheet

As a prospectus template: Fill in all of the blanks on the worksheet. Use the completed

worksheet as a rough outline for writing your prospectus. A prospectus is usually a 1- to 2-

page summary of your paper. In it you set out your question and thesis, outline your

argument and at least the main counter-arguments, and indicate what kind of evidence you

have to support your argument. One way to think about a prospectus is as part of an

application for grant support. If you were asking a granting agency to support your project,

you would have to tell its reviews what you proposed to do with the grant. They would want

to know your question, your working thesis, the outline of your argument, and the kind of

evidence you expect to use. Their judgment would rest on whether they thought your

question was worth investigating, whether your working thesis was plausible, whether it

looked like your argument, if you made it, could support your thesis, whether you were using

the right kind of evidence, and whether you could finish the project in the time you had. In

the context of a university course, the prospectus gives that kind of information to your

reader – your professor, teaching assistant, or yourself. For some people, writing a prospectus

is a good first step towards writing a rough draft.

As a guide to solidifying your argument: Fill in as many blanks on the worksheet as you

can. If there are any blanks that you cannot fill, take it as a signal that your argument has

some weak spots. Review your notes or do more research until you can complete the

worksheet.

As a guide for structuring your rough draft: The worksheet’s elements are arranged in the

order in which they might typically appear in a research paper. The first part of the worksheet

– the topic, question, alternative arguments, rebuttal, and statement of the thesis –

corresponds to a paper’s introduction. The next section constitutes the body of the paper,

advancing the different parts of your argument, each part accompanied by supporting

evidence, scholarly opinion, and explanation. The final section, on the significance of your

thesis, constitutes a crucial part of the conclusion.

As an evaluative tool during revision: After you have written a complete rough draft, make

sure that it contains at least some material that corresponds to each element in the worksheet.

Go back to your notes or do additional research to fill in the gaps and to strengthen

underdeveloped areas.

47

The Rough Draft/Prospectus Worksheet

In my research on the topic of: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ I have learned the following: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ These observations lead me to pose the following question: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ This question has several plausible answers. For example, scholars such as ____________________ and ______________ have claimed that _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ It is also possible to argue that ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ [add more if necessary]

While the above answers are plausible, they have several weaknesses. These weaknesses include: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ My own answer to the question (my thesis) is as follows: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

48

My thesis is supported by the following piece of evidence: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ (Reference: ___________________________________________________________________________ My thesis is also supported by: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ (Reference: ___________________________________________________________________________ My thesis is further supported by: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ (Reference: ___________________________________________________________________________ [add more if necessary] My thesis is significant because it modifies and/or adds to current thinking on this topic in the following way: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

49

Chapter 8

Revising the Rough Draft

When you revise a rough draft for the first time, you should aim for substantive changes –

improvements in organization, the logical flow of the argument, and the use of evidence. During that

first revision, you should spend as little time as possible on sentence-level editing for two reasons:

first, focusing on grammar and word choice will make it more difficult for you to see where you need

to make more significant substantive or structural changes; second, reworking sentences that you

might ultimately decide to amend or delete will waste time. You should therefore save sentence-level

revision for your last revision. At this stage in the process, your goals will be to:

organize the main sections of your paper to make your argument as persuasive as possible;

the argument should march through the paper

strengthen the organization within each of your paragraphs

delete redundant passages

note where you need to do additional research

make sure that your paper has an explicitly stated thesis and that each paragraph contributes

to the argument that the thesis is right

make sure your paragraphs step logically from one to the next

make sure that your conclusion and your thesis match up; that is, make sure that the main

point of your conclusion is the same as the point of the thesis you advance in your

introduction

make sure that you have cited your sources properly

Organizing the paper

Number the paragraphs of your rough draft. On a separate sheet of paper, make a numbered list in

which you write one brief sentence summarizing the main point of each of your paragraphs.

Analyzing the list will help you improve the organization and flow of your paper. In particular, you

should do the following:

Make sure that each of your paragraphs has only one main idea. If you find that you

cannot easily summarize a paragraph, it probably makes more than one point. (Just like the

rule ―one idea to a sentence,‖ each paragraph should present one point of your argument.) If

necessary, divide paragraphs into two or more shorter paragraphs.

50

• Eliminate redundancy. If you find that two or more paragraphs contain the same information,

combine that information into one paragraph or a smaller number of paragraphs.

• Make sure that all the material related to a single point is in the same place. If two or more

paragraphs address the same topic or main idea, make sure that they are in the same part of the

paper, moving them if necessary. Don’t discuss a topic in two different parts of a paper. Treat

each topic completely and then move on to the next topic. If necessary, you can refer to an earlier

discussion or remind your reader that you have already argued a point, but you should not divide

your discussion of a topic.

• Look at where you have placed each of your main points. Your argument will be most

persuasive if you place your strongest point last, your next strongest point first, and all other

points in the middle of your paper. Move paragraphs around if necessary.

• Look at where you have placed counterarguments and rebuttals. Remember that whatever

comes last in your paper will have the strongest effect; for that reason, make sure that

counterarguments are not in either the last or next-to-last paragraph. Counterarguments and

rebuttals are more effectively placed after the introduction or within the body of the paper, as

appropriate.

51

Chapter 9

Copyediting and Final Revision

Experienced writers know that there is no limit to the number of times one can revise a piece of

writing. In fact, the one and only rule of limitation in revising a paper is:

When it’s due, it’s done.

Final Revisions

Final revision takes place in the last day or two before your paper is due. Remind yourself that you

cannot rewrite your entire paper in that amount of time, no matter how many flaws you think you

have found in it or how much new evidence you have just discovered. If you have stuck to a strict

writing schedule, you will have already completed your substantive revision – for organization,

presentation, and effective use of evidence – by the time you need to copyedit your paper.

What follows is a very brief and incomplete list of problems to look for in your writing as you go

through the paper for the last time. There are many guides to good writing, and your teacher has

probably required you to buy one.1 It will be a much better guide that the one provided here. None of

the suggestions here is meant to be a hard and fast rule, but following them will improve your writing

and make you aware of your tendencies as a writer. Good writers know the rules of grammar and

style, and they break them when doing so will produce clarity or a desirable effect in the reader (a

smile, a grumble, a recognition).

The ways in which you can improve the clarity of your writing include:

Avoiding overuse of “to be” verbs (―is,‖ ―are,‖ ―was,‖ ―were,‖ ―have been,‖ and so forth)

Before: ―Jesus was publicly predicting the destruction of the Roman Empire by God.‖

After: ―Jesus publicly predicted God’s destruction of the Roman Empire.‖

--------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

When I was a first-year student, the book was Strunk and White, The Elements of Style, and its effect on me was so

great that I often quote it without being aware of it. William Strunk, Jr. and E.B. White, The Elements of Style, New

York, Macmillan, 1959. Strunk wrote this little book for his composition students at Cornell University. White, the

author of Charlotte’s Web and many other beloved works, had been Strunk’s student. He revised and enlarged the

book.

52

Using the active voice rather than the passive voice

Before: ―The animosity between medieval Muslims and Jews is underestimated.‖

After: ―Modern historians underestimate the animosity between medieval Muslims and

Jews.‖

Note that using the active voice allows you to specify who the actors are: that is, who (in the

example) have underestimated the animosity.

Substituting concrete nouns for pronouns such as ―this,‖ ―these,‖ ―those,‖ ―it,‖ or ―they,‖

and clarifying your references.

Before: ―The messages that these women projected through their literature supposedly

encouraged other women to do the same. Yet this is not the case. For women, writing diaries

was not a form of empowerment. It was a source of escapism . . . . These remarkable

masterpieces left from this era are poignant reminders of how women looked to escape from

the hardships of life.‖

After: ―The message of empowerment projected by the nineteenth-century literature written

by women supposedly encouraged other women, their readers, to do their own writing. Yet,

contemporary women did not write diaries as a form of empowerment but as an escape from

the burdens and constraints of their lives. . . .The masterpieces of women’s literature from the

era poignantly remind us that women then had to escape from the hardships of their lives.‖

Note that the original passage suffered not only from the use of vague pronouns but also from

passive constructions.

Omitting needless words (be ruthless in your editing):2

Before: ―This shows how important it was for Muslims to acquire knowledge, no matter

where they had to look for it. This was characteristic of Muslims. Throughout their conquests

in various regions of the world, they adopted scientific and technological knowledge from

their neighbors. As a result, the Muslims acquired different forms of knowledge from various

cultures and civilizations.‖ (58 words)

After: ―The above verse demonstrates the Muslim love of learning. The Islamic conquests

brought Muslims scientific and technological knowledge from the many cultures

incorporated into their empire.‖ (26 words)

In general, you should try to write as tersely as you can. Always look for words and phrases that can

be deleted. Always seek to tighten up your writing. By doing that, you will move your argument and

your reader along.

-----------------------------

2 One of Strunk and White’s rules.

53

Cutting pairs of nouns and pairs of adjectives, when one noun or adjective would suffice.

In the last example, note ―cultures and civilizations.‖ Choose one of these terms.

Avoiding verbs made from nouns. Many verbs that end in ―ize,‖ such as ―prioritize,‖ are

made from nouns (―priority‖). Some of these verbs, such as ―legitimize,‖ have been fully

absorbed into the language and are fine. Others are new formations and will not look right to

readers. They may also not have a completely settled meaning. ―Priority‖ means the first

thing; ―prioritize‖ usually means putting a group of things in order, but that meaning is not

consistent with the noun it came from. In general, you do not want your reader to focus on

your choice of words but on your choice of meaning. Don’t trip up the reader with new,

trendy, not-quite-clear words.

Putting connective words at the beginning of sentences. ―The V-8 engine is, however, a

gas guzzler‖ is not as good as ―However, the V-8 engine is a gas guzzler.‖ Putting the

connective in the middle of the sentence misleads the reader, who doesn’t know that come

not to praise the V-8 but to bury it. Words and phrases indicating the direction of your

thought or placing what you have to say in time or place – ―In the 19th century,‖ ―In Beijing‖

–almost always belong at the beginning of the sentence. They qualify or condition whatever

the sentence says.

