how society can affect science how social context can inform (good) science things we have studied...

How society can affect scienceHow society can affect science

How social context can inform (good) scienceHow social context can inform (good) scienceThings we have studied to consider:Things we have studied to consider:

I.I. The presence and role of auxiliary The presence and role of auxiliary assumptionsassumptions

II.II. The role of systems or bodies of theories or The role of systems or bodies of theories or hypotheses in generating “If H, then I”hypotheses in generating “If H, then I”

III.III. The role of paradigms in setting up a The role of paradigms in setting up a puzzle-solving traditionpuzzle-solving tradition

IV.IV. The theory-ladenness of observationThe theory-ladenness of observation

How society can affect scienceHow society can affect science

Are the only relevant auxiliary assumptions, Are the only relevant auxiliary assumptions, bodies of theories, paradigms, etc. internal to bodies of theories, paradigms, etc. internal to science – science – or can they include social beliefsor can they include social beliefs??

WhenWhen are Broca and colleagues studying a are Broca and colleagues studying a biological basis for (allegedly) innate biological basis for (allegedly) innate differences between races, classes, and differences between races, classes, and sexes? What is the specific historical and sexes? What is the specific historical and cultural context?cultural context?

How social context can inform (good?) scienceHow social context can inform (good?) science

S.J. Gould, “Women’s Brains”S.J. Gould, “Women’s Brains” The hypothesis: Women had smaller The hypothesis: Women had smaller

brains than men and, like it or not, could brains than men and, like it or not, could not equal men in intelligence.not equal men in intelligence.

Players: Broca, Le Bon, and others.Players: Broca, Le Bon, and others. The tests: head/skull measuring of The tests: head/skull measuring of

contemporary women in autopsies, and contemporary women in autopsies, and skull measuring of fossil remains.skull measuring of fossil remains.


Sex differencesSex differencesBroca: Anthropometrists [studiers of human body Broca: Anthropometrists [studiers of human body

size] are working very hard “to measure with size] are working very hard “to measure with scientific certitude the inferiority of women”scientific certitude the inferiority of women”

Broca: “There is no faith, however respectable, no Broca: “There is no faith, however respectable, no interest, however legitimate, which must not interest, however legitimate, which must not accommodate itself to the progress of human accommodate itself to the progress of human knowledge and bend before truth”.knowledge and bend before truth”.

Broca (Broca (et alet al): Sad to say, but we must, that ): Sad to say, but we must, that women’s smaller brain size renders them women’s smaller brain size renders them inferior to men.inferior to men.


Gould’s argument: some of Broca’s numbers are Gould’s argument: some of Broca’s numbers are impeccable …impeccable …

““I have the greatest respect for Broca’s meticulous I have the greatest respect for Broca’s meticulous procedure [in the measurement of autopsied procedure [in the measurement of autopsied brains]. His numbers are sound.brains]. His numbers are sound.

ButBut““Numbers by themselves do nothing. All depends Numbers by themselves do nothing. All depends

on what you do with them.”on what you do with them.”

How social context can inform (good?) scienceHow social context can inform (good?) scienceGould’s conclusions: some of Broca’s numbers are Gould’s conclusions: some of Broca’s numbers are

impeccable but…impeccable but…He did not take into account the age of the women whose He did not take into account the age of the women whose

brain he autopsied…brain he autopsied…The number of ancient skulls on which he based his The number of ancient skulls on which he based his

argument that men’s brains are now bigger than argument that men’s brains are now bigger than women’s because of their need for intelligence to women’s because of their need for intelligence to survive and provide, was way too small.survive and provide, was way too small.

And what if women’s brains are smaller on average simply And what if women’s brains are smaller on average simply because their bodies are smaller…? And thus have because their bodies are smaller…? And thus have the same ratio of body size/brain size as men?the same ratio of body size/brain size as men?


Broca’s response to such queries:Broca’s response to such queries:We might ask if the small size of the female’s brain We might ask if the small size of the female’s brain

depends exclusively upon the small size of her depends exclusively upon the small size of her body [as some colleagues ask].body [as some colleagues ask].

But we must not forget than women are, on the But we must not forget than women are, on the average, a little less intelligent than men, a average, a little less intelligent than men, a difference which we should not exaggerate difference which we should not exaggerate but which is, nonetheless, real.but which is, nonetheless, real.

That they are less intelligent was supposed to be That they are less intelligent was supposed to be what he was what he was establishingestablishing – not assuming! – not assuming!


Gould, again, trying to understand “their” world, Gould, again, trying to understand “their” world, and his “bottom line” in the essay:and his “bottom line” in the essay:

““To appreciate the social role of Broca and his To appreciate the social role of Broca and his school, we must recognize that his statements school, we must recognize that his statements about the brains of women do not reflect an about the brains of women do not reflect an isolated prejudice toward a singular isolated prejudice toward a singular disadvantaged group. disadvantaged group.

““They must be weighed in the context of a general They must be weighed in the context of a general theory that supported contemporary social theory that supported contemporary social distinctions as biologically ordained.”distinctions as biologically ordained.”

What ethical responsibilities (if any) are What ethical responsibilities (if any) are attendant to the practice of science?attendant to the practice of science?

Recall the norms:Recall the norms:The autonomy of scienceThe autonomy of scienceKnowledge is a good for its own sakeKnowledge is a good for its own sake

The case: the discovery of a so-called feral child in The case: the discovery of a so-called feral child in CaliforniaCalifornia

The scientific question: Were Chomsky and other The scientific question: Were Chomsky and other linguists correct that there is “a critical linguists correct that there is “a critical window” for language acquisition, beyond window” for language acquisition, beyond which language can’t be learned?which language can’t be learned?

What ethical responsibilities (if any) are What ethical responsibilities (if any) are attendant to the practice of science?attendant to the practice of science?

Did those studying Genie protect her well being? Did those studying Genie protect her well being? Suffer from “rescue fantasies” that motivated Suffer from “rescue fantasies” that motivated too much attention to teaching her language too much attention to teaching her language and too little to the other needs she had…?and too little to the other needs she had…?

In this case, was/is the knowledge to be gained “a In this case, was/is the knowledge to be gained “a good in itself” that trumped ethical questions?good in itself” that trumped ethical questions?

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