Last suggestions

As you go through your paper, don’t try to do everything at once. Instead, concentrate on one (or

maybe two) aspects of revising on each read-through. For example, you might highlight all the ―to

be‖ verbs‖ and then try to transform most of them into active verbs. (Note: sometimes ―to be‖ is the

correct verb. When you use a form of ―to be,‖ you set up an equation, ―x is y,‖ that you might use as

a transition from one part of your argument to another.) Or you might locate all instances of the

passive voice and revise those sentences into the active voice.

One of the best things you can do is to read your paper aloud; since your ear is less tolerant than your

eye, you can often hear the awkwardness of sentences that seem fine when you read them silently.

So, revising is a repetitive process. You go through your paper several times, concentrating on one

writing issue after another. Each of these passes through the paper should go quickly.

Final revision checklist

Revise for clarity

Revise for subject-pronoun agreement and subject-verb agreement

Use your computer’s spell-check

On a hard copy, double-check for spelling errors that the spell-check software won’t catch

(that is, any typographical error that is a real word but the wrong word for the sentence)

54

Make sure that each of the authors you cite in the body of the paper is included in your

―works cited‖ page and that each of the authors listed under ―works cited‖ has at least one

reference in the body of your paper

Conclusion

If you get through the process described in this pamphlet, you will produce a paper you can be proud

of. In addition, you’ll learn and practice intellectual skills that will serve you in everything you do in

school and after you’ve left school. You are getting a university education because you want to make

your way in the world using your intellect. The essence of intellectual work is using knowledge to

find things out and to persuade others that your conclusions about a topic or question are correct.

You learn to use knowledge by doing research papers.

You are not in school merely to pick up a ton of facts. You are here to learn how to use facts – that is,

to learn what facts are and how they can e put to use in forming and supporting ideas. When you’ve

learned how to formulate a research question, to do research to answer it, and to construct an

argument to support your answer, you have learned the most important skills a university can teach

you. And, you’ll do superior work in school and in whatever profession you enter. You came to the

university with intellectual potential. Projects like the one outlined in this pamphlet will turn that

potential into high achievement and the ability to succeed in your chosen work.

55

Research Question and Annotated Bibliography (RQAB) (5% of course grade)

Due: Beginning of section during Week 3 Length: 3-5 pages Your RQAB must be completed and submitted to your TA by section of Week 5 in order to receive credit. If you fail to submit your RQAB by Week 5, you will not only fail the assignment, but, because all elements of the writing assignment are required, you will fail the course. (Note: Save your graded RQAB to turn in with your Prospectus during Week 6)

Research Question: In one or two paragraphs, state the topic of your paper and the precise research question that your paper will answer.*

To develop a research question, READ, READ, READ about a topic of interest to you. As you read, pay attention to and record your observations/discoveries that lead you to pose the question:

o what you find really interesting o what is important to you o what you would like to understand better o what you think others should know, find important, or understand better

Craft a level-three question: a question that can be researched and supported with scholarly research, but that cannot be definitively answered.

If, in your exposition of your topic and research question, you introduce facts, ideas, and arguments drawn from sources you have read, remember to include necessary citations.

Annotated Bibliography: Submit a bibliography, in MLA format, of the sources from which your observations come. Your annotated bibliography should:

include at least five (5) academic sources (related to your question) that you have read; at least one (1) source must be an academic journal article (see Writing Assignment Overview for Acceptable Sources). No primary source is required with this assignment.

list the observations or discoveries you found in that source

demonstrate how each source provides (an) answer(s) to your question

Photocopies: Submit photocopies of the sources of your observations, labeled with the sources’ titles and authors. Print out the page(s) on which you made the observation. Highlight the place(s) where the information is located and label each page with the source’s title and author information.

(*) More help for choosing a topic, conducting research, and formulating a question is available in:

Ann Raimes, Keys for Writers, 96-124

Ann Raimes, Pocket Keys for Writers, 33-49

Prof. Stanley Chodorow’s, ―Writing a Successful Research Paper‖ (see MMW website http://roosevelt.ucsd.edu) Introduction-Chapter 4

56

[Student Last Name] 1

[Student Name]

[Section Number, TA Name]

Research Question and Annotated Bibliography: [MMW__ - Quarter/Year]

[Day Month Year]

[Title] Stereotype and Ideology in Hungarian Anti-Semitism

[Introduction to the topic] Around 1900, Hungarian society experienced an upsurge of

anti-Semitism that was most acute in the capital, Budapest, which had a large, wealthy, and

powerful Jewish population, one which had begun to assimilate into the influential circles

dominated by the country's ethnic Magyar elites. Responding to the new prominence of Jews,

some ethnic Magyars developed strong anti-Semitic attitudes (Romsics 57-59). However, despite

important philo-Semitic traditions and the usefulness of Jews to the Magyars' struggle with the

Germans who dominated the Habsburg Empire, anti-Semitism had deep roots in Hungary.

[Question] Confronted with these developments, we might wonder whether, as some

analysts have maintained, the intensification of anti-Semitism in Hungary around the turn of the

century should properly be traced to traditional elements in Hungarian society or whether the

phenomenon represents instead something primarily new and different in Hungarian society.

Did the upwelling of anti-Semitism represent an outgrowth of traditional noble prejudices and

Catholic clerical conservatism, or did it represent a new, radical, populist "transformation of

nationalism" (Lukacs 190)?

57

[Note: The bracketed notations in the model above are for your reference only; they are

designed to help you identify important elements of the assignment. You may find it helpful to

use these notations in your own work as you draft the prospectus and annotated bibliography,

but do not include them in the version you submit. Note too that this model does not include a

primary source, which you will need, and remember that your TA’s permission is required to use

a web site.

Also, while the subject of this paper (Hungarian anti-Semitism around 1900) is only

appropriate for MMW5, the format is applicable to MMW4 and MMW6]

58

Annotated Bibliography

Hanák, Péter. The Garden and the Workshop: Essays on the Cultural History of Vienna and

Budapest. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1998. [Overview of the source:] Hanák, who was a

professor at the Central European University in Budapest, ranks as one of the most

prominent experts on the cultural history of the region. This collection of essays includes

a sensitive assessment of Hungarian anti-Semitism and, more broadly, Magyar-Jewish

relations during the period under consideration. [Observations] Hanák argues that over

the course of the nineteenth century, the self-image of ethnic Magyars in Hungary was

determined primarily by the tradition-bound self-image of the country's nobility, and that

it was against this traditional image, formed by the leading strata of society, that a

corresponding, largely negative, but nonetheless complex and sometimes contradictory

image of Jews was formed. A program of ‖Magyarization‖ led German-oriented

Hungarians (especially Jews) away from the countryside (identified with Budapest)

toward the cities, like Vienna. Elite Jews had to choose between Budapest-Hungarian or

Viennese-German identity.

Janos, Andrew C. The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, 1825-1945. Princeton: Princeton

UP, 1982. Janos, a Berkeley political scientist, treats Magyar-Jewish relations as part of a

larger analysis of Hungary's "backwardness," that is, its failure to embrace or implement

fully the agenda of liberalism and other key elements of the political and social progress

of the West during the century leading up to the socialist period. He discusses, for

instance, the emergence of a new Right that emerged from the old conservative elites

who were increasingly anti-Semitic. He pays particular attention to the imperfect

59

Magyarization of the country's Jews--the ways in which they were allowed to become

only partially "Hungarian" through various acts of assimilation, and to the effort to secure

the dominance of Magyars within multi-ethnic Hungary by co-opting Jews into the

country's elites. Janos cautions against locating the sources of anti-Semitism too

narrowly within any one class or social group. Instead, he argues that the motivations for

anti-Semitic movements were complex and that the phenomenon came from varying

social strata. The work urges a multi-causal analysis of Magyar antagonism towards

Jews.

Kontler, László. Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary. Budapest: Atlantisz,

1999. Kontler is an intellectual historian and university professor in Budapest whose

book provides a broad sweep of Hungarian history, raising questions that guide and shape

the research and refine the questions addressed in the paper. The work provides a useful

overview of the ways in which the society was divided along class, religious, ethnic, and

political lines. The analysis offered here tends to reinforce the conclusion that anti-

Semitism in Hungary around 1900 was promoted to a substantial extent by members of

the country's traditional elite groups.

Lukacs, John. Budapest 1900: A Historical Portrait of a City and Its Culture. New York:

Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1988. Lukacs, a historian and Hungarian émigré to the United

States, offers here a wide-ranging study of the Hungarian capital's culture, social

structure, and political life at the crucial period around the turn of the century. He pays

careful attention to the key role played by Magyar-Jewish relations in the life of the city

(and the country as a whole) and to the intensification of anti-Semitism during this

60

period. Lukacs maintains that during this period, the prior pattern of Magyar-Jewish

relations (an "extraordinary symbiosis") was disrupted. However, this break was not, he

argues, the result of a traditionalist reaction; rather, anti-Semitism as experienced in

Budapest was decidedly modern: derived from new sources, targeted to new elements of

the population, and based on new ideas.

Romsics, Ignác. Hungary in the Twentieth Century. Trans. Tim Wilkinson. Budapest: Corvina,

1999. Romsics is a specialist in 20th-century Hungarian history and a professor at one of

Hungary's most prominent liberal arts universities. The introductory sections of this book

offer useful characterizations of the social and political context in which Magyars and

Hungarian Jews found themselves at the turn of the century. Romsics focuses on the

conflict between Jews, who enjoyed increasing prosperity and prominence in Hungarian

society, and the Christian gentry, who were worried over their declining influence in

national affairs and the erosion of their traditional privileges. The book is sensitive to the

changes that Hungarian society was undergoing at the time, but in the main, the treatment

appears to support an interpretation of turn-of-the-century anti-Semitism as a

phenomenon closely connected to traditional elites and their attachment to particular,

romanticized vision of Hungary's grand past, now under threat.

Schöpflin, George. "A review of István Szabó's film 'Sunshine', in Hungarian 'A napfény ize'."

n.d. Centre for Democracy & Society, University College London. 1 Feb. 2002

<http://www.ucl.ac.uk/cds/gsbr1.htm>. Schöpflin is professor in the School of Slavonic

and East European Studies and a specialist in the politics of Central and South-Eastern

Europe. He has published extensively on the history and political life of the region,

61

including a number of analyses of Hungarian society. In this essay, a review of a film by

a prominent Hungarian director which examines one Jewish family's encounter with the

dominant Magyar population across three generations, Schöpflin addresses certain

broader aspects of "the Jewish question" in Hungary. He argues that the conflict between

Jews and Magyars arose, in part, because of the Magyars' "legacy from the pre-modern"

past, i.e., their inheritance of attitudes and values grounded in the Roman Catholic

Counter-Reformation. This cultural inheritance, Schöpflin argues, brought the Magyars

into occasional conflict with the country's Jews, who shared a rather different cultural

"residue."

62

Research Questions: Levels of Arguability Worksheet Level 1: Questions that can be answered with knowledge you have right now. Level 2: Questions that can be definitively answered with scholarly research. Level 3: Open-ended questions to which an answer can be proposed based on scholarly

research but that cannot be answered definitively. Level 4: Questions that cannot be addressed with scholarly research, either because of a lack of

evidence or because they ask something that cannot be answered by citing evidence. Directions: Read the following questions and indicate the level of arguability of each. (Write 1, 2, 3, or 4.) _____ 1. When was Germany re-unified? _____ 2. How did Ghandi reveal the truth about the human condition? _____ 3. Was Stalin the main reason for the fall of the Soviet Union? _____ 4. What was the difference between German and Italian fascism? _____ 5. What was the role of architecture in imperial Japan? _____ 6. How and why did the women’s liberation movement evolve during the 1960s? _____ 7. How much freedom do Islamic women possess in the household? _____ 8. What role did art play in expressing the anxieties of interwar France? _____ 9. Why was existentialism an appealing philosophy in postwar Europe? _____ 10. What strategies and war technologies did the Third Reich use in order to make their conquest more

effective? _____ 11. How do Asian philosophies shape and inform modern Western medical practices and methodologies? _____ 12. Who developed the internet? _____ 13. How did the practice of Buddhism develop in the modern West? What distinct characteristics make it

different from Eastern Buddhism? _____ 14. Which religion is more violent: Christianity or Islam? _____ 15. What is the significance of the Virgin of Guadeloupe in modern Mexican society? _____ 16. Why do Islamic and Christian cultures clash so violently? _____ 17. What was the role of women in African society? _____ 18. Why has immigration been such a problem in modern Europe? _____ 19. Does medicine play a religious or scientific role in Islamic society? _____ 20. From where did AIDS originate, and how did it become a world health crisis?

63

Checklist for Assessing the RQAB MMW 4-6 Students: Does your Research Question (RQ) satisfy each of the following requirements stated in the Writing Assignment? (TAs: Circle an answer for each item) 1. Submission states the topic of the paper and the precise Research Question that the

paper will answer YES NO 2. RQ addresses topic appropriate to the assignment prompt (*) YES NO 3. Topic/RQ covers events during the period covered by the course (*) YES NO 4. RQ will lead to an argument that answers a debatable question YES NO 5. RQ is narrow enough to permit you to answer the question thoroughly, with careful

exposition of both the argument and at least one counter-argument, in 8-10 pages YES NO 6. RQAB is typed and otherwise complies with all requirements of the MMW Style Sheet YES NO 7. RQAB includes citations where necessary (e.g., when you introduce facts, ideas, and arguments drawn from other sources) YES NO

If the answer to ANY of the above is ―NO,‖ then you should re-formulate your Research Question in a way that will satisfy each of the requirements of the Writing Assignment. To do that, please talk with me as soon as possible about the question. You must have your topic approved quickly so that you can prepare the Prospectus. (*) Remember that papers written on topics not approved in writing will not be accepted, and the writing assignment must be completed and accepted in its entirety to receive credit for the course. Your topic is: APPROVED DISAPPROVED Annotated Bibliography (check appropriate category):

□ No bibliography

□ Bibliography without annotations □ Minimal attempt to provide annotated bibliography □ Substantial annotated bibliography with some deficiencies □ Thorough annotated bibliography with few deficiencies □ Superior annotated bibliography with negligible deficiencies Comments:

64

Checklist for Assessing the RQAB MMW 4-6 Students: Does your Research Question (RQ) satisfy each of the following requirements stated in the Writing Assignment? (TAs: Circle an answer for each item) 1. Submission states the topic of the paper and the precise Research Question that the

paper will answer YES NO 2. RQ addresses topic appropriate to the assignment prompt (*) YES NO 3. Topic/RQ covers events during the period covered by the course (*) YES NO 4. RQ will lead to an argument that answers a debatable question YES NO 5. RQ is narrow enough to permit you to answer the question thoroughly, with careful

exposition of both the argument and at least one counter-argument, in 8-10 pages YES NO 6. RQAB is typed and otherwise complies with all requirements of the MMW Style Sheet YES NO 7. RQAB includes citations where necessary (e.g., when you introduce facts, ideas, and arguments drawn from other sources) YES NO

If the answer to ANY of the above is "NO," then you should re-formulate your Research Question in a way that will satisfy each of the requirements of the Writing Assignment. To do that, please talk with me as soon as possible about the question. You must have your topic approved quickly so that you can prepare the Prospectus. (*) Remember that papers written on topics not approved in writing will not be accepted, and the writing assignment must be completed and accepted in its entirety to receive credit for the course. Your topic is: APPROVED DISAPPROVED Annotated Bibliography (check appropriate category):

□ No bibliography

□ Bibliography without annotations □ Minimal attempt to provide annotated bibliography □ Substantial annotated bibliography with some deficiencies □ Thorough annotated bibliography with few deficiencies □ Superior annotated bibliography with negligible deficiencies Comments:

65

Checklist for Assessing the RQAB MMW 4-6 Students: Does your Research Question (RQ) satisfy each of the following requirements stated in the Writing Assignment? (TAs: Circle an answer for each item) 1. Submission states the topic of the paper and the precise Research Question that the

paper will answer YES NO 2. RQ addresses topic appropriate to the assignment prompt (*) YES NO 3. Topic/RQ covers events during the period covered by the course (*) YES NO 4. RQ will lead to an argument that answers a debatable question YES NO 5. RQ is narrow enough to permit you to answer the question thoroughly, with careful

exposition of both the argument and at least one counter-argument, in 8-10 pages YES NO 6. RQAB is typed and otherwise complies with all requirements of the MMW Style Sheet YES NO 7. RQAB includes citations where necessary (e.g., when you introduce facts, ideas, and arguments drawn from other sources) YES NO

If the answer to ANY of the above is "NO," then you should re-formulate your Research Question in a way that will satisfy each of the requirements of the Writing Assignment. To do that, please talk with me as soon as possible about the question. You must have your topic approved quickly so that you can prepare the Prospectus. (*) Remember that papers written on topics not approved in writing will not be accepted, and the writing assignment must be completed and accepted in its entirety to receive credit for the course. Your topic is: APPROVED DISAPPROVED Annotated Bibliography (check appropriate category):

□ No bibliography

□ Bibliography without annotations □ Minimal attempt to provide annotated bibliography □ Substantial annotated bibliography with some deficiencies □ Thorough annotated bibliography with few deficiencies □ Superior annotated bibliography with negligible deficiencies Comments:

66

Criteria for Evaluating Web Pages Name: _______________________ (submit with every on-line source you propose to use; more copies can be downloaded from MMW website)

Title of Web Source: ________________________________________

Putting documents on the web is easy, cheap, unregulated, and unmonitored. Therein lies the rationale for evaluating carefully whatever you find on the Web. When using the Web for serious academic research, the burden is on you – the scholar – to establish the validity, authorship, timeliness, and integrity of what you find. Documents can easily be copied and falsified or copied with omissions and errors – intentional and accidental. In this assignment, you are restricted to using sources (print or Web-based) produced by scholars or by reputable academic institutions.* To determine and demonstrate the credibility, accuracy, and integrity of the source you are proposing to use, complete the following exercise, sign the statement below, and submit this with your assignment along with photocopies of the web-page itself. Your TA will comment on its viability for this assignment. Authority/Credibility ___ A scholar, university, or academic organization is responsible for the intellectual content of the web

page or the page is affiliated or sponsored by a university or publically funded research institution. (hint: the URL has .edu, .gov, .org)

___ The author has a PhD or other appropriate credentials and/or is affiliated with an accredited research institution, museum, or other academic agency.

___ The author provides contact information. ___ Aside from this webpage, either the document itself or the scholar has been published elsewhere. Accuracy ___ The author provides supporting evidence from credible sources. ___ Other scholars have cited this author’s work. ___ The page does not contain many grammar or spelling errors, and does not have other suspicious

information or organization. ___ The content of this page is peer reviewed – that is, it is subject to the review of fellow scholars or experts

in this field and is accountable to these reviewers for correct information Audience/Agenda ___ The text was written for a scholarly audience (undergraduate or graduate students, faculty,

independent scholars). ___ The author’s goals and objectives are not to lobby, raise money, garner support for a privately funded

institution or agenda, sell a point of a view or a product. ___ The purpose of the text is to inform and explain, not to advertise or persuade? The page should not

express opinions, but rather documented facts. There should be no advertisements on the pages.

67

Currency ___ If it is a secondary source, the information in the document is not outdated and was published within

the last 20 years. ___ If it is a reproduction of a primary document it properly cites the original document. ___ The webpage was produced or updated within the last five years. ___ The sites other links are active and demonstrate use by a scholarly audience. ―I have evaluated this proposed web-source and determined that it is an appropriate and credible scholarly source.‖ Student Signature: _____________________________________________ Date: ______________

68

MMW4-6: Prospectus (10% of course grade)

Due: Beginning of section during Week 6(*) Length: 3-4 pages (not including Works Cited page)

What is a Prospectus? The prospectus is the plan for your final paper and contains, in paragraph form, all of the elements of the final paper. It is probably the most important, and often the most difficult, portion of the writing assignment. Its purpose is to begin organizing your research into the proper format; to begin formulating your thesis, counter/alternative argument(s), and rebuttal; and to begin planning how you will use your sources to supply evidence along the way. (For more help in writing a strong prospectus, consult Chodorow, Chapters 5- 7)**.

Your Prospectus should include:

An introduction to your topic and the historical context of your research subject (KW 36-38)

An explanation of the problem/question you are addressing (explicitly state your research question)

A summary of each of the scholarly arguments you are considering (argument, counter-argument(s)/alternative hypotheses) and evidence used to support it (KW, 51-53; 57-59; 62-66; PKW 5-23; Chodorow, Chapters 5-6)

Rebuttal(s) or weakness of the above argument(s). This can also be an explanation about why you find one (set of) argument(s) most convincing over others. (KW 61-66 and 121-122)

Your working thesis and a description of the evidence that supports it (KW, 18-22 and 54-57; PKW 5-23; Chodorow, Chapters 5-6)

Conclusion and explanation of the significance of your topic and your thesis (KW 39)

Works Cited Page (no annotations)

Photocopies of each page of text from which you cite and a photocopy of the title page of each source you list in your Works Cited page (do not include whole articles). You must label each page with the author’s name and page number, and you must highlight the words/phrases you are citing.

Sources: Your Prospectus must utilize and cite each of the minimum six (6) required sources (not assigned in the course), including:

o at least 1 primary source o at least 1 scholarly journal article o Criteria for Evaluating Web Pages Sheet must be completed, signed, and submitted for

every web source you are proposing to use

Formatting Please consult the Model Prospectus, the MMW Style Sheet, and Raimes’, Keys for Writers for specific MLA and formatting requirements. Deductions will apply to all MLA and formatting errors.

Changing Topics Once you have turned in your prospectus, you will be able to change your topic only if you have your TAs permission. Remember, too, that if you do change your topic after you have turned in your prospectus, you will be required to produce a new prospectus (that must be submitted, but not for a new grade, by Week 8 in order to be accepted as a ―completed‖ assignment. It is to your advantage to formulate your prospectus very carefully before you turn it in.

69

(*) Your prospectus will not be accepted after Week 8. Because all components of the writing assignment are required

to pass the course, you will fail the course if your prospectus is not submitted by this time. Save your graded Prospectus

(and graded RQAB) to turn in with your Final Paper during Week 10)

(**) Writing handbooks/guides referenced above:

Ann Raimes, Keys for Writers = KW

Ann Raimes, Pocket Keys for Writers = PKW

MMW Prof. Chodorow, ―Writing a Successful Research Paper‖ = Chodorow (found on MMW website, http://roosevelt.ucsd.edu

70

Model Prospectus

MMW4/5/6

A Few Words of Caution about this Model:

You should treat this sample as a sufficiently reliable model for the kind of presentation you need to produce,

but you should also be aware that it is not the only possible model. Given the logic of your particular

problem, you might be able to vary the structure somewhat, e.g., by changing the order in which arguments

and counterarguments are presented. Nevertheless, while some flexibility may well be appropriate, you need

to be absolutely certain to address carefully each of the required elements of the assignment set forth on the

handouts. If you have questions about how to prepare the prospectus, consult with your TA as soon as

possible.

Do not take the thesis of this prospectus as an exact model for your own work. While the thesis here charts a

middle course between two extreme positions held by other scholars, this approach is difficult to do well, and

it is even more desirable to argue for a thesis that is more independent of other scholars’ positions.

The bracketed notations in the model are for your reference only; they are designed to help you identify

important elements of the assignment – they are the ―parts‖ that the assignment absolutely requires. You

may find it helpful to use these notations in your own work as you draft the prospectus, but do not include

them in the version you submit.

This document is intended primarily as a model for the substance and organization of the prospectus. Be wary

of copying the format of this document too slavishly; you should follow the MMW Style Sheet and the MLA

rules set forth in your writing manual.

Revised October 2007

71

[Student Last Name] 1

[Student Name]

[Section Number, TA Name]

Model Prospectus: [MMWx -- x term 200x]

[Day Month Year]

[Title] Old Stereotypes and New Ideologies: The Complexities of Hungarian Anti-Semitism

[Introduction to the topic] Around 1900, Hungarian society experienced a noticeable upsurge of anti-

Semitism. The problem was perhaps most acute in the capital, Budapest. This rapidly modernizing city had a large,

wealthy, and powerful Jewish population, one which had begun to assimilate into the influential circles dominated by

the country's ethnic Magyar elites (Romsics 57-59). Responding to the new prominence of Jews, some ethnic Magyars

developed strong anti-Semitic attitudes. However, despite important philo-Semitic traditions and the usefulness of

Jews to the Magyars' struggle with the Germans who dominated the Habsburg Empire, anti-Semitism had deep roots in

Hungary. Magyars shared in a broader European pattern of anti-Jewish sentiment that became more severe around

1900.

[Problem/Question] Confronted with these developments, we might wonder whether, as some analysts have

maintained, the intensification of anti-Semitism in Hungary around the turn of the century should properly be traced to

traditional elements in Hungarian society or whether the phenomenon represents instead something primarily new and

different in Hungarian society. Did the upwelling of anti-Semitism represent an outgrowth of traditional noble

prejudices and Catholic clerical conservatism, or did it represent a new, radical, populist "transformation of

nationalism" (Lukacs 190)? [Thesis] Having examined anti-Semitism in Hungary and the interpretations of these

developments put forward by a number of scholars specializing in Hungarian affairs, I have concluded that a thorough

explanation of anti-Semitism in Hungary around 1900 must understand the phenomenon as the confluence of both

traditional and modern elements and must recognize the extent to which anti-Semitism developed among a variety of

social groups.

72

[Scholarly interpretations] It has been fairly common to interpret Hungarian anti-Semitism during this period

as something that is primarily traditional. George Schöpflin, for example, argues that Magyar-Jewish relations have

been determined to a significant extent by "a legacy from the pre-modern past that mingles with the modern modes that

the society . . . adopted" (Schöpflin). According to Schöpflin, a Jewish tradition of skepticism and resistance to

authority could not be fully reconciled with the dominant Catholic, Counter-Reformation legacy of the ethnic Magyar

elites, which placed heavy weight on the legitimacy of hierarchy.

A number of other interpretations of the problem similarly stress the the key role of the traditional elite Magyar

groups in generating and sustaining anti-Semitic attitudes. Ignác Romsics's history of twentieth-century Hungary, for

example, describes anti-Semitism in terms of the conflict between Jews and the Christian lesser nobility. Members of

the gentry at the time were especially troubled by their uncertain economic futures and by a reduction of influence in

national affairs. They tended to link each of these developments with the social advancement enjoyed by Jews, which

intensified their anti-Semitism (Romsics 57-59).

A related analysis is found in the work of historian Péter Hanák, who argues using primary documents that

over the course of the nineteenth century, the self-image that prevailed among ethnic Magyars in Hungary was

determined primarily by the tradition-bound self-image of the "backward-looking" nobility, who glorified themselves

as the defenders of all things Hungarian (52) and became proponents of the typically negative image of Jews as alien,

not fully assimilable, and non-Magyar (48-49, 52-53, 55-62).

[Counterargument] Against the views offered in studies like these which see turn-of-the-century anti-

Semitism as the product of Magyar tradition, John Lukacs offers a different interpretation, showing that anti-Semitism

in Budapest after 1900 was a modern phenomenon (186). He portrays Magyar-Jewish relations as friendly and

maintains that the rupture which occurred after 1900 was the result of new political ideas. He argues proponents of

anti-Semitism were not the traditional Magyar elites but rather "populist and democratic‖ forces (188).

[Rebuttal / Weaknesses in the above arguments] The analyses presented above have considerable merit, but

they err in seeing Hungarian anti-Semitism as too closely linked to either tradition or modernity and too much the

product of a particular segment of society. A more satisfying interpretation is one which acknowledges the

73

considerable complexity and variety of anti-Semitism at the time. Lukacs is right to point to what was new, and in

particular the shift toward the use of a populist anti-Semitism in mass politics, but Hanák, Romsics, and Schöpflin are

also correct in emphasizing the continuing vitality of the genteel Christian Magyar ideal.

[Conclusion/explanation of significance:] A profitable approach can be found in an analysis like that by

political scientist Andrew Janos, whose study suggests that we should not locate the sources of anti-Semitism too

narrowly within any one class or social group. Interpretations are commonly focused on forwarding single determinate

causes at the expense of the very complicated historical reality. It seems significant to take those complications into

account. Janos insists, properly I believe, that the motivations for modern anti-Semitic movements arose from

different strata of society. Varieties of anti-Semitism were embraced by the gentry, but also by the peasantry (141), by

Catholics and Protestants (141-42), by the urban middle class (180), and by political radicals (181). Modern anti-

Semitic thought that emerged around 1900 built upon traditional stereotypes, producing a dangerous mix of "new"

mass political mobilization with "old" concerns for the integrity of the Magyar nation.

74

MMW4-6 – Prospectus Worksheet (1)

**Remember, this is just a worksheet for outlining your arguments. Your prospectus should go well beyond this bare-bones

approach. You should not simply copy the language of the sheet and "fill in the blanks." Instead, come up with your own careful

phrasing to express the ideas set forth below. (In other words, do not write, for example, about how "on the topic of X, the question

of Y arises."). If your argument logically might call for a different way of organizing your presentation, you may use a different

structure as long as you address each of the required elements set forth below.

On the topic of: _________________________________________________________________________________________

I have asked the following question: __________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________

This question has several plausible answers. For example, some scholars such as __________ and ___________ (etc.) have

claimed that ______________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Other scholars such as _______ and _______ (etc.) argue persuasively that ___________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________

[Add more discussion of contrary interpretations, as necessary]

While the above answers are plausible, they have several weaknesses. These include:

________________________________________________________________________________________________________

I believe the correct answer to this question is as follows:__________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The answer I propose is preferable because: ____________________________________________________________________

My answer addresses the weaknesses identified in above in the following ways:________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________

My thesis is supported by the following item of evidence:__________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________ (Reference:____________________________)

My thesis is also supported by:_______________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________ (Reference: __________________________)

My thesis is further supported by:_____________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________ (Reference:___________________________)

[Add more, as required]

My paper is significant because it modifies and/or adds to current thinking on this topic in the following way(s):

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

75

MMW4-6 - Prospectus Worksheet (2)

Name:

Topic:

Research subject:

Historical period:

Geographical region:

Context:

Question:

Thesis: Alternative Hypothesis:

76

Evidence Evidence

for the Thesis: for the Alternative Hypothesis:

1) 1)

2) 2)

______

3) 3)

(Add more if necessary) (Add more if necessary)

Significance:

_____________

Checklist for Assessing the Prospectus – MMW 4-6

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE ASSIGNMENT:

77

Prospectus is at least 3 pages long, but no longer than 4 pages YES NO Uses at least six published sources of scholarly merit (not assigned in the course) YES NO Does not include dictionary and encyclopedia entries in the minimum of six sources YES NO Of the six minimum sources, uses at least one article from an academic journal YES NO Of the six minimum sources, uses at least one primary source, produced YES NO within the time period of the course (not assigned in the course) Includes completed Web Source Criteria sheet for all online proposed YES NO Includes a photocopy or printout of all pages cited & title pages of works cited YES NO Photocopies/printouts are labeled with author's name, with appropriate highlighting or underlining YES NO Addresses a research question that satisfies all requirements of the Research Question assignment (see the checklist for that assignment) YES NO Presents an argument that answers a debatable question YES NO Conforms to all the requirements of the MMW Style Sheet YES NO Converted the Annotated Bibliography into a Works Cited YES NO Is in paragraph, not outline, form YES NO Explains the topic and the problem that is addressed in the paper YES NO States the tentative thesis YES NO Offers a clear overview of the evidence used to argue that the thesis is persuasive YES NO Identifies the evidence that supports the thesis YES NO Indicates at least one tentative counter/alternative argument and identifies the evidence that supports it YES NO Rebuts counter/alternative argument YES NO Offers citations for sources used in the argument and counter/alternative argument YES NO Explains why the thesis is significant YES NO Uses only limited quotations, not substantial blocks of quoted material YES NO COMMENTS:

Checklist for Assessing the Prospectus – MMW 4-6 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE ASSIGNMENT:

78

Prospectus is at least 3 pages long, but no longer than 4 pages YES NO Uses at least six published sources of scholarly merit (not assigned in the course) YES NO Does not include dictionary and encyclopedia entries in the minimum of six sources YES NO Of the six minimum sources, uses at least one article from an academic journal YES NO Of the six minimum sources, uses at least one primary source, produced YES NO within the time period of the course (not assigned in the course) Includes completed Web Source Criteria sheet for all online proposed YES NO Includes a photocopy or printout of all pages cited & title pages of works cited YES NO Photocopies/printouts are labeled with author's name, with appropriate highlighting or underlining YES NO Addresses a research question that satisfies all requirements of the Research Question assignment (see the checklist for that assignment) YES NO Presents an argument that answers a debatable question YES NO Conforms to all the requirements of the MMW Style Sheet YES NO Converted the Annotated Bibliography into a Works Cited YES NO Is in paragraph, not outline, form YES NO Explains the topic and the problem that is addressed in the paper YES NO States the tentative thesis YES NO Offers a clear overview of the evidence used to argue that the thesis is persuasive YES NO Identifies the evidence that supports the thesis YES NO Indicates at least one tentative counter/alternative argument and identifies the evidence that supports it YES NO Rebuts counter/alternative argument YES NO Offers citations for sources used in the argument and counter/alternative argument YES NO Explains why the thesis is significant YES NO Uses only limited quotations, not substantial blocks of quoted material YES NO COMMENTS:

Checklist for Assessing the Prospectus – MMW 4-6

79

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE ASSIGNMENT: Prospectus is at least 3 pages long, but no longer than 4 pages YES NO Uses at least six published sources of scholarly merit (not assigned in the course) YES NO Does not include dictionary and encyclopedia entries in the minimum of six sources YES NO Of the six minimum sources, uses at least one article from an academic journal YES NO Of the six minimum sources, uses at least one primary source, produced YES NO within the time period of the course (not assigned in the course) Includes completed Web Source Criteria sheet for all online proposed YES NO Includes a photocopy or printout of all pages cited & title pages of works cited YES NO Photocopies/printouts are labeled with author's name, with appropriate highlighting or underlining YES NO Addresses a research question that satisfies all requirements of the Research Question assignment (see the checklist for that assignment) YES NO Presents an argument that answers a debatable question YES NO Conforms to all the requirements of the MMW Style Sheet YES NO Converted the Annotated Bibliography into a Works Cited YES NO Is in paragraph, not outline, form YES NO Explains the topic and the problem that is addressed in the paper YES NO States the tentative thesis YES NO Offers a clear overview of the evidence used to argue that the thesis is persuasive YES NO Identifies the evidence that supports the thesis YES NO Indicates at least one tentative counter/alternative argument and identifies the evidence that supports it YES NO Rebuts counter/alternative argument YES NO Offers citations for sources used in the argument and counter/alternative argument YES NO Explains why the thesis is significant YES NO Uses only limited quotations, not substantial blocks of quoted material YES NO COMMENTS:

MMW 4-6 Prospectus Grading Guidelines

F: Inappropriate topic/paper topic not approved Mechanical errors serious enough to impede comprehensibility

80

D: No arguable thesis, or arguable thesis based on inaccurate information No relevant evidence No counter-argument or alternative hypothesis Numerous mechanical errors Paper significantly too short Paper lacks sufficient number of sources

C-: No arguable thesis

Inappropriate counter-argument or alternative hypothesis Minimal relevant evidence No explanation of significance Some mechanical errors Paper is correct length

Paper has sufficient number of sources, but lacks primary source or journal article

C: Minimal attempt to: state an arguable thesis

provide relevant evidence and explain how it supports the thesis provide counter-argument or alternative hypothesis with supporting evidence provide explanation of significance integrate analysis of primary source into the paper

Poor construction/organization

C+: Minimal attempt at an argument and other required elements of the paper (as above for a ―C‖) Structure, organization, writing relatively clear

B-: Arguable thesis (can be problematic), but based on accurate information

Some sound evidence, valid and relevant to the thesis Thorough, if perhaps still problematic, attempt to explain relevance of evidence Plausible counter-argument or alternative hypothesis presented Sound, but perhaps problematic integration of primary source Sound, but perhaps problematic, explanation of significance Writing can be problematic

B: Arguable, sound thesis

Most evidence valid and relevant to the thesis Substantial effort to explain relevance of evidence Plausible counter-argument or alternative theory reasonably rebutted using evidence cited Sound integration of primary source

Sound explanation of signficance Writing relatively clear

B+: Arguable, sound, strong thesis

All evidence valid and relevant to the thesis Plausible counter-argument or alternative hypothesis reasonably rebutted Relevance of most evidence explained clearly Sound integration of primary source

Sound explanation of significance Writing relatively clear

A-/A: Arguable, sophisticated thesis

Superior breadth of valid, relevant, well-explained evidence Superior exploration and rebuttal of plausible counter-argument or alternative hypothesis Superior integration of primary source

Superior explanation of significance Clear and sophisticated writing

“Significance” Exercise & Worksheet

81

MMW requires that you explain the significance of your argument in your final paper. We define the ―significance‖ of your argument as ―the reason for writing this paper,‖ or, more specifically, ―how your particular argument modifies or contributes to current thinking on the topic.” (Note that we are asking you to determine the significance of your argument to a better understanding of your topic, not the significance of your overall topic). In order to find out what you are contributing to the academic debate, decide which one of the following approaches applies to your question and argument (everyone should be able to find one approach that (at least somewhat) resembles your own). For your homework assignment, for PART 1, Re-type the approach and fill in and include the information appropriate to your topic (you may need to modify the wording to fit your particular situation). Then answer the questions for PART 2. PART 1 – Types of Research Approaches

1. Omission/Gap Regarding the question _____________________, I have observed that current scholarship on the issue of __________(particular issue you are asking about) is lacking, flawed, or incomplete in the sense that__________________. While [scholar’s name] _________ argues that ______________, and [scholar’s name] ____________ argues that ___________________, they have both failed to recognize that ______________________. I think filling in this omission is important because ____________, and if, as scholars, we don’t fill this omission we risk ________, thus I will argue that ___________________.

2. New Outlook Regarding the question of ______________I have noticed that while some scholars argue ___________, and other scholars argue that _________________, no scholars (as far as my own research has determined) have argued that________________. I want to provide this new outlook on the question because I think it is important to explore/show that ____________. By failing to show ____, scholarship on this issue is lacking or problematic because ________.

3. New Combination Approach

Many scholars have attempted to answer the question of _______________, but in this paper I plan to combine pieces of different scholars’ arguments in a new way. In my approach to the question, I am combining [scholar’s name] ______’s theory about ____________ with [scholar’s name] _____’s theory about _______________. From my research, it appears that the particular combination of theories that I have put together have not been argued before, which is unfortunate because my thesis makes an important contribution to the debate because it________________________.

4. Dispels Assumption or Corrects False Info Approach

Regarding the topic of _____________, it seems that both [scholar’s name] ____ and [scholar’s name] ____ are both assuming _________ to be true. However, I think this is a problematic assumption because ______________________, and observe that the implications of continuing to assume ________ is problematic because _____________. Thus, I want to ask a question about the assumption these scholars are making by asking the following: __________________ [you can take this same approach but instead make it so that your argument disagrees with information or historical ― facts‖].

5. Hybrid Degree Approach

Many scholars have attempted to answer the question ______________, but in my research I have noticed that scholars’ approaches to this topic are somewhat polarized. While some scholars argue that the answer to the question is _______________, other scholars argue that the answer is _______________. My research suggests that both of these answers are correct, though one of these answers is slightly more influential/plausible/etc/ than the other. Thus, I am adding to the scholarly debate by combining two sides of the scholarly debate, showing that both sides are plausible, and showing that one side is more significant/influential/etc. than the other. This is important to do because __________.

PART 2: Summarize and Explain

82

1. What is the approach of your question? Are you asking and trying to make an argument about an omission in scholarly research? A new outlook? Expanding on already existing scholarly arguments?, etc. (See above for ―Types of Research Approaches‖).

2. Why is your question important to ask? And what are the costs or implications or not knowing or

misunderstanding your question?

3. How does understanding your particular question help us understand more about the problem, culture, conflict, or phenomenon that you are investigating?

4. Why is your particular argument (your answer to the research question) important? That is, what are you

contributing to the academic debate with your thesis?

**NOTE** - It usually makes sense to allude to the significance portion of your paper in the introduction of your essay (and throughout your paper). This is because the significance portion is your reason for writing the entire paper. In your final paper you may want to put PART I in your introduction and PART II in your conclusion. *This exercise was developed by MMW TA Allison Winston (2007-08)

83

MMW4-6 –Final Paper

(20% of course grade)

Due: Beginning of section during Week 10* Length: 8-10 pages

Your Final Paper You will submit a research paper that poses a Level-3 research question, describes at least two scholarly approaches to that question, evaluates the evidence and approaches of other scholars to that question, and advances your claim with a clear thesis statement (either your own original claim or the argument that is more convincing than the other(s). You will advance your thesis by: a) rebutting counter/alternative arguments or pointing out their weaknesses; or b) demonstrating the superiority of the argument you are advancing.

The Final Paper should include**:

An introduction to your topic (KW 36-38)

An explanation of the problem/question you are addressing (explicitly state your research question)

Your thesis and evidence used to support it. Your thesis should be stated clearly and be easy for your TA to find. (KW, 18-22 and 54-57; PKW 5-23; Chodorow, Chapters 5-6)

Paragraphs dedicated to the thorough explanation of each scholarly interpretations you included (argument, counter-argument(s)/alternative argument(s)) and the evidence used by scholars to support these arguments. You are expected to include and analyze examples of the evidence used by the scholars in your paper. You should include (a) citation(s) (either direct quotations or proper paraphrases) from each of your sources listed in the Works Cited page. (KW, 51-53; 57-59; 62-66); PKW 5-23; Chodorow, Chapters 5-6)

Rebuttal(s) or weakness of the above argument(s). This can also be an explanation about why you find one (set of) argument(s) most convincing over others. You will do this by analyzing the evidence used by scholars to reach their conclusions or by analyzing their conclusions directly. (KW 61-66; 121-122)

Conclusion and explanation of the significance of your topic/research. (KW, 38-39)

Works Cited Page (no annotations)

Signed Academic Integrity Statement (see below)

Photocopies of each page of text from which you cite and a photocopy of the title page of each source you list in your Works Cited page. You must label each page with the author’s name and page number, and you must highlight the words/phrases you are citing.

Previous Work. You must attach your graded RQAB and Prospectus and submit it with your Final Paper.

Sources Your Final Paper must cite and utilize each of the minimum six (6) required sources, including:

at least 1 primary source

at least 1 scholarly journal article Your must submit the Criteria for Evaluating Web Sources for every online source you use. Typed and signed Statement of Academic Integrity.

84

At the end of your Works Cited Page, you must write (by hand) the EXACT text below and sign (by hand) and date this statement. Your paper will NOT be accepted until this is completed.

―I attest that I am submitting my own original work in this assignment. Where I have included the words or ideas of others’, I have cited this material according to the guidelines stated in the MMW Style Sheet and Raimes, Keys for Writers/Pocket Keys for Writers.‖ ______________________________________ _______________ Signature Date

(over) Plagiarism Anytime and every time you use an author’s words, ideas, or sentence structure, you must cite it – whether or not you are quoting the author directly or paraphrasing his/her work. Every time you use an author’s exact words, you must put it in quotation marks and cite it. For MMW’s policy on what constitutes plagiarism and other forms of academic misconduct, see the MMW Style Sheet and Prof. Patrick Patterson’s ―Helpful Advice for Avoiding Plagiarism and Other Academic Misconduct,‖ both printed in this Workbook. You are expected to have read and retained this information. (KW, 127-129 and 143-145; PKW 49-62; Chodorow Chapter 6).

Formatting Issues Please consult the Model Prospectus, the MMW Style Sheet, and Raimes’, Keys for Writers for specific MLA and formatting requirements. Deductions will apply to all MLA and formatting errors.

Pay strict attention to proper MLA documentation (see Raimes or other MLA documentation manuals)

Review the MMW Style Sheet handed out with the initial assignment or on-line

See Raimes, Keys for Writers (66-68) and Prof. Chodorow’s ―Writing a Successful Research Paper‖ for help with making revisions, paper organization, (Chapter 7-9) paragraph construction, good writing style and mechanics

(*) Important: Your Final Paper will only be graded after your topic has been approved and the RQAB and Prospectus have been completed and graded by your TA: the RQAB and Prospectus must be turned in by section of Week 8 or they will be considered ―not completed,‖ and, because all components of the MMW writing assignment are required to pass the course, you will fail the course. (**) Writing handbooks/guides referenced above:

Ann Raimes, Keys for Writers = KW

Ann Raimes, Pocket Keys for Writers = PKW

MMW Prof. Chodorow, ―Writing a Successful Research Paper‖ = Chodorow (found on MMW website, http://roosevelt.ucsd.edu

85

Instructions for Students -- Turnitin.com Service – MMW 4-6 The final version of your paper is due in Week 10 at the start of section as indicated in the Writing Assignment. (Disregard any contradictory information found on the turnitin.com website about the due date of the paper). Within 24 hours of the time the paper is due, you must also submit an exact electronic copy of your paper on-line to turnitin.com, as described below. (Make sure the version that you upload is your final version). Late penalty is one-third of a letter grade per day. If you believe an extension is justified, please contact your TA. TAs will only grant extensions for good cause. 1. Go to www.turnitin.com on the internet. 2. Fill in your e-mail address and turnitin.com password.

Note: If you are a new user of the system, follow the instructions for new users, using the "create a user profile" link at the top of the home page. If you've forgotten your password, click ―password help.‖

3. After you are finished setting up your user profile, click on ―start class enrollment wizard‖ (or just log in from the

Turnitin.com home page). 4. This will take you to the student homepage ("All classes" screen). Click "enroll in a class." 5. Enter Class ID (see MMW website) and Enrollment Password (see MMW website). Click "submit." 6. You will now be on your "Class Portfolio‖ page. 7. Click on the icon under the ―Submit‖ column. 8. You have two choices in submitting your paper, either upload or copy and paste. Whichever you choose, make sure

you: (a) first type in the title of your paper in the ―submission title‖ box, (b) then, either:

browse and select the file to upload (Works Cited is not necessary, but if it is part of the file, go ahead and upload the entire file including the Works Cited), or

copy and paste the file (you do not need to include your Works Cited), and (c) click the ―submit‖ button.

9. Print or save the receipt page, although it will be e-mailed to you as well. 10. Log out at the top of the page. All necessary passwords and codes will be listed on the MMW Website. If you are have technical difficulties, try: waiting a little while, reestablishing the connection, rebooting your computer and trying again, connecting on another computer, logging in using the codes of one of your TA’s other sections (email your TA so s/he knows what you did), asking a friend to help, and/or contacting your TA. If all else fails, or if you have any questions about how to use the turnitin.com system, please contact the MMW offices at (858) 534-4935 or Academic Coordinator Heidi Keller-Lapp at hkellerlapp@ucsd.edu or (858) 822-2283.

86

MMW4-6 Final Paper Grading Checklist

Research Question: □ Inappropriate -- final paper must be on an approved question in order to pass the course! □ Appropriate, approved research question Length: □ Significantly too short □ Significantly too long

□ Appropriate length Thesis: □ No arguable thesis □ Minimal attempt to state an arguable thesis □ Arguable but problematic thesis □ Arguable, sound thesis □ Arguable, sophisticated thesis Use of evidence: □ No relevant evidence or explanation of how evidence supports the thesis □ Minimal attempt to provide relevant evidence and explain how it supports the thesis

□ Some valid, relevant evidence and some explanation of how it supports the thesis □ Adequate relevant evidence and substantial effort to explain how it supports the thesis

□ Thorough presentation of relevant evidence and clear explanation of how it supports the thesis □ Superior use of valid, relevant evidence; sophisticated explanation of how it supports the thesis

Counter-argument: □ No counter-argument

□ Inappropriate counter-argument □ Minimal attempt at appropriate counter-argument or alternative theory with minimal evidence □ Substantial attempt at implausible counter-argument or alternative theory with some evidence

□ Plausible counter-argument or alternative theory reasonably rebutted using evidence cited □ Superior exploration and rebuttal of plausible counter-argument or alternative theory

Significance: □ No explanation of the significance of the topic □ Minimal explanation of significance of the topic

□ Substantial explanation of significance □ Sound if problematic explanation of significance □ Clear explanation of significance □ Superior explanation of significance

Mechanics/grammar: □ Mechanical/grammatical errors serious enough to impede comprehensibility

□ Numerous mechanical/grammatical errors □ Some mechanical/grammatical errors □ Few mechanical/grammatical errors □ Negligible mechanical/grammatical errors

Writing style/clarity: □ Writing very problematic and/or awkward □ Writing somewhat problematic and/or awkward

□ Writing relatively clear □ Clear and sophisticated writing

Organization: □ Poor construction/organization □ Structure and organization relatively clear and sensible □ Clear and sensible structure and organization

Sources: □ Lacks sufficient sources (citation in text and Works Cited list at end):

□ lacks at least five scholarly, non-web, non-encyclopedia, non-dictionary sources □ lacks a primary source (produced during the course time period)

□ lacks at least one scholarly journal article □ Relies on sufficient sources

87

MMW4-6 Final Paper Grading Checklist

Research Question: □ Inappropriate -- final paper must be on an approved question in order to pass the course! □ Appropriate, approved research question Length: □ Significantly too short □ Significantly too long

□ Appropriate length Thesis: □ No arguable thesis □ Minimal attempt to state an arguable thesis □ Arguable but problematic thesis □ Arguable, sound thesis □ Arguable, sophisticated thesis Use of evidence: □ No relevant evidence or explanation of how evidence supports the thesis □ Minimal attempt to provide relevant evidence and explain how it supports the thesis

□ Some valid, relevant evidence and some explanation of how it supports the thesis □ Adequate relevant evidence and substantial effort to explain how it supports the thesis

□ Thorough presentation of relevant evidence and clear explanation of how it supports the thesis □ Superior use of valid, relevant evidence; sophisticated explanation of how it supports the thesis

Counter-argument: □ No counter-argument

□ Inappropriate counter-argument □ Minimal attempt at appropriate counter-argument or alternative theory with minimal evidence □ Substantial attempt at implausible counter-argument or alternative theory with some evidence

□ Plausible counter-argument or alternative theory reasonably rebutted using evidence cited □ Superior exploration and rebuttal of plausible counter-argument or alternative theory

Significance: □ No explanation of the significance of the topic □ Minimal explanation of significance of the topic

□ Substantial explanation of significance □ Sound if problematic explanation of significance □ Clear explanation of significance □ Superior explanation of significance

Mechanics/grammar: □ Mechanical/grammatical errors serious enough to impede comprehensibility

□ Numerous mechanical/grammatical errors □ Some mechanical/grammatical errors □ Few mechanical/grammatical errors □ Negligible mechanical/grammatical errors

Writing style/clarity: □ Writing very problematic and/or awkward □ Writing somewhat problematic and/or awkward

□ Writing relatively clear □ Clear and sophisticated writing

Organization: □ Poor construction/organization □ Structure and organization relatively clear and sensible □ Clear and sensible structure and organization

Sources: □ Lacks sufficient sources (citation in text and Works Cited list at end):

□ lacks at least five scholarly, non-web, non-encyclopedia, non-dictionary sources □ lacks a primary source (produced during the course time period)

□ lacks at least one scholarly journal article □ Relies on sufficient sources

88

MMW4-6 Final Paper Grading Checklist

Research Question: □ Inappropriate -- final paper must be on an approved question in order to pass the course! □ Appropriate, approved research question Length: □ Significantly too short □ Significantly too long

□ Appropriate length Thesis: □ No arguable thesis □ Minimal attempt to state an arguable thesis □ Arguable but problematic thesis □ Arguable, sound thesis □ Arguable, sophisticated thesis Use of evidence: □ No relevant evidence or explanation of how evidence supports the thesis □ Minimal attempt to provide relevant evidence and explain how it supports the thesis

□ Some valid, relevant evidence and some explanation of how it supports the thesis □ Adequate relevant evidence and substantial effort to explain how it supports the thesis

□ Thorough presentation of relevant evidence and clear explanation of how it supports the thesis □ Superior use of valid, relevant evidence; sophisticated explanation of how it supports the thesis

Counter-argument: □ No counter-argument

□ Inappropriate counter-argument □ Minimal attempt at appropriate counter-argument or alternative theory with minimal evidence □ Substantial attempt at implausible counter-argument or alternative theory with some evidence

□ Plausible counter-argument or alternative theory reasonably rebutted using evidence cited □ Superior exploration and rebuttal of plausible counter-argument or alternative theory

Significance: □ No explanation of the significance of the topic □ Minimal explanation of significance of the topic

□ Substantial explanation of significance □ Sound if problematic explanation of significance □ Clear explanation of significance □ Superior explanation of significance

Mechanics/grammar: □ Mechanical/grammatical errors serious enough to impede comprehensibility

□ Numerous mechanical/grammatical errors □ Some mechanical/grammatical errors □ Few mechanical/grammatical errors □ Negligible mechanical/grammatical errors

Writing style/clarity: □ Writing very problematic and/or awkward □ Writing somewhat problematic and/or awkward

□ Writing relatively clear □ Clear and sophisticated writing

Organization: □ Poor construction/organization □ Structure and organization relatively clear and sensible □ Clear and sensible structure and organization

Sources: □ Lacks sufficient sources (citation in text and Works Cited list at end):

□ lacks at least five scholarly, non-web, non-encyclopedia, non-dictionary sources □ lacks a primary source (produced during the course time period)

□ lacks at least one scholarly journal article □ Relies on sufficient sources

89

Final Paper Grading Guidelines

F: Inappropriate topic/paper topic not approved Mechanical errors serious enough to impede comprehensibility

D: No arguable thesis

No relevant evidence No counter-argument Numerous mechanical errors Paper significantly too short Paper lacks sufficient sources

C-: No arguable thesis

Inappropriate counter-argument Minimal relevant evidence No explanation of significance Some mechanical errors Paper is correct length Paper has sufficient sources

C: Minimal attempt to: state an arguable thesis

provide relevant evidence and explain how it supports the thesis provide counter-argument or alternative theory with supporting evidence provide explanation of significance

Poor construction/organization

C+: Minimal attempt at an argument and other required elements of the paper (as above for a ―C‖)

Structure, organization, writing relatively clear

B-: Arguable thesis (can be problematic)

Substantial evidence, valid and relevant to the thesis Substantial effort to explain relevance of evidence Plausible counter-argument or alternative theory presented Substantial effort to explain significance Writing can be problematic

B: Arguable, sound thesis

Most evidence valid and relevant to the thesis Thorough, if perhaps still problematic, attempt to explain relevance of evidence Plausible counter-argument or alternative theory reasonably rebutted using evidence cited Sound but perhaps problematic explanation of significance Writing relatively clear

B+: Arguable, sound, strong thesis All evidence valid and relevant to the thesis Plausible counter-argument or alternative theory reasonably rebutted Relevance of most evidence explained clearly Clear explanation of significance Writing relatively clear

A-/A: Arguable, sophisticated thesis

Superior breadth of valid, relevant, well-explained evidence Superior exploration and rebuttal of plausible counter-argument or alternative theory Superior explanation of significance Clear and sophisticated writing

90

Welcome to the Library! The UC San Diego Libraries are here to help you. When you're in Geisel,

be sure to ask at the Information Desk or Social Sciences & Humanities

Reference Desk if you have questions or need help getting started. You

can also ask at the CLICS front desk.

For more help, contact Duffy Tweedy at CLICS, 858 822-4810 /

dtweedy@ucsd.edu or Marlo Young at Geisel, 858 822-4803 /

m2young@ucsd.edu / IM: libmarlo

MMW4T Tours

Meet at Geisel Library's main entrance for special MMW4T tours that will show you where everything is in Geisel, including its four libraries, study spaces, computing tools, and research help. The tours emphasize resources for MMW and transfer students. Dates/Times: Tuesday, September 30, 1-1:45 or 3-3:45 or 4-4:45

Wednesday, October 1, 3-3:45 Thursday, October 2, 11-11:45 or 1-1:45 or 2-2:45 or 3-3:45

CLICS Instruction, Week 2 All MMW4T sections will meet in CLICS in addition to their usual meeting time in Week 2. Sections

meeting on Tuesday, October 7 will also come in on Thursday, October 9, and sections meeting on

Thursday, October 9 will also come in on Tuesday, October 7:

CLICS Meeting Schedule

A01 Thursday 10/9, 2PM A02 Thursday 10/9, 3PM

A03 Tuesday 10/7, 9AM A04 Tuesday 10/7, 10AM

A05 Tuesday 10/7, 1PM A06 Tuesday 10/7, 2PM

Getting started with MMW research ucsdmmw.wetpaint.com/page/MMW4+High+Use+Table A good place to start your research is at the High Use Table at Geisel, right next to the Reference Desk. This area has books that will help you select or narrow a topic and find useful information.

Finding articles and books (and more) on your topic

clics.ucsd.edu/instruction/mmw

You'll use the CLICS MMW Instruction page when

your sections come into CLICS for instruction. It

links to the most useful databases for finding

articles and books, primary sources, and other

materials.

ucsdmmw.wetpaint.com/

Try the MMW Library Research Tool for research

help online 24/7. Connect with TAs, fellow

students, librarians, and ERC writing assignment

info. You’ll find step-by-step research resources

and more.

91

Primary Sources ucsdmmw.wetpaint.com/page/MMW4+Primary+Sources This section of the MMW Library Research Tool has information on understanding and finding

primary sources, including a short video and links to MMW4-specific primary sources.

Books Roger

roger.ucsd.edu

Roger is UC San Diego's online catalog. It lists everything owned and physically stored in all

the campus libraries, including books, and it links to all the electronic resources available to

students.

Start by using keywords that describe your topic. Be flexible and creative; if "muslim trade" doesn't get what you need, try "arab commerce".

Use broader terms than your specific topic. If "manchu and footbinding" is too narrow and gets zero, try just "footbinding" and look in those broader books for info on the Manchus.

Once you find books on your topic, click on their subject headings (at the bottom of each book description) to find similar books.

On Roger's main screen, click on My Library Account/Renew Items and set up your library account. This is useful in Roger and essential in borrowing books from Circuit.

Circuit

circuit.sdsu.edu

The Circuit is a San Diego-wide catalog of libraries. You can find books in Circuit and have

them delivered to UC San Diego in a day or two, and return them to any UC San Diego library.

Circuit looks different than Roger but works the same way, so try the same tips and subject

headings.

Articles You can find the databases below, and hundreds of others, linked from the CLICS instruction

website and the Library Research Tool described on the flip side of this page. Instructions on

how to get to the online journals and databases from off-campus are at libraries.ucsd.edu/proxy.

92

ATLA religion database

Indexes thousands of journals, essays, theses, and other materials on all aspects of religious

study. UCSD is more likely to have the articles than the other items.

Historical Abstracts (HA)

HA covers non-US history from 1450 to the present, and also includes some medieval sources.

Click Expand Record to see article details.

Index Islamicus

Index of European-language publications on Islam, the Middle East, and the Muslim world.

JSTOR

This is a full-text archive of scholarly articles in all subject areas. To narrow a search change the

menu from Full-Text to Article Titles, or select precise subject areas below the search boxes.

93

Evaluating Web Pages Research university libraries across the country advise students to consider the following in evaluating whether or not to use a web page for your research project. MMW requires that you use ONLY academic sources – those that are authored by scholars affiliated with a college or university and those published/distributed in a peer-reviewed medium (―peer reviewed‖ means that is has been read, evaluated, and corrected by peers in the field). You may not use sources authored by anyone else, and you may not use sources that are authored by a scholar, but are not ―peer reviewed‖ – these include faculty blogs, think-tank websites, Consider the following criteria to evaluate web page credibility:

Authority of authorship

Purpose/Intended Audience

Currency

Objectivity Support Authority

Criteria & Questions to Consider:

Who wrote the page? It must be a scholar affiliated with a college/university

What are the author’s credentials‖

Can you verify the author’s credentials?

Could the credentials be made up?

Did the author include contact information?

Whose web site is this?

What organization is sponsoring the web page? Is it affiliated with a college or university?

Tips & Ideas

Look for the author’s name and affiliation near the top or the bottom of the page. If you can’t find a name, look for the copyright credit or link to an organization.

Look for biographical information or the author’s affiliations (university department, organization, corporate title, etc.)

Anyone who has visited a chat room knows that people don’t always identify themselves accurately

Look for an email link, address, or phone number for the author. A responsible author should give you the means to contact him/her.

To verify a site’s organizational sponsorship: o Look at the domain. You can generally rely on ―.edu‖ domains and occasionally

―.gov‖ domains. With the exception of jstor.org, you should avoid ―.net,‖ ―.org,‖ and ―.com‖ sites.

o Be careful of a web page that has a tilde (~) in the URL, as this usually identifies a personal directory on a web site.

Purpose/Intended Audience Criteria & Questions to Consider

What is the purpose of the page?

Why did the author create it?

Who is the target audience? It should be students or other scholars.

94

Tips & Ideas

The purpose of the page could be advertising, advocacy, news, entertainment, opinion, scholarship, satire, etc. You may only use web pages that are written for the purpose of scholarship.

To identify the target audience: o Look at the reading level of the page: is it easy to read or challenging? Does it

assume some previous knowledge of the subject (better), or is it more encyclopedic (not as good)?

o Consider the design of the web page: are there banner ads and animated GIFs (not a good sign), or does the page present a lot of text with little decoration (better)?

o Possible audiences include: academic researchers and college students(this is what you’re looking for). You may NOT use sites that target an audience of children (students K-12); participants in a support groups; political, social, or religious activists, and more.

Currency Criteria & Questions to Consider

Is there a date at the bottom or top of the page?

Is the information up-to-date?

Tips & Ideas

A recent date doesn’t necessarily mean the information is current. The content might be years out of date even if the date given is recent.

Objectivity & Support Criteria & Questions to Consider

Is the author being blatantly objective or biased?

Is the use of evidence sufficient and credible enough to support claims?

Tips & Ideas

Biased information is not inherently ―bad,‖ but you must take bias into account when interpreting or using the information given. You must only use sources where scholars supply evidence for the claims that are made.

Are the facts accurately and completely cited?

Is the author fair, balanced, and moderate in his/her views, or is the author overly emotional, sensational, or extreme? Does he/she rely more on emotion than evidence to make his/her claims?

Look for links or citations to sources. Academic websites include bibliographies with sources that were published with university presses (Cornell University Press, University of California Press, Oxford University Press, etc.)

If a web page makes it hard for you to check the support, you should be suspicious. *The material has been adapted from websites from the following research university libraries: Duke University, University of California – Berkeley, University of South Carolina – Beaufort, and Cornell University Olin Library.

95

Helpful Advice for Avoiding Plagiarism and Other Academic Misconduct

by Prof. Patrick Patterson (MMW 4, 5, and 6 professor)

I. YOU MIGHT NOT KNOW THAT THIS IS PLAGIARISM

Sources not cited

Turning in another’s work, word-for-word, as your own.

Copying significant portions of text straight from a single source without alteration and without proper citation.

Trying to disguise plagiarism by copying from several different sources, tweaking the sentences to make them fit together while retaining most of the original phrasing.

Although you might retain the essential content of the source, you alter the paper’s appearance slightly by changing key words or phrases.

Paraphrasing most of the paper from other sources and making it all fit together, instead of spending the same effort on original work.

―Borrowing‖ generously from your previous work, violating policies concerning the expectation of originality adopted by most academic institutions.

Sources cited (but still plagiarized!)

Providing inaccurate information regarding the sources, making it impossible to find them.

Properly citing a source, but neglecting to put in quotation marks text that has been copied word-for-word, or close to it. Intentional or not, you are falsely claiming original presentation and interpretation of the information.

Properly citing all sources, paraphrasing and using quotations appropriately, but these citations make up the majority of your paper. The catch? The paper contains almost no original work!

Properly quoting and citing sources in some places, but paraphrasing other arguments from those sources without citation. This way, you try to pass off the paraphrased material as your own analysis of the cited material.

II. HOW TO BORROW -- AND HOW NOT TO BORROW!!! --THE WORDS, IDEAS, FACTS, ARGUMENTS, ANALYTICAL STRUCTURE, ETC. FOUND IN ANOTHER AUTHOR'S WORK Consider the following original source text from Heritage of World Civilizations, Craig et al., p. 491:

"It was, in fact, the constant development and refinement of maritime skill and ship design that enabled Christopher Columbus to embark on his first voyage of New World discovery in 1492. Aware of the nautical innovations of his time, Columbus presented his plan for a westward journey to the Portuguese Crown. Rejected, Columbus turned for support to Spain, where Queen Isabella defied her husband's advisers and funded Columbus' expedition. Her patronage included the outfitting of two square-rigged caravels, the Niña and the Pinta, and the large cargo vessel, the Santa Maria."

Now consider the following hypothetical student submissions based on the original source text: Which student submissions give proper acknowledgement to the work of other authors? Which constitute plagiarism in violation of UCSD rules?

96

1. It was, in fact, the constant development and refinement of maritime skill and ship design that enabled Christopher Columbus to embark on his first voyage of New World discovery in 1492. Plagiarism? Yes No Why/why not?:_____________________________________________________

2. The constant development and refinement of maritime skill and ship design allowed Christopher Columbus to embark on his first voyage of discovery to the Americas in 1492 (Craig et al. 491).

Plagiarism? Yes No Why/why not?: ____________________________________________________

3. The European expeditions of exploration and discovery depended, from the beginning, on the constant development and refinement of maritime skill and shipbuilding techniques.

Plagiarism? Yes No Why/why not?: _____________________________________________________

4. The European expeditions of exploration and discovery depended, from the beginning, on the constant development and refinement of maritime skill and shipbuilding techniques (Craig et. al. 491)

Plagiarism? Yes No Why/why not?: _____________________________________________________

5. The European expeditions of exploration and discovery depended, from the beginning, on continuing evolution of and improvements in navigational expertise and the construction of ocean-going vessels.

Plagiarism? Yes No Why/why not?: ____________________________________________________

6. The European expeditions of exploration and discovery depended, from the beginning, on the ―constant development and refinement of maritime skill and ship design‖ (Craig et. al. 491).

Plagiarism? Yes No Why/why not?: ____________________________________________________

7. The European expeditions of exploration and discovery depended, from the beginning, on the continuing evolution of and improvements in navigational expertise and the construction of ocean-going vessels (Craig et al. 491)

Plagiarism? Yes No Why/why not?: ____________________________________________________ III. THE PROBLEM OF "COMMON KNOWLEDGE Consider the following text from Heritage of World Civilizations, Craig et al., p. 491:

"It was, in fact, the constant development and refinement of maritime skill and ship design that enabled Christopher Columbus to embark on his first voyage of New World discovery in 1492.

97

Aware of the nautical innovations of his time, Columbus presented his plan for a westward journey to the Portuguese Crown. Rejected, Columbus turned for support to Spain, where Queen Isabella defied her husband's advisers and funded Columbus' expedition. Her patronage included the outfitting of two square-rigged caravels, the Niña and the Pinta, and the large cargo vessel, the Santa Maria.

1. Christopher Columbus began his first transatlantic voyage in 1492. Need to be cited:? Yes No Why/why not?: ____________________________________________________

2. Christopher Columbus began his first transatlantic voyage in 1492 with the financial support of

Queen Isabella and three ships, the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. Need to be cited?: Yes No Why/why not?: ___________________________________________________

3. Christopher Columbus began his first transatlantic voyage in 1492 with three ships outfitted by the patronage of Queen Isabella, the square-rigged caravels known as the Niña and the Pinta, and a large cargo vessel, the Santa Maria.

Need to be cited?: Yes No Why/why not?: ____________________________________________________ Some sound advice about "common knowledge":

"The belief that an idea or fact may be ―common knowledge‖ is no reason not to cite your source. It is certainly not a defense against the charge of plagiarism, although many students offer that excuse during the disciplinary process. Keeping in mind that your professor is the primary audience for your work, you should ask your professor for guidance if you are uncertain. If you don’t have that opportunity, fall back on the fundamental rule: when in doubt, cite. It is too risky to make assumptions about what is expected or permissible."

(http://www.princeton.edu/pr/pub/integrity/pages/notcommon.html) IV. OTHER IMPOTANT UCSD RULES ON ACADEMIC INTEGRITY

Multiple submissions without approval of ALL instructors involved The Code of Student Conduct states: "No student shall submit substantially the same material in more than one course without prior authorization."

If you have any questions about what "substantially the same material" means, ask your instructor. For course work in MMW, in which the writing assignment each term is a separate and distinct task, you should not be recycling more than a few (very few!) sentences from prior work, or work you’ve done for other classes. It is permissible -- encouraged, even! -- to build on the knowledge you've already acquired, but you need to engage in a new process of writing and analysis each time you take a new course.

Fabricated citations or other forms of dishonesty or misrepresentation Fabrication of a citation (e.g., taking material from one source but crediting it to another, perhaps to cover up that the material really came from a web page or that you didn't really read the book cited)

98

is a form of intentional dishonesty, and like all forms of intentional or knowing misconduct, will have extremely serious consequences.

For further guidance on plagiarism and other academic integrity issues see: 1. the MMW Style Sheet (with requirements for ALL writing assignments in MMW) 2. Raimes, Keys for Writers , pp. 128-145 or Pocket Keys for Writers, pp. 50-62 3. http://www.princeton.edu/pr/pub/integrity/index.html 4. as always, your professors or your TAs! Remember: YOU are responsible for seeing to it that everything you turn in at UCSD, in any course, is in full compliance with the university rules on academic integrity. When you turn in an assignment, you are saying, in effect: "The ideas, facts, arguments, words, etc. that I have taken from others are credited as such; everything else is my original work." UCSD rules provide that any breach of academic integrity may lead to a grade of F for the entire course. (Code of Student Conduct, sec. 22.21.13.10) Intentional or knowing plagiarism is extremely serious and will likely lead to failure for the entire course, but even negligent plagiarism (e.g., "I just wasn't paying attention" or "it was late and I just didn't notice") is STILL plagiarism and can have very unwelcome consequences for your grade and your permanent disciplinary record!! When in doubt, cite!! And if you have any questions, be sure to ask me or your TAs. Our mission is to help you avoid these problems; we want to teach you good practices that will keep you out of trouble in this class and all your others at UCSD and in your future work. Finally, if you can't get the paper done in time without cutting corners and including plagiarized material, by all means turn it in late so you can go back and fix the problem! The minor grade reduction you will get (one-third of a letter grade per day on an assignment worth no more than 20% of the course grade) pales in comparison to the consequences of handing in a paper with plagiarism